faculty of law and public administration, craiova, romania

Transcription

FACULTY OF LAW AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, CRAIOVA,
ROMANIA
SPIRU HARET UNIVERSITY
EUROPEAN RESEARCH CENTER OF LEGAL STUDIES, CRAIOVA,
ROMANIA
EURODREPTUL
JOURNAL OF LEGAL STUDIES AND RESEARCH
No. 1/2013
DIRECTOR
Prof. univ. PhD. Gheorghe Bică
ViceRector, Spiru Haret University
REVIEWERS
Prof. univ. PhD. Gheorghe Bică
ViceRector, Spiru Haret University, Romania
Prof. univ. PhD. Vlad Barbu
ViceRector “A.I. Cuza” Police Academy,
Romania
Prof. univ. PhD. Constantin Belu
Professor University of Craiova, Romania
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in chief
Lect. univ. PhD. Dragoş Troanţă
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD
Managing editor
Lect. univ. PhD. Denisa Bică
Redactori/Editors
Lect. univ. PhD. Adriana Elena Belu
Lect. univ. PhD. Elena Alexandra Ilinca
Lect. univ. PhD. Adrian Moise
Conf. univ. PhD. Mihaela Albu
“Gracious Light”, Romanian Institute of Orthodox
Theology and Spirituality
New York, USA
Prof. univ. PhD. Eugenia Cojocari
Faculty of Law, Moldova State University
Chişinău, Moldova
SCIENTIFIC BOARD
Prof. univ. PhD. Cezar Avram
“C.S. Nicolăescu Plopşor” Institute for Studies
in Social Science and Humanities, Romanian
Academy, Romania
Prof. univ. PhD. Alexandru Bacaci
“Lucian Blaga” University, Romania
Prof. univ. PhD. Heribert Franz Kock
Faculty of Law, Johanes Kepler University
Linz, Austria
Prof. univ. PhD. Andrei Smochină
Institute of History, State and Law, Academy of
Science of Moldova
Chişinău, Moldova
Prof. univ. PhD. Albert Schambeck
Faculty of Law, Johanes Kepler University
Linz, Austria
Conf. univ. PhD. Cezar Tită
Spiru Haret University, Romania
Prof. univ. PhD. Ion Turculeanu
University of Craiova, Romania
Conf. univ. PhD. Gheorghe Costache
Prof. univ. PhD. Gheorghe Uglean
Prof. univ. PhD. Nicu Vintilă
NOTE
EURODREPTUL journal was evaluated CNCS
(the National Council of Scientific Research)
and included in the D cathegory.
CONTACT
Faculty of Law and Public Administration,
Craiova, Spiru Haret University, Vasile Conta
Street, no.4, Craiova, Dolj, Romania; Postal
Code 200580; Tel/Fax: (004)0251423395.
© România de Mâine Foundation Publishing House, 2012
http://www.edituraromaniademaine.ro
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Scientific Research, Category C (areas Philology, Philosophy, History and Cultural Studies,
Architecture and Urbanism, Performing Arts)
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without
permission in writing from the copyright holder.
The views expressed and the content of the articles, book reviews and all other contributions are those of the
individual authors. Responsibility for the originality and the content of the texts rests solely with the
author/authors.
ISSN: 1842-080X
CONTENTS
CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO SOME MANDATORY RULES APPLICABLE TO
THE PROPRIETARY RELATIONS BETWEEN SPOUSES DURING MARITAL CRISIS
Denisa Bica; Robert Titulescu…..…………….......................................................
4
LA JURISPRUDENCE DE LA COUR DE JUSTICE DE L’UNION EUROPEENNE
DANS DES AFFAIRES D’ENVIRONMENT
Alexandrina Marica; Andreea Mihaela Popescu...…………………………….............
9
PERSONS’ IDENTIFICATION BY USING THE FACIAL RECOGNITION SYSTEM
Adrian Cristian Moise………………………...………………………………...…………….........
17
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION IN OUR SOCIETY
Mariana Mihaela Nedelcu………......................................................................
24
ON-SITE INVESTIGATION IN THE EVENT OF COUNTERFEITING CURRENCY OR
OTHER ASSETS
Daniel Stefan Paraschiv; Dana Stanciulescu...................................................
31
LE RECOUVREMENT DES CREANCES NEES DANS UN AUTRE ETAT MEMBRE
DE L’UNION EUROPEENE
Mariana Ciocoiu; Sorin Stanciulescu; Dana Stanciulescu...............................
38
INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION. THEORETICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Andreea Troanta R. Turculeanu; Alina Tanasescu………………………………………..
45
CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO SOME MANDATORY RULES
APPLICABLE TO THE PROPRIETARY RELATIONS BETWEEN SPOUSES
DURING MARITAL LIFE CRISIS
Assistant Professor PhD. DENISA BICA
“Spiru Haret” University – Bucharest
Faculty of Law and Public Administration– Craiova
University Lecturer PhD. ROBERT TITULESCU
Abstract
Until 1 October 2011, when the Family Code was in force, the property
relations between spouses are governed by the provisions of art. 30-36, just
regulating the matrimonial property regime of community of property, legal
regime, unique, legal, and binding.
The adoption of the new Civil Code, with effect from 1 October 20111
gives us reason to believe that the new regulation of property rights and
obligations of spouses found the rightful place in our legislation, finally
becoming applicable, but without being exempted from the discussions, analysis
of doctrine.
Key-words: matrimonial property regime, economic relations, spouses,
family, legal rules
1.
Introductory aspects
The freedom of choice of the matrimonial regime devoted of the new Civil
Code shows that
regulate property of the spouses is now flexible and adaptable to their will,
unlike their patrimonial ratios, which can not be determined only by the legislator
through mandatory rules and that reflects how the State regulates the marriage and its
effects.
Therefore, whether in terms of personal relations between the spouses their
freedom is limited to the freedom to enter into marriage or not, obeying binding its
effects, respecting their freedom with a patrimonial in nature, it is open, the
expression of the economic freedom of the person, freedom to dispose of her
possessions, as they see fit.
However neither the freedom of the spouses assets is not absolute, but also, to
some extent, restricted by the obligation imposed by the legislator to observe a group
of basic rules, regardless of the choice made by the spouses to one or the other of the
matrimonial regime.
In the following we will make a very brief analysis of the two issues relating to
matters pertaining to the applicability of mandatory rules in property relations of the
1
Code.
Date from which the provisions relating to the Family Code were included in the Civil
spouses during marital life crisis namely: the applicability of legal texts in the case of
judicial tenure and the effects that some of the documents of provision have to the
family interests.
2. Judicial mandate. Regulators
To preview this legal institution, we start, evident from the text of the
regulations provided for by art. 315 new Civil Code.
According to paragraph (1), "Where one of the spouses is unable to manifest his
will, the other spouse may request the consent of the guardianship court to represent
for the representation of rights which it has under the matrimonial regime. The
judgment shall be determined by the conditions, limits and period of validity of this
mandate".
According to paragraph (2), "Outside other cases provided by law, cease to
hold office when her husband was no longer in the situation referred to in paragraph
(1) or when it is called a guardian or, where appropriate, a curator".
In paragraph (3) provides that the provisions of art. 346 and art. 347 shall apply
accordingly.
The question here is: since this text shall become applicable?
At a first glance we can say that the regulation of the judicial mandate through
art. 315 new Civil Code seems very clear, but it is incomplete in relation to the
technical questions that arise in the application of these provisions.
The premise from which to start for obtaining a judicial mandate is the
impossibility for one of the spouses to manifest his will. Obviously, it must be an
impossibility occurs during the marriage valid, because, if a husband would be in
such a situation because of his mental debility or lunacy before the marriage, it might
put the issue of marriage invalid, that is a nullity for lack of psychic ability at its
close.
The impossibility of the manifestation of the will occurs during the marriage
referred to in art. 315 new Civil Code is the cause which justify the other spouse to
seek the consent of the guardianship court to represent in order to exercise the rights
they have under the matrimonial regime. We note the the law grants active
procedural legitimation right to demand judicial mandate, so the representation of the
husband’s special situation, only the other spouse, obviously, if there is not a spousal
conflict of interest, in which case the guardianship court can establish guardianship
or curatorship.
We wonder however if there would have been more appropriate for the
legislature to be given the chance to receive judicial mandate any other person
major and responsible, appropriate to the husband found out in this limit situation, to
exercise the rights in his place? 2
The fact that the text speaks of "exercising their rights according to the
matrimonial regime" we do not believe that should mean that only the husband can
exercise them, because "rights according to the matrimonial regime" only means that
2
Adrian Alexandru Banciu, Raporturile patrimoniale dintre soți [Property relations
between spouses], Hamangiu Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011, p. 16.
it is the exercise of certain categories of rights that can have naturally a sole owner,
such as the spouse under the separation of property, or a co-owner, such as spouse of
a matrimonial property regime.
We note that that matrimonial property regime is already chosen at the time of
granting of mandate and does not imply on the part of the representative of an intuitu
personae will, not be able to express themselves than her husband when it decides
the choice of matrimonial regime. That’s why we only issue, without a strongly
supports, required a deeper meditation upon this idea. We think, possibly, consulting
a family Council, as in the case of guardianship of the minor, the Court already
knows that such a family Council (art. 124 new Civil Code), which is designed to
monitor the way in which rights and obligations are fulfilled in relation to the subject
goods protected, if remembered, the minor.3
Another problem that we ask in relation to art. 315 establishing judicial
mandate, ist hat this article is not clear who will be the legal position of the acts to be
completed within the time frame procedural until it would be possible to grant the
judicial mandate, acts that cannot be postponed due to some major damage that might
occur during this interval, is whether they will be able to be concluded such acts by
the husband still unauthorized of court as trustee, especially when it comes to acts of
administration for spouses, through the matrimonial agreement, have established that
they will be able to sign only with the consent of both spouses?
Our view is that, if the husband present and diligent could provide proof of
imminent mass influx of serious injury in the range up to his appointment as trustee,
as would be the guardianship court subsequently ratify the act terminated under the
conditions shown. In this regard, it can invoke arguments of equity, which is why, we
believe, would be useful to clarify in the text of art. 315 bound necessity concluded
before the application for the grant of judicial mandate, by the husband of that who
was unable to express his will, regardless of the causes of this impossibility.
With regard to the judgment of the guardianship court, the text of the law
specifies that it lays down the conditions, limits and period of validity of judicial
mandate and where it stops. It can be assumed that the termination would be able to
intervene even before the duration laid down by the court for the mandate. In this
situation however, it would require to be clarified who could ask the court to be
terminated the mandate, trustee’s husband or the husband is no longer represented in
the situation which led to the establishment of the mandate? The opinion is that the
application can do any of the spouses, but most interested in would be the husband’s
rights passed by mandate.4
The new Civil Code further provides in paragraph (3) of the art. 315 the
applicability to the judicial mandate of the provisions of art. 346 and art. 347 which
relates to acts of disposal and encumbering real property rights common to which
consent of both spouses and sanction that strikes the acts concluded without the
express consent of the other spouse.
In relation to the general rules of mandate with representation is governed by
art. 2013-2016 new Civil Code, it can ask the question: the judicial mandate granted
3
4
Adrian Alexandru Banciu, op. cit., p. 49.
by the guardianship court is just a general term or he sends a representative to
conclude the husband acts of disposition?
Having regard to the provisions of art. 2016, our answer is, emphatically, no.
The court will not be able to substitute the holder, allowing to transfer, with the
mandate, of the other spouse the right of disposition over his assets. In this case, for
such acts, we should expect the cessation of the impossibility of expression of will
or, otherwise, if you still want an agent husband concludes act, this act will be struck
by the relative nullity, which may later be confirmed by the other spouse or, if you
don’t confirm, the husband who has completed the act will respond to it in
accordance with the law.
3. Acts of disposition that seriously endanger the interests of the family
The protection created by the legislator for the protection of economic rights of
spouses is expressed through art. 316 new Civil Code, which in paragraph (1) states:
"Exceptionally, if one of the spouses conclude legal acts which seriously
endanger the interests of the family, the other spouse may apply to the court for
guardianship as, for a certain period, the right to dispose of certain goods may be
exercised only with his consent. The duration of this measure may be extended, but
not to exceed a total of 2 years. The declaration of the measure shall be
communicated in order to carry out the formalities of real estate or movable
advertisement as appropriate".
What we put into debate in relation to this text, is the scope of application, in
which case a natural question arises: does the problem of the applicability of such
measures here to protect any matrimonial regime or he only targets the two types of
community schemes?
This question appears because there is not the possibility of application by a
spouse a court of guardianship to apply this measure within the matrimonial
separation. Naturally, each spouse in the separation of property regime is free to
conduct business with respect to its own goods as deisred. Sure, when it comes to the
common property acquired jointly by both spouses and which they have coownership on the shares, so far as we think that savers will be able to be requested,
but it does not extend to the other goods in the exclusive heritage of his owner.
The duration of the measure in cases where the community arrangements seems
reasonable to be limited to two years, because, if the prodigal husband acts would
threaten beyond this period, the affected spouse may request the division of common
property and termination of the community and, at the same time, his transformation
as a divider.
The obligation of communication of the decision for approval of the measure
is, obviously, needed in order to carry out the formalities of real estate or movable
advertisement, as appropriate, so that third parties are savvy that the husband
punished by this measure cannot take alone, validly, without the consent of the other
spouse, acts of disposition with respect to certain goods.5
5
In conclusion, we consider that the measure that the court of guardianship can
take under art. 316 new Civil Code no covers available for acts which the law
required the agreement of both spouses claim, because they are protected by the
imposition of the sanction of invalidity of the act concluded without agreement, but
refers only to other acts relating to common property that each spouse would have a
proper right of disposition6.
Failure to comply with court judgment on the action taken is sanctioned, under
art. 316 (2) new Civil code, with relative nullity, and the right of action shall lapse
within one year, which starts to run from the date when the injured husband became
aware of the existence of the act.
The provisions of art. 346 and 347 new Civil Code, already examined, must be
complied with in connection with the review above, is imperative in nature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Adrian Alexandru Banciu, Raporturile patrimoniale dintre soți [Property
relations between spouses], Hamangiu Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011;
Noul Cod civil român [The New Romanian Civil Code].
6
Adrian Alexandru Banciu, op. cit., p. 51-52.
LA JURISPRUDENCE DE LA COUR DE JUSTICE DE L'UNION
EUROPÉENNE DANS DES AFFAIRES D'ENVIRONNEMENT
Judge ALEXANDRINA MARICA
Craiova Court of Apeal
Judge ANDREEA MIHAELA POPESCU
Bucharest Tribunal
RESUME
Au fil de sa jurisprudence, la Cour de justice a dégagé l'obligation
pour les administrations et les juges nationaux d'appliquer pleinement le
droit communautaire à l'intérieur de leur sphère de compétence et de
protéger les droits conférés par celui-ci aux citoyens (application directe
du droit communautaire), en laissant inappliquée toute disposition
contraire du droit national, qu'elle soit antérieure ou postérieure à la
norme communautaire (primauté du droit communautaire sur le droit
national).
La Cour a également reconnu le principe de la responsabilité des
États membres pour la violation du droit communautaire qui constitue,
d'une part, un élément qui renforce de façon décisive la protection des
droits conférés aux particuliers par les normes communautaires et,
d'autre part, un facteur susceptible de contribuer à une mise en œuvre
plus diligente des normes communautaires par les États membres. Les
violations commises par ces derniers sont ainsi susceptibles de donner
naissance à des obligations de réparation qui peuvent, dans certains cas,
avoir de graves répercussions sur leurs finances publiques.
MOTS-CLES:
droit
l'environnement ; directives
communautaire.
communautaire;
environnementales;
protection
de
la législation
La Cour de justice de l'Union européenne constitue l'institution juridictionnelle
communautaire, q ‫׳‬Elle est composée de trois juridictions: la Cour de justice, le
Tribunal de première instance et le Tribunal de la fonction publique, dont la mission
essentielle consiste à examiner la légalité des actes communautaires et à assurer une
interprétation et une application uniformes du droit communautaire.
Au fil de sa jurisprudence, la Cour de justice a dégagé l'obligation pour les
administrations et les juges nationaux d'appliquer pleinement le droit communautaire
à l'intérieur de leur sphère de compétence et de protéger les droits conférés par celuici aux citoyens (application directe du droit communautaire), en laissant inappliquée
toute disposition contraire du droit national, qu'elle soit antérieure ou postérieure à la
norme communautaire (primauté du droit communautaire sur le droit national).
La Cour a également reconnu le principe de la responsabilité des États
membres pour la violation du droit communautaire qui constitue, d'une part, un
élément qui renforce de façon décisive la protection des droits conférés aux
particuliers par les normes communautaires et, d'autre part, un facteur susceptible de
contribuer à une mise en œuvre plus diligente des normes communautaires par les
États membres.
Contrairement à la CIJ, la CJUE(Cour de Justice et Tribunal de première
instance) a eu à connaître d'un nombre important d'affaires de natures variées
relatives à des questions d'environnement dans le contexte communautaire. Depuis
1976, date à laquelle la Cour eut à connaître d'une affaire explicitement
environnementale, plus de 150 affaires relatives à des questions d'environnement ont
fait l'objet d'une décision. La Cour a reconnu la place qu'occupe la protection de
l'environnement dans l'ordre juridique communautaire.
Compétence
Pour mener à bien sa tâche, la Cour a été dotée de compétences
juridictionnelles bien définies, qu’elle exerce dans le cadre de la procédure de renvoi
préjudiciel et de diverses catégories de recours.
La Cour de justice travaille en collaboration avec l’ensemble des juridictions
des États membres, lesquelles sont les juges de droit commun en matière de droit
communautaire. Pour assurer une application effective et homogène de la législation
communautaire et éviter toute interprétation divergente, les juges nationaux peuvent,
et parfois doivent, se tourner vers la Cour de justice pour demander de préciser un
point d’interprétation du droit communautaire, afin de leur permettre, par exemple,
de vérifier la conformité avec ce droit de leur législation nationale. La demande
préjudicielle peut aussi viser le contrôle de la validité d’un acte de droit
communautaire.
La Cour de justice de l'Union européenne constitue l'institution juridictionnelle
communautaire. Elle est composée de trois juridictions: la Cour de justice, le
Tribunal de première instance et le Tribunal de la fonction publique, dont la mission
essentielle consiste à examiner la légalité des actes communautaires et à assurer une
interprétation et une application uniformes du droit communautaire.
Au fil de sa jurisprudence, la Cour de justice a dégagé l'obligation pour les
administrations et les juges nationaux d'appliquer pleinement le droit communautaire
à l'intérieur de leur sphère de compétence et de protéger les droits conférés par celuici aux citoyens (application directe du droit communautaire), en laissant inappliquée
toute disposition contraire du droit national, qu'elle soit antérieure ou postérieure à la
norme communautaire (primauté du droit communautaire sur le droit national).
La Cour a également reconnu le principe de la responsabilité des États
membres pour la violation du droit communautaire qui constitue, d'une part, un
élément qui renforce de façon décisive la protection des droits conférés aux
particuliers par les normes communautaires et, d'autre part, un facteur susceptible de
contribuer à une mise en œuvre plus diligente des normes communautaires par les
États membres. Les violations commises par ces derniers sont ainsi susceptibles de
donner naissance à des obligations de réparation qui peuvent, dans certains cas, avoir
de graves répercussions sur leurs finances publiques.
Les affaires d'environnement aboutissent devant la Cour par différentes voies.
La plus empruntée est celle prévue à l'article 169 du Traité. Depuis 1980, la
Commission des Communautés a transmis à la Cour plus de 60 affaires, en raison du
non-respect par les États membres de leurs obligations environnementales
communautaires. La procédure conduit presque toujours à une condamnation de
l'État membre concerné. La plupart de ces affaires posent peu de difficultés et
n'offrent pas d'indication sur le sérieux avec lequel la Cour considère les obligations
environnementales. En application de l'article 170, un État membre peut porter
devant la Cour une requête s'il considère qu'un autre État membre a violé ses
obligations telles qu'elles découlent du droit communautaire. Cependant, à notre
connaissance, une seule affaire relative à des obligations environnementales a été
portée devant la Cour.7
En application de l'article 171, tel qu'amendé par le Traité de l'Union
Européenne, la CJCE peut imposer le paiement d'une « lump sum » ou d'une amende
à un État membre qui ne se serait pas conformé à une de ses décisions. Dans un tel
cas, il incombe d'abord à la Commission d'établir le montant qu'elle considère
approprié eu égard aux circonstances. Les affaires environnementales peuvent
également aboutir devant la Cour sur base de l'article 173 (recours en annulation).
Selon cet article, la CJUE a compétence pour examiner la légalité de certains actes du
Conseil et de la Commission.
Le Cour est aussi compétente sur base de l'article 175, selon des conditions
analogues à celles de l'article 173, pour mettre en cause le fait pour le Conseil ou la
Commission de ne pas avoir agi en vertu de leurs obligations environnementales
telles qu'elles ressortent du Traité. À ce jour, aucune affaire en matière
d'environnement n'a été introduite en application de cet article.
La Cour de Justice a également eu à connaître des questions environnementales
sur base de sa compétence en vertu de l'article 177 (procédure du renvoi préjudiciel),
selon quelle, les juridictions nationales des États membres peuvent, et dans certains
cas doivent, renvoyer devant la Cour les questions relatives, entre autres, à
l'interprétation du Traité CE ainsi qu'à la 8validité et à l'interprétation des actes des
institutions communautaires, lorsqu'une décision sur la question est nécessaire afin
que la juridiction de renvoi puisse se prononcer sur l'affaire qui lut est soumise.
Des questions préjudicielles sont soumises à la CJUE lorsqu'un différend
devant une juridiction nationale soulève une question complexe de droit communautaire ou lorsque le différend porte sur une question de droit communautaire et
qu'il n'y a plus de recours possible dans l'ordre interne. La procédure de l'article 177 a
été utilisée à plusieurs occasions, permettant à la CJUE de se prononcer sur des
affaires touchant à l'environnement, telles que des questions relatives à l'élimination
des déchets issus d'une centrale nucléaire, ou la compatibilité avec le droit
communautaire d'une interdiction par une municipalité italienne de la vente et de la
distribution de sacs en plastique et autres produits d'emballage non biodégradables. 9
Mesures provisoires
La Commission peut également demander à la CJUE de prendre des mesures
provisoires en application de l'article 186 du Traité - une forme de référé bien établie
dans la jurisprudence communautaire et utilisée assez souvent, en particulier en droit
7
Aff 141/78 France c. Royaume-Rec 1979
9
Aff380/87, Enichem Base et al c Commune de Cinisello Balsamo Rec 1989
de la concurrence et de l'interdiction des ententes. La Commission doit indiquer en
quoi il y a urgence et en quoi l'absence de mesures provisoires porterait atteinte de
manière irréparable aux intérêts de la Communauté. L'État membre peut se défendre
en établissant qu'il subirait un dommage irréparable si des mesures provisoires
étaient ordonnées.
La CJUE a indiqué que des mesures provisoires peuvent être ordonnées dans
des affaires d'environnement. Dans l'affaire Commission c. RFA, la CJUE a
considéré les circonstances dans lesquelles elle serait prête à ordonner de nécessaires
mesures provisoires en matière d'environnement. L'affaire concernait la construction
en Allemagne d'un réservoir et d'un site y attenant. La Commission demanda à la
CJUE (a) de déclarer que la construction violait l'article 4(1) de la Directive «
Oiseaux » de 1979 et (b) d'ordonner des mesures provisoires visant à la suspension
des travaux jusqu'à ce que la Cour se soit prononcée sur l'affaire au fond. La Cour
considéra que pour qu'une mesure de ce type soit ordonnée, la requête devait établir
les circonstances constitutives de l'urgence et les moyens de fait et de droit
établissant le caractère à première vue bien fondé de la requête au fond et justifiant
ainsi des mesures provisoires. En l'espèce, la CJUE jugea que la Commission n'avait
pas prouvé qu'il y avait urgence : la requête avait été soumise après que le projet eut
été entamé depuis un certain temps, que la Commission n'avait requis des mesures
provisoires qu'après qu'une « partie importante des travaux avait déjà été accomplie »
et qu'il n'avait pas été démontré que c'était « précisément l'étape suivante des
travaux... qui se caractériserait par le préjudice important causé à la protection des
oiseaux ».
La CJUE a généré une riche jurisprudence relative à l'environnement, comme
l'indiquent ces quelques exemples. I1 faut reconnaître que la Cour est extrêmement
importante en tant que juridiction internationale dans la mesure où elle traite des
aspects juridiques de la protection de l'environnement et que sa jurisprudence en la
matière constituera sans aucun doute un point de référence pour les autres
juridictions et autorités internationales qui ont à traiter de ces questions juridiques, et
en particulier ont pour tâche délicate et difficile de rechercher un équilibre entre les
préoccupations environnementales et les objectifs de société avec lesquels elle entre
en conflit, en particulier ceux de nature économique.
Dans le contexte des développements esquissés dans cette introduction, la
CJUE se situe à l'avant-garde d'une tendance mondiale émergente. Dans la mesure où
elle a traité dans sa jurisprudence d'un grand nombre de questions juridiques relatives
à la protection de l'environnement, il ne fait aucun doute que la CJUE soit une
juridiction environnementale. Néanmoins, cette question mérite que l'on s'y arrête
plus avant.
La mesure dans laquelle la CJUE est prête à reconnaître la place des objectifs
environnementale au sein de l'ordre juridique communautaire
Il fait peu de doute que la CJUE a reconnu les objectifs environnementaux au
sein de l'ordre juridique communautaire, même si sa jurisprudence n'est pas
totalement cohérente (l'histoire nous apprend que les tendances de la Cour dépendent
des circonstances particulières de chaque cas et des juges qui siègent). À tout le
moins, parmi les institutions communautaires, la Cour a joué un rôle de premier plan
en reconnaissant et développant plus avant les objectifs environnementaux dans
l'ordre juridique communautaire.
Pas plus tard qu'en 1985, la Cour avait reconnu la protection de
l'environnement comme étant l'un des objectifs essentiels de la Communauté. 10 Que
la Cour ait pu aboutir à une telle conclusion avant que l'Acte Unique soit venu
modifier le Traité CEE en y insérant des dispositions traitant spécifiquement de la
protection de l'environnement, aura sans doute été1 accueilli favorablement par les
environnementalistes.
La Cour a confirmé son soutien à son approche antérieure relative à la place de
la protection de l'environnement dans l'ordre juridique communautaire. En 1991, elle
s'est basée sur une disposition de l'article 130 R2 du Traité CEE (« les exigences en
matière de protection de l'environnement sont une composante des autres politiques
de la Communauté ») pour asseoir la conclusion selon laquelle des mesures de
protection de l'environnement pourraient être adoptées sur base de l'article 100a du
Traité CEE plutôt que de l'article 130 s : « une mesure communautaire ne saurait
relever de l'article 130 S en raison du seul fait qu'elle poursuit également des
objectifs de protection de l'environnement58 ». En décidant qu'une Directive pouvait
se fonder sur l'article 100 a là où elle concernait à la fois la protection de
l'environnement et l'élimination des disparités dans les conditions de concurrence, la
Cour donna un coup de pouce significatif au programme législatif de la Commission
pour la protection de l'environnement en en plaçant une grande partie sous le régime
de la procédure de la majorité qualifiée".
Le CJUE a aussi rappelé fréquemment l'importance d'une transposition
appropriée des directives environnementales, reconnaissant également que certaines
d'entre elles visent à créer des droits et obligations pour les particuliers. En 1991, la
Cour jugea que « afin d'assurer une protection complète des eaux souterraines, il est
indispensable que les interdictions posées par la directive soient expressément
prévues dans les législations nationales». Une des raisons justifiant ceci était que «
les dispositions de la directive concernant la procédure comportent, en vue d'assurer
la protection efficace des eaux souterraines, des règles précises et détaillées qui
visent à faire naître des droits et des obligations à l'égard des particuliers. 11 s'ensuit
que ces dispositions devaient figurer dans la législation allemande avec la précision
et la clarté requises afin de satisfaire pleinement à l'exigence de sécurité juridique ».
Un attendu supplémentaire indique la prise en compte par la CJUE des
caractéristiques particulières des questions environnementales : « l'exactitude de la
transposition revêt une importance particulière dans un cas comme celui où la gestion
du patrimoine commun est confiée, pour leur territoire, aux États membres respectifs
».
D'un autre côté, il existe des éléments indiquant que la Cour peut interpréter à
l'occasion les directives environnementales d'une manière qui ne permet pas une
protection absolue des ressources environnementales. Par exemple, dans l'affaire de
la Gour- métairie Van den Burg, où une fois encore il
10
Aff 240/83, Procureur de la République c Association de Défense des Brúleurs
d‫׳‬Huiles Usagées, Rec. 1985.
s'agissait d'interpréter la directive « oiseaux » de 1979, la Cour considéra qu'un
État membre n'était pas autorisé à accorder à une espèce particulière qui n'était ni
migratrice, ni menacée, une protection plus stricte (via une restriction au commerce)
que celle qui lui était accordée dans la législation de Etat membre sur le territoire
duquel vit l'espèce, lorsque celle-ci est conforme à la Directive - une conclusion dont
la justification est difficile à comprendre étant donné les dispositions de la
Directive".
Dans l'affaire 252/85, la CJUE confirma le droit pour la France d'appliquer des
disposions nationales autorisant l'utilisation de gluaux et de filets horizontaux (mates
et parues) pour la capture des Grives et des Alouettes des champs, alors même que 1
utilisation de telles techniques était expressément interdite par l'article 8(1) lu en
conjonction avec l'Annexe IV(a) de la Directive « Oiseaux » de 1979 11. La
justification de .elles conclusions, à savoir que cette technique ne permet la capture
que d'un petit nombre à exemplaires, qu'ils sont capturés de manière judicieuse, et
que la France s'était mise en rapport avec la Commission en vue de tenter de trouver
un accord, est peu à même d'indiquer une volonté de la Cour de privilégier la
protection de l'environnement
La pratique de la CJUE au cours des deux dernières décennies penche en laveur
d une reconnaissance de la place de l'environnement dans l'ordre juridique communautaire. En effet, parmi les institutions communautaires, la Cour a été a l'avantgarde des efforts en vue d'assurer que l'ordre communautaire reconnaisse les objectifs
environnementaux et assure leur mise en œuvre effective.
La mesure dans laquelle la CJUE est prête à reconnaître les caractéristiques
particulières des questions environnementales
Il est nécessaire d'examiner la question de savoir si la CJUE peut être considérée comme une juridiction environnementale au vu de sa volonté de reconnaître (et
de tirer les conséquences) des caractéristiques particulières des problèmes environnementaux, telles qu'identifiées au début de la présente contribution. Il n'est pas clair si
à ce jour, la Cour a réellement dû se frotter à cet aspect des questions environnementales, même si l'on peut dégager des indices, certes limités, d’un possible inclination
de la Cour à reconnaître la nature particulière des intérêts environnementaux.
Un exemple est offert par un arrêt de 1976 dans une affaire relative à la
Convention de Bruxelles de 1968 sur la reconnaissance et l'exécution des jugements.
La Cour reconnut le droit des victimes de pollutions transfrontières de choisir la
juridiction nationale devant laquelle elles pourraient entamer une action en
réparation. La Cour jugea que l'article 5(3) de la convention de Bruxelles de 1968
devait être interprété « in such a way as to acknowledge that the plaintiff has an
option to commence proceedings either at the place where the damage occurred or
the place of the event giving rise to il"... ». La CJUE reconnut ainsi que les
dommages environnementaux pouvaient être de nature transfrontalière et que le droit
devrait reconnaître cette caractéristique en introduisant une certaine flexibilité dans
les règles de conflits de juridictions. En outre, comme nous l'avons indiqué ci avant,
la volonté de la Cour d'invoquer le principe de « l'héritage commun » comme aide
11
Aff.252/85, Commission c. France, 1988.
dans l'interprétation et l'application de la loi illustre qu'à l'occasion, elle se réfère à la
ratio sous-tendant certaines législations environnementales communautaires,
permettant ainsi d'atteindre une conclusion qu'elle n'aurait pu atteindre autre -ment,
ou de la renforcer". Une volonté identique se reflète dans l'arrêt des Déchets wallons.
Ayant établi que le déchet devait être considéré comme un produit au sens de l'article
30 du Traité CEE et qu'en principe, aucune entrave ne devrait être placée a sa circulation, la Cour considéra que le déchet a une « caractéristique spéciale » étant donné
que son accumulation « even belorc it becomes a health hazard, constitutes a threat to
the environment74».
Plus récemment, sont apparues des limites que la CJUE ne serait peut-être pas
prête à dépasser. Dans l'affaire Greenpeace et al c. Commission, le Tribunal de
première instance (TPI) s'était vu demander par les requérants de reconnaître que le
dommage à l'environnement crée un problème nouveau pour ce qui est de l'accès aux
recours dans l'ordre juridique communautaire, c'est-à-dire en ce qui concerne la question de la qualité pour agir. Les requérants contestaient le versement par la Commission d'une somme de 12 millions d'Écus des fonds structurels en faveur de l'Espagne
pour la construction de deux centrales électriques alimentées au charbon, se fondant
sur le fait que la Commission ne s'était pas assurée que l'Espagne se soit conformée à
l'obligation de mener une étude des incidences sur l'environnement. Les requérants
avaient à démontrer un intérêt légal et avancèrent l'argument selon lequel la jurisprudence existante de la Cour relative à l'article 173 se rapportait uniquement à des intérêts économiques. Ils avancèrent le moyen selon lequel, dans les questions
d'environnement, l'exigence d' être individuellement concerné requise par l'article
173 devrait être interprétée par la Cour de manière à permettre aux individus dont les
droits environnementaux tels qu'ils ressortent des législations communautaires (telle
que la directive 85/337 sur l'évaluation des incidences sur l'environnement) ont été
violés, de se voir reconnaître un accès effectif aux juridictions communautaires afin
d'obtenir une protection effective de ces droits".
L'approche adoptée par le TPI rejette le caractère particulier des intérêts
environnementaux et suggère qu'en pratique, il n'y a pas de circonstances dans
lesquelles la Commission pourrait voir la légalité de ses actes mise en cause en
application de l'article 173 dans des affaires environnementales (étant donné qu'il est
difficile d'imaginer des circonstances dans lesquelles les victimes de dommages environnementaux pourraient être considérées comme faisant parties d'une catégorie «
fixed and ascertainable" »). Le fait que la Cour se fonde sur une approche
traditionnellement étroite de la qualité pour agir m'apparali doublement
dommageable pour l'ordre juridique communautaire. Cela pousse à la limite
l'application de la règle de droit et signale la réticence de la Cour à reconnaître une
place propre aux valeurs environnementales dans l'ordre juridique communautaire.
L'ordonnance est frappée d'appel, la Cour ayant ainsi la possibilité d'indiquer la
mesure dans laquelle elle reconnaît le caractère particulier des intérêts
environnementaux.
Conclusion
Les droits communautaire et international de l'environnement sont à des stades
de développement différents. En effet, les systèmes juridiques plus larges dont ils
font partie sont également à des stades de développement différents, comme
l'indiquent les différences dans les régimes de règlement des différends, y compris la
volonté de l'ordre juridique communautaire de reconnaître des droits d'action à la
Commission européenne, une juridiction obligatoire dans les différends entre tous les
États et un rôle (au moins potentiel) pour les acteurs non étatiques.
La CIJ n'a pas à ce jour apporté une semblable contribution en pratique en droit
international général, même s'il y a quelques indications qui témoignent d'un possible
souhait dans ce sens. En sont des illustrations, la décision de créer une chambre
environnementale, encore des références occasionnelles dans les arrêts indiquant à
tout le moins quelque soutien pour les objectifs environnementaux (comme c'est le
cas dans l'ordonnance prise dans la seconde affaire des Essais nucléaires), ainsi que
dans plusieurs opinions séparées et dissidentes dé juges particuliers 12.
La finalité même du droit de l'environnement constitue un élément certain de
paix et d'union entre les peuples pour une vie meilleure. La déclaration de l'UNESCO
à Yamoussoukro sur la paix dans l'esprit des hommes du 1er juillet 1989 souligne
qu'un environnement de qualité est un élément essentiel à la paix. Aussi ce droit va-til tout naturellement se développer en débordant le cadre national et en multipliant
les occasions d'unification. On a pu dire que par nature un tel droit a une vocation
d'universalisme, ce qui représente le facteur le plus efficace de l'unification : « La
pollution de l'air ou de l'eau pose des problèmes de caractère international réclamant
à la fois la coopération des États et celle des juristes, des savants et des techniciens et
intéressant toutes les branches du droit. L'étude et plus encore la solution d'un tel
problème font normalement appel à l'universalisme1. »
La Cour de justice œuvre également en collaboration avec le juge national, juge
de droit commun du droit communautaire. Tout juge national, appelé à trancher un
litige concernant le droit communautaire, peut, et parfois doit, soumettre à la Cour de
justice des questions préjudicielles. La Cour est alors amenée à faire connaître son
interprétation d'une règle de droit communautaire ou à en contrôler la légalité.
L'évolution de sa jurisprudence illustre la contribution de la Cour à la création
d'un espace juridique qui concerne les citoyens en protégeant les droits que la
législation communautaire leur confère dans différents aspects de leur vie
quotidienne.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE:
Michel Prieur, Droit de l'environnement , Editions Dalloz 2001;
Mélanges Alexandre Kiss- La Cour Internationale de Justice ;
Les Hommes et l'environnement, Editions Frebon Roche-Paris ;
Répertoire de jurisprudence.
12
Mélanges Alexandre Kiss- La Cour Internationale de Justice.
CONTENTS
4
9
27
24
OTHER ASSETS
31
CONSIDERATIONS
38
The desideratum that face recognition become a real-time automated and safe
system was achieved by the issue of a scientific research16, published by authors
Matthew Turk and Alex Pentland in the year 1991.
Nowadays, automated facial recognition methods for two-dimensional images
are generally viewed as resolved. This is confirmed by certain face-recognition
reports and results carried out following tests, by using large standardized database of
face images.
Face recognition is difficult, due to numerous variable sources under real
conditions. Among the numerous variability sources, we remind: face orientation in
relation to the camera or video camera, poor lighting, facial expression, the period
from the time of sampling distinct images, as well as demographic aspects (race, age,
gender). Also, the face recognition system should ensure invariance in relation to the
basic transformations, such as relocation, rotation or change.
Automated facial recognition is a complex process involving face detection in a
crowd, feature extraction and face identification. 17 The facial extraction is the most
important step in face recognition. Many studies have been carried out to answer
questions like: what features to use, how to describe them, and different techniques
to extract face features have been proposed. The purpose of face features’ extraction
is to find a specific representation of data which can best point out the relevant
information.
Usually, an image is represented by a large-size vector, which contains a
number of pixels (holistic approach) or a set of vectors, where each vector represents
the basic content of a local region, by using a high level transformation (local
approach).
The holistic approach relies on sequencing the number of pixels to produce a
vector for each image. Thus, an image may be now seen as a point in a distinctive
space of large size. The space dimension corresponds directly to the image expressed
in numbers of pixels. The large size of the space does not allow the facial features
extraction process. Accordingly, techniques to reduce space size shall be used,
obtaining a distinctive space reduced dimensionally, so that the most important ways
of variation of data are still preserved. 18
With local approach, local features’ extraction concerns only the description of
part of the image by using certain transformation rules or certain specific
measurements, so that the final result shall describe the essential content of the image
in a way that should generate a unique solution every time it encounters the same
content.
2. Face recognition stages
16
Turk, Matthew; Pentland, Alex, Eigenfaces for recognition, Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, Vol.3, No.1, 1991, pp.71-86.
17
Patra, Arpita, Development of efficient methods for face recognition and multimodal
biometry, Master of Science Thesis, Department of Computer Science and Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, June 2006, p.10.
18
Sarfraz, M. Saquib; Hellwich, Olaf; Riaz, Zahid, Feature Extraction and
Representation for Face Recognition, in Oravec, Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition, Vukovar,
Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House, 2010, pp.2.
Generally, face recognition is made up of four stages: 19
a. Preprocessing
This stage is intended to ensure that the image applied to the face recognition
process complies with certain necessary standards. Also, it is made by the help of
image exploration equipment, constructed trough mechanisms that tend to prevent
the user from providing distorted images.
b. Segmentation or localization stage
The segmentation or localization stage sets the exact location of the face or of
certain parts of it. This stage is determined by the need to feature a subject’s face,
through certain specific traits.
c. Feature extraction stage
The feature extraction stage is one of the most important stages within the
entire face recognition process. Face features may be extracted from image by
different types of procedures. For instance, a few important features are the
following: eye and hair color, shape of the mouth and nose. These features are
usually called local, as they concern a delimited area of the image.
d. Recognition stage
The recognition stage comprises three steps: the decision on facial features to
be used in the recognition process; the automated extraction of the parameters chosen
from the digital image of the face; face classification based upon the parameters
obtained.
3. Facial recognition methods in two-dimensional space (2D)
The literature in the field of face recognition is wide and diverse. The facial
recognition methods rely on different principles, algorithms and combined
techniques. This creates difficulties in the classification of facial recognition
methods. Thus, different classifications 20 of the facial recognition methods are
presented by the specialized literature.
3.1. Holistic methods of face recognition
The holistic methods for face recognition extract the information from the
entire face image.
The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is one of the most often used
methods in recognizing images and in data compression. The purpose of this method
is to reduce the high-dimensional data space (variables observed) to an intrinsic
distinctive space (independent variables) of a lower dimension to describe the data
economically. The application of the principal component analysis in the field of face
19
Daleno, Domenico; Cariello, Lucia; Giannini, Marco; Mastronardi, Giuseppe,
Pseudo 2D Hidden Markov Model and Neural Network Coefficients in Face Recognition, in
Oravec, Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House, 2010,
pp.154.
20
Mastronardi, Giuseppe; Cariello, Lucia; Daleno, Domenico; Castellano, Marcello,
Geodesic Distances and Hidden Markov Models for the 3D Face Recognition, in Oravec,
Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House, 2010, pp.33;
Patra, Arpita, Development of efficient methods for face recognition and multimodal
biometry, Master of Science Thesis, Department of Computer Science and Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, June 2006, pp.11.
recognition relies on the use of information theory which decomposes face images
into a small set of images, called eigenfaces, which may be viewed as the principal
components of the original training set of face images.21 Each face image may be
represented as a weighted mean (eigenvector) of eigenfaces, which are then
memorized into a single matrix. Face recognition is made by measuring the distance
between the eigenvector of the face image under investigation and the eigenvectors
of known individuals.
The Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) is also an often used method in
images’ recognition and in data compression. This method shapes the difference
between various types of data.
The Linear Discriminant Analysis groups images in the same class and it
separates images from different classes of images 22. This method ensures maximum
relation between class dispersion and dispersion inside the class for any set of data,
thus ensuring the maximum separation of data.23
Lately, a new method used in face recognition emerged, namely the wavelet
analysis.
Wavelet analysis is useful to extract local features of the face, as it allows for a
multiple resolution analysis of signals, and they can be analyzed in different
resolution levels.
The wavelet concept (small wave) is a wave-like oscillation, crafted to have
specific properties 24. Starting from a basic function called mother wavelet, a
multitude of wavelets is generated, which are useful to describe extended classes of
functions.
Wavelets allow the local analysis of a signal with the help of certain regions
(variable dimension windows) of the time-frequency type.25 The windows can
analyze larger time-intervals, from where accurate information having low frequency
may be extracted with raw features, slowly varying from where high frequency
information is obtained with details that are rapidly changing. 26
The field in which wavelet analysis has known the most spectacular practical
applications is probably that of compression techniques, especially for images. As an
example, we remind the F.B.I.’s standard procedure to store information made up of
21
Turk, Matthew; Pentland, Alex, Eigenfaces for recognition, Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, Vol.3, No.1, 1991, pp.72.
22
Bhattacharyya, Suman Kumar; Rahul, Kumar (2013). Face Recognition By Linear
Discriminant Analysis, International Journal of Communication Network Security, Volume 2,
Issue 2, ISSN: 2231 – 1882, pp.31.
23
Balakrishnama, S.; Ganapathiraju, A. Linear Discriminant Analysis- A Brief Tutorial,
Institute for Signal and Information Processing. Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering. Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, pp.1.
24
Sobolu, Rodica Cristina, Operatori liniari și analiză wavelets cu aplicații, Summary
of Doctoral Thesis, “Babeș-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer
Science, Cluj-Napoca, 2011, pp.4, Retrieved 26 September 2013 from
www.usamvcluj.ro/files/granturi/Sobolu%20Rodica/CV.pdf.
25
Idem, pp.17.
26
Ibidem.
fingerprints (Wavelet Scalar Quantization WSQ), as well as the introduction of the
JPEG 2000 standard.
3.2. Local methods for face recognition
Certain feature points are spotted on the face, especially important guidelines,
such as, for examples, the eyes, nose and mouth. These spotted points are called
fiducial points and the local features extracted from these points, as well as certain
quantitative measures from the face are used in face recognition. The key advantage
of local approaches is that they allow a flexible deformation on the fiducial points, so
that the photograph modification and the different angles may be condensed. As
examples of local approaches we remind: Elastic Bunch Graph Matching27 and Local
Feature Analysis.28
Elastic Bunch Graph Matching is a method by which some persons’ faces are
represented by a graph, each graph node being labeled by a set of complex wavelet
coefficients, called jet.29 The coefficients’ size marks the nodes for matching and
recognition, and the phase of these complex wavelet coefficients is used to localize
the nodes. The nodes concern specific facial landmarks, called fiducial points. A
data structure called bunch graph represents faces by combining certain jets of a
small set of eigenfaces.
Face recognition occurs when the graph of the unknown image overlaps best
with the graph of an image from a database. The graph models can be easily
relocated, oriented or deformed, slightly changing their size during the matching
process, compensating for most of the images’ dispersion.
4. Face recognition in the three-dimensional space (3D)
The difficulty in face recognition systems in the two-dimensional space
(photographs, video recordings) is determined by the type of data used to check the
resemblance between two faces. This situation is caused by the fact that these devices
operate in a two-dimensional representation of space, and the person investigated is
in a three-dimensional space.
The face recognition systems in the three-dimensional space have the ability to
reproduce an image in 3D, recording even the slightest detail with a remarkable
accuracy.
The advantages of using face recognition systems in the three-dimensional
space are the following:30 3D technology is much more efficient than 2D technology,
as it allows analysis of a larger quantity of information, having access to new
information; a 3D facial-recognition system is less sensitive under lighting
27
Wiskott, Laurenz; Fellous, Jean-Marc; Krüger, Norbert; Von der Malsburg,
Christoph, 1997, Face Recognition by Elastic Bunch Graph Matching, IEEE Transactions
PAMI, Vol.17, No.7, pp.775-779.
28
Penev, P.; Atick, J.,Local feature analysis: A general statistical theory for object
representation, Network: Computation in Neural Systems, Vol.7, No.3, 1996, pp.477-500.
29
Jassim, Sabah A., Wavelet–Based Face Recognition Schemes, in Oravec, Miloš (ed.)
Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House, 2010, pp.102.
30
Mastronardi, Giuseppe; Cariello, Lucia; Daleno, Domenico; Castellano, Marcello,
Geodesic Distances and Hidden Markov Models for the 3D Face Recognition, in Oravec,
Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House, 2010, pp.333.
conditions; the issue of the photograph may be resolved by realigning faces; face
obstruction may be easy to find by a segmentation process; automated generation of
synthetic facial expressions.
The facial recognition systems in the 3D space available nowadays rely on the
following approaches:31 stereoscopy; photogrammetry; time of flight acquisition;
laser scanner.
Face recognition methods in the 3D space may be divided into four groups:32
curvature analysis-based; spatial matching based; shape descriptor based; recoverand-synthesis based.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Balakrishnama, S.; Ganapathiraju, A. Linear Discriminant Analysis- A Brief
Tutorial, Institute for Signal and Information Processing. Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering. Mississippi State University, Mississippi State,
Mississippi;
Bhattacharyya, Suman Kumar; Rahul, Kumar, Face Recognition By Linear
Discriminant Analysis, International Journal of Communication Network Security,
Volume 2, Issue 2, ISSN: 2231 – 1882, 2013;
Daleno, Domenico; Cariello, Lucia; Giannini, Marco; Mastronardi, Giuseppe,
Pseudo 2D Hidden Markov Model and Neural Network Coefficients in Face
Recognition, in Oravec, Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh
Publishing House, 2010;
Jassim, Sabah A., Wavelet–Based Face Recognition Schemes, in Oravec, Miloš
(ed.) Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House, 2010;
Mastronardi, Giuseppe; Cariello, Lucia; Daleno, Domenico; Castellano,
Marcello, Geodesic Distances and Hidden Markov Models for the 3D Face
Recognition, in Oravec, Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition, Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh
Publishing House, 2010;
Patra, Arpita, Development of efficient methods for face recognition and
multimodal biometry, Master of Science Thesis, Department of Computer Science
and Engineering. Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, June
2006;
Penev, P.; Atick, J., Local feature analysis: A general statistical theory for
object representation, Network: Computation in Neural Systems, Vol.7, No.3., 1996;
Phillips P. Jonathon; Rizvi, Syed A., The FERET Evaluation Methodology for
Face-Recognition Algorithms, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence, Vol. 22, No.10, October 2000;
Sarfraz, M. Saquib; Hellwich, Olaf; Riaz, Zahid (2010). Feature Extraction
and Representation for Face Recognition, in Oravec, Miloš (ed.), Face Recognition,
Vukovar, Croatia: In-Teh Publishing House;
31
32
Idem, pp.334.
Idem, pp.335-337.
Sobolu, Rodica Cristina, Operatori liniari și analiză wavelets cu aplicații,
Summary of Doctoral Thesis, “Babeș-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Mathematics
and Computer Science, Cluj-Napoca, 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2013 from
www.usamvcluj.ro/files/granturi/Sobolu%20Rodica/CV.pdf.
Turk, Matthew; Pentland, Alex, Eigenfaces for recognition, Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol.3, No.1, 1991;
Wiskott, Laurenz; Fellous, Jean-Marc; Krüger, Norbert; Von der Malsburg,
Christoph, Face Recognition by Elastic Bunch Graph Matching, IEEE Transactions
PAMI, Vol.17, No.7, 1997.
University Lecturer PhD. MARIANA MIHAELA NEDELCU
Abstract
Within the communication literature there is an assumption that
the congruency of verbal and nonverbal messages is important for
accurate and persuasive communication and that nonverbal messages
are more powerful than verbal messages in communication. Research by
conflict theorists and educational psychologists indicate just the
opposite. This study examined the effects of verbal and nonverbal
messages indicating cooperativeness or competitiveness on negotiation
outcomes. In two of the conditions the verbal and nonverbal messages
were congruent, in the other two conditions they were contradictory. The
results indicate that congruency of verbal and nonverbal messages was
not an important factor in determining negotiation outcomes, although it
did affect accuracy of communication. Verbal messages had much more
impact than did nonverbal messages. The communication of cooperative
intentions promoted a decision by the receiver to engage in cooperative
behaviors and to arrive at cooperative negotiation outcomes.
Key-words: verbal, non-verbal,
signals, behaviors, interraction.
communication,
linguistic,
For a very long period of time, our ancestors hunted and gathered as a
collective, depending upon one another for protection, sustenance and
companionship. Our success as a species and as individuals depends upon our ability
to communicate, both verbally and non-verbally. Verbal and non-verbal
communication shapes our interactions with others in business and interpersonal
relationships, as well as our financial and personal success, and our physical and
psychological well-being. Understanding the different aspects of verbal and nonverbal communication, and the important roles they play in our interactions with
others, is the first step to enhancing positive communication and nurturing
relationships as well as understanding life in general.
Concerning the verbal communication, it encompasses any form of
communication involving words, spoken, written or signed. The conversation we
have with each other, the morning news or the sports page we read in the morning is
a form of verbal communication. Our ability to communicate with a language that is
based on an organized system of words, rather than merely sounds, is what sets us
apart from lower species.33 Not only do we have language, but we also have the
33
Knapp, M.L. &ump; Hall, J.A., Nonverbal communication in human action,
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2001.
technology that enables us to communicate with one another no matter the physical
distance.As an opposite to the verbal communication, the non-verbal communication,
is a possibility of communication which can affect people's perceptions and
exchanges in subtle but significant ways. Non-verbal communication includes body
language, such as gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and posture. 34 Touch is a
non-verbal communication that not only indicates a person's feelings or level of
comfort, but illustrates personality characteristics as well. A firm handshake or warm
hug indicates something very different than a loose pat on the back or a timid
handshake does. The sound of our voice, including pitch, tone and volume are also
forms of non-verbal communication.
The meaning behind someone's words is often entirely different than the literal
translation, as is seen in instances of sarcasm and mockery. The clothing we wear
and the way we design our living space defines us and influences the perception
others have upon us.
The non-verbal communication is basicaly the transfer of information from one
person to another which could be in the forms of written, oral or non verbal
communication. The Non verbal communication plays in important role in defining
the status of relationship between the employee and employer. Often the message
conveyed in a non verbal communication is in the forms of gestures and action of the
individual. There is a lot of information that are conveyed in between lines that a
manager needs to understand to capitalise productivity of the employee. Basic
understanding shows there are few facets that can be seen in a non verbal
communications. G.W. Porter divides non verbal communication to four categories.
Physical is a personal type of communications. It includes facial expressions,
tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell and body motions. An employer and
manager ability to utilise the non verbal communication to understand if the
employee understands the command or instruction given. The physical personal
reaction provides signal and cues to communicate the firms’ interest and agendas to
the employees and vice versa. These gestures are important aspect of our lives.
Most of the gestures of expressing ourselves are often unconscious. However,
the meaning of each reaction can be very different across cultures, education and
income level. Most gestures made by employees will send a message to the employer
as
a
acceptance
stanza.
Some people can also be aesthetic is the way they communicate. These individual are
creative in expressing their inner thoughts and ideas. This is interestingly a
dimension creative level. An employee will try to express their joy, frustration,
anger, happiness, gratitude through playing instrumental music, dancing, painting,
sculpturing and sports. Our interpersonal effectiveness depends on more than words.
Nonverbal messages add to or detract from our words. In effect, we become the
message, with our nonverbal cues announcing our state of mind, expectations, and
sense of self. Our entire beings chatter incessantly, revealing what we really feel and
think.
34
Knapp, M.L. &ump; Hall, J.A., Nonverbal communication in human action,
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2001.
For example, how do you judge another’s honesty or trustworthiness? The
meaning of these variables is carried predominantly via nonverbal messages, often
without our awareness and not under our conscious control. For this reason,
nonverbal messages are less likely than words to be intentionally deceptive.
Nonverbal communication is expressed through nonlinguistic means. It is the
actions or attributes of humans, including their appearance, use of objects, sound,
time, smell, and space, that have socially shared significance and stimulate meaning
in others. It includes visual/kinesic cues such as facial expressions, eye movements,
gestures, and body orientation; vocal and paralinguistic cues such as volume, pitch,
rate, and inflection; proxemic cues such as space and distance; olfactory or smell
cues; cues provided via artifactual communication and appearance; cues sent via
color; and chronemic or time cues. Although we may send nonverbal messages
deliberately or accidentally, their meaning
depends on how they are interpreted. Consequently, they fulfill
metacommunicative functions,and communicate about communication, clarifying
both the nature of our relationship, and/or the meaning of our verbal messages. In
fact, researchers conclude that nonverbal cues carry approximately two-thirds of a
message’s communicative value. Even when used independently of words, as long as
an observer derives meaning from them, nonverbal messages speak volumes. Of
course, the amount of information conveyed varies according to their clarity, and
how receptive and perceptive the receiver is. Based on interpretations of our
nonverbal cues, others may decide if they like us, will or will listen to our ideas, or
want to sustain or terminate our relationship. The ability to understand and respond
to nonverbal messages helps unlock meaning’s door.
Nonverbal cues can emphasize or underscore a verbal message. For example,
when you raise or lower your voice, or slow down your rate of speech so you can
deliberately stress a series of words, you are using nonverbal cues to accentuate your
words.
Nonverbal cues can reinforce or complement a verbal message. With your
keys and coat in your hand, you announce, “I have to leave now,” as you walk
toward your car.
Nonverbal cues can reinforce or complement a verbal message. With your keys
and coat in your hand, you announce, “I have to leave now,” as you walk toward
your car
Nonverbal cues can substitute for or take the place of spoken words. When we
don’t know what to say to express our sorrow at the death of a friend or a relative, an
embrace often suffices. Similarly, when someone asks, “What do you want to do
tonight?” a shrug of the shoulders frequently is used in place of “I don’t know.”
Often when actions substitute for words, the nonverbal cues function as symbols of
the verbal messages because they are widely understood. The up-and-down nod is
understood to mean yes, just as forming a T with your hands during a sports event is
understood to mean “time-out.”
As we noted obove, for us to fully understand the meaning of verbal
messages, we also need to understand the meaning of the nonverbal messages that
accompany them or occur in their absence. After all, we can change the meaning of
our words with the wink of an eye, a certain facial expression, voice tone, bodily
movement, use of space, or touch. As our ability to use and interpret nonverbal
behavior and contextual cues improves, so will our understanding of interpersonal
relationships.
All communication systems, regardless of how simple or complicatedthey may
be,operate on the same principle: Signals transmit messages from asource to a
destination. The distended belly of the female stickleback signals themale to initiate
an elaborate courtship routine that culminates in fertilization ofher eggs (Tinbergen,
1952). Upon returning to its hive, a foraging honeybeecommunicates the direction
and distance of a source of nectar by engaging in anelaborate waggle-dance (von
Frisch, 1967). Vervet monkeys (native to EastAfrica) have three distinctive vocal
alarm calls that signal the presence ofleopards, eagles and snakes, their three main
predators. Upon hearing one oranother call, a Vervet will respond appropriately-climbing a tree in response tothe leopard call, scanning the ground when the snake
call is sounded (Seyfarth,Cheney & Marler, 1980).
Each of these systems represents the species' adaptationto the exigencies of a
particular ecological niche in which communicationfacilitates survival, Language can
be thought of as a similar sort of adaptation.Language is only one of the symbol
systems humans use to communicate. 35 The "thumbs-up" gesture conveys the
message of success, approval or hope; thewedding ring and the mourner's ribbon
publicly proclaim the wearer's currentstatus; a facial grimace in response to the
question "How did you like the movie?"symbolically and effectively expresses the
person's assessment. Notwithstandingthe utility of such symbolic displays, language
endows human communicationwith three properties, semanticity, generativity, and
displacement, that collectively distinguish it from other sorts of symbolic displays
and from the forms of communication observed in other species.
• Semanticity: In human communication, signals stand for things, which isto
say that they have meaning. An overheated dog will pant to dissipateheat, and an
astute observer may understand the panting to indicate thatthe dog is hot, but panting
cannot be said to stand for overheatedness inthe same way that the word
"overheated" does.
• Generativity (sometimes called Productivity): All languages are capable
ofgenerating an infinite number of meaningful messages from a finitenumber of
linguistic signals. Languages allow symbols to be combined andrecombined in ways
that yield novel meanings, and any competentlanguage user will regularly produce
and comprehend utterances thathave never been uttered before, but are immediately
comprehensible to all competent language users. Even so sophisticated a system as
the Vervet'salarm calls is limited to a fixed set of messages, and lacks the ability
togenerate novel ones. For the Vervet, there is no way to signal the presenceof
predators other than eagles, leopards or snakes.
• Displacement: Language makes it possible to communicate about thingsthat
are remote in space or time, or indeed exist only in the imagination. Bertrand Russell
once remarked that "No matter how eloquently a dogmay bark, he cannot tell you
that his father was poor but honest."Although the observation is self-evident, even
banal, it points to a fundamental difference in the expressive capacities of language
35
Morris, Desmond, Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Gestures, New York: Crown
Trade Paperbacks, 1994.
and othercommunication modalities. Vervets can signal the presence of a
predatoryeagle, but even the most articulate Vervet cannot refer to the eagle
thatattacked a week ago; their communication is limited to what is immediatepresent.
Perhaps more than any other feature, it is the capacity of language to convey
displaced messages that distinguishes it from othercommunication modalities.The
ability of language to generate an unlimited number of meaningfulnovel messages
that are not bound to the here and now, combined with the cognitive capacity to
exploit these properties, allows human communication to beextraordinarily effective
and versatile. The full extent of this effectiveness andversatility is revealed by an
examination of how communication systems work.
There are many different types of nonverbal communication. Together, the
following nonverbal signals and cues communicate your interest and investment in
others.36 The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions
without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial
expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger,
surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures. 37
Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk,
stand up, or hold their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a
wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes
your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements.
Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon,
and use our hands when we’re arguing or speaking animatedly expressing ourselves
with gestures often without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very
different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be careful to avoid
misinterpretation.
Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially
important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can
communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye
contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the
other person’s response. We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about
the messages given by the following: a weak handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder,
a warm bear hug, a reassuring slap on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a
controlling grip on your arm.38
Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other
person was standing too close and invading your space? We all have a need for
physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and
the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical space to communicate many
36
Marshall, C, Rossman, Gretchen B, Designing qualitative research, 4th edition,
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2006.
37
Patterson. M.L., Nonverbal behaviour: A functional prospective, 1st Edition,
Springer, 1983.
38
Cohen, Lynn Renee, Nonverbal (Mis) Communication Between Managerial Men And
Women, Business Horizons 26.1 (1983): 13. Business Source Premier. Web. 08 Nov. 2011
different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy and affection, aggression
or dominance. 39
It’s not just what you say, it’s how you say it. When we speak, other people
“read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. Things they pay attention to
include your timing and pace, how loud you speak, your tone and inflection, and
sounds that convey understanding, such as “ahh” and “uh-huh.” Think about how
someone's tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or
confidence.
We can take into consideration that the verbal and non-verbal
communications have advantages and also disadvantages. 40
Advantages:
The verbal communication can be made in different ways like oral, written
etc. It allows the transmitting of a complex content, the information can be logicaly
transmitted and well structurized.
Another advantage would be that highlights the thinking capacity and also
human creativity.
Disadvantages:
The verbal communication lacks in expressivity, if it does not use paraverbal
nor nonverbal ways.
The transmitting and the receiving of the message is slower, a simple gesture
would be quicker and simpler.
In non-verbal communication, the main advantage would be the expresivity,
like intonation, the rising of tone, that give a word different meanings in different
situations while going through different emotions.
It makes the communication easyer, the message is transmitted faster and an
important characteristic of sending a message is consisted in the gestures, body
movement etc.
The most important disadvantage of non-verbal communication is that it
cannot be used to accomplish complex actions without also making use of the verbal
communication.
The use of excess gestures, the message might be alterated.
To sum up all the important aspects of communication, all it’s forms interract
equaly and for an efficient communication both verbal and non-verbal are needed.
39
Morris, Desmond, Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Gestures, New York: Crown
Trade Paperbacks, 1994.
40
Ishikawa H, Hashimoto H, Kinoshita M, Yano E., Can nonverbal communication
skills be taught?. Medical Teacher [serial online]. October 2010;32(10):860-863. Available
from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed November 8, 2011.
CONTENTS
4
9
27
24
OTHER ASSETS
31
38
CONSIDERATIONS
7
ON-SITE INVESTIGATION IN THE EVENT OF
COUNTERFEITING CURRENCY OR OTHER ASSETS
University Lecturer PhD. DANIEL STEFAN PARASCHIV
Faculty of Law and Public Administration– Valcea
University Assistant PhD. DANA STANCIULESCU
Christian University ”Dimitrie Cantemir”
Faculty of Law- Bucharest
Abstract
Counterfeiting currency or other assets creates a high risk for
social order, so criminalistic provides necessary knowledge for
proving such facts to legal bodies and experts, an important role in
the probation process being represented by the findings made on the
spot, using technical and scientific criminalistic methods, tactics and
means, on the basis of which the investigation bodies may also order
performing criminal expertise whose conclusions have great
evidential value.
Key-words: counterfeiting currency and other assets, on the
spot investigation, criminal methodology, tactic and technique
Introduction
As part of offenses group generically known as “crimes of forgery”,
counterfeiting currency or other assets is a well individualized category, both in
terms of structure and legal content as well as factual ways of committing the
crime. 41
Counterfeiting currency or other assets seriously undermine the truth and
the trust underlying human relations formation and conduct 42, so by incriminating
this act, the criminal law protects social relations whose formation, development
and evolution involves confidence in the authenticity of the values subject to the
investigated crime.
According to law43, counterfeiting currency or other assets consists of a
person’s act of forging or distorting currency or other assets for the purpose of
giving them, apparently, a greater value. Therefore, this crime is achieved by
altering the truth, by producing or by modifying currency or other assets, so as
41
Ion Vochescu, Vasile Bercheşan “Banknotes and banknote counterfeiters”,
Bucharest, Chance Publishing, 1996, p. 120.
42
Vintilă Dongoroz, Siegfried Kahane, Ion Oancea, Nicoleta Iliescu, Constantin
Bulai, Rodica Stănoiu, Victor Roşca, “Theoretical explanations of Romanian Criminal
Code”, Volume IV, Bucharest, Romanian Academy Publishing, 1972, p. 357.
43
Romanian Criminal Code, art. 282, paragraph 1.
the obtained piece provides – apparently – the characteristics of authentic
currency or other assets.
On-site investigation
Where applicable, after the notification of such a crime, it may proceed to
on the spot investigation, performed activities and findings being recorded in the
minutes of findings.
As for any other offense which, by its nature and manner of committing,
leaves traces in the place where it was committed, for counterfeiting currency and
other assets, crime scene investigation is one of the activities that substantially
contributes to establishing the truth.
On-site investigation will usually be performed at the location where
counterfeiting currency or other assets takes place, but it is not excluded that this
activity be performed at the location where currency or other forged assets are
kept, in order to release them in circulation.
“The crime scene” includes the locations where the required operations for
counterfeiting currency or other assets took place, in whole or partially, the
locations where the materials and tools used for counterfeiting are, as well as the
locations where the product of the crime: currency or other assets in different
stages of forgery are.
On-site investigation must be prepared in detail, since any inadvertence may
lead to failure of the activity and of the whole cause.
When counterfeiting takes place in several locations, each of them intended
for certain operations, it is recommended that investigation on the spot be
simultaneously initiated in all the used locations.
Team members who are to investigate need to know detailed information
about perpetrators and their activities, to establish liaison arrangements between
them, to be properly equipped in order to act in any situation and to keep the
investigation’s specific operations a secret.
The locations where the above mentioned assets are counterfeited are
usually chosen carefully, in peripheral areas, away from prying eyes, with
multiple entries and exits, etc., so the criminal investigation bodies approaching
the area where the investigation will take place, as well as entering the buildings
need to be performed with great caution, the element of surprise playing a
decisive role, as it doesn’t give the perpetrators time to hide or to destroy
evidence material means and to remove traces of the crime.
On-site investigation is performed according to well known rules, strictly
respecting the criminal procedure rules, as well as the methodical, technical and
criminological tactical rules. 44
Criminological methodology is defined as a part of criminalistic that “deals
with investigation particularities of different types of crimes, taking into account
44
See Vasile Bercheşan, Constantin Pletea, Ion Eugen Sandu, „Investigation on the
spot”, in „Treaty of criminal tactics”, Craiova, Carpathian Publishing, 1992, pp. 26-75.
the general rules of criminological tactics and techniques.” 45 It studies, elaborates
and applies rules of investigating different types of crimes, based on strictly
observance of legal provisions and on criminal investigation bodies’ positive
experience.
Therefore, this is a distinct field of criminalistic, since the methods,
technical means and tactical methods apply when investigating crimes with their
particularities defined both by the nature of the crime and by the concrete
conditions in which the offense was committed.
Criminological methodology establishes the use of the most appropriate
investigation rules – technical means and criminalistic tactical processes – which
provide clarification of key issues regarding the offense content, participants,
circumstances in which it was committed, in order to find out the truth during the
criminal process.
Criminological technique is defined as “the totality of technical means and
scientific methods required for discovering, setting, lifting, examining and
interpreting traces and other evidence material means, performing expertise and
scientific – technical findings.”46
Technical means are represented by all equipments, tools and technical
devices required for a practical action, established by a predetermined method,
and the method refers to a system of rules according to which an action takes
place, so that, starting from known situations, to reach a result.
The method requires the application of material technical means, without
which some criminological methods would be destined to remain without
practical application.
Scientific technical means used in criminological investigation are diverse,
starting from the simplest to the most complex: magnifiers, microscopes, photo
and video cameras, polar meters, spectrographs, spectrophotometers, serigraphs,
polygraphs, infrared, ultraviolet radiation installations, X-rays, gamma and beta
rays,47 the variety of this technical instrumentation enabling the application of
various technical – scientific methods specific to criminalistic, such as:
microscopy, photovalorimetry, betography, chromatography, AAN neutrons
activation analysis.
After entering the building and identifying all the found persons – involved
or not in counterfeiting currency or other assets -, before passing to the proper
criminological examination, it is mandatory to perform body search, special
attention should be paid to all traces and evidence related to counterfeiting.
Apart from counterfeited currency or assets, at the crime scene can also be
discovered: currency or other assets in different stages of counterfeiting; attempts
45
Octavian Pop (coordinator), Ion Anghelescu, Lupu Coman, Ion R. Constantin,
Mircea Constantinescu, Ion Grigorescu, Alexandru Hasnas, Vasile Lapadus ş.a.,
„Practical Criminal Treaty”, volume 1, Bucharest, Publishing services, media and
propaganda among the population of the Ministry of Interior, Institute of Criminalistic,
1976, p. 15.
46
Ibidem.
47
Camil Suciu, Criminalistic, Bucharest, Didactic and Pedagogical Publishing,
1972, p. 17.
(tests) made by offender in order to obtain the desired model of currency or of
other assets; Romanian or foreign currency or other assets, taken as a model for
counterfeiting; various materials used for this purpose (paper, inks, printing inks,
etc.), as well as their traces on different media; tools or equipments used for
counterfeiting currency or other assets, such as moulds, photographic devices and
clichés, slides, copy machines, various writings emitted by the perpetrator or by
the persons to whom he is related; the amounts of money proceeded from the sale
of counterfeited currency, etc.
Results of the on the spot investigation are recorded 48 in a minutes of
findings, which includes: date and location where the finding was performed;
quality, first and last name of the ones who performed the finding and the unit of
which they are part of; first and last name of the specialists who were part of the
team and the unit from which they come; actual reason of the intervention; legal
basis of the offense finding; first name, last name and other identifying
information of the witnesses; topographical and criminal location of the crime
scene; persons found on the spot, indicating all the identification data, including
the act through which identification was made; 49 assets, writings or values found
on the perpetrator; search result of baggage and means of transport used by the
offender; perpetrator’s explanations on the activities he was performing the
moment he was caught, goods and values discovered on him; witness statements;
reference to the assets, values and writings taken from the perpetrator; reference
to the assets, values and writings taken on occasion of finding fragrant crime;
categories of traces and evidence material means discovered, set and packaged,
describing their nature, the locations where they were found, the manner of
picking up, mentioning that, before being picked up, they were fixed by metric
photography; mention the way each object or discovered category of trace was
packaged, labelled and sealed; the measures that were taken regarding the
perpetrator; judicial photos taken, indicating the brand, the film and the
sensibility of the camera that was used (likewise for filming or video-filming);
mentions of crime scene sketch preparation and the scale at which it was done;
start and completion time of investigation on spot, outlining the conditions of
visibility in which the activity was performed; witnesses’ and other participants’
observations, as well as the perpetrator’s objections, both on the way the on the
spot investigation was performed and on those recorded in the minutes of
findings; the number of copies of the minutes of findings and their destination.
Also, witnesses are recorded in the minutes of findings, with their
identification data and any objection to those observed and recorded.
Judicial photos made on the spot,which are annexed to the minutes, are
among the most important means of establishing the investigation results . In the
same way, the blueprint of the crime scene, which is a modality of graphic
representation of the situation on the spot, helps to better understand the real
frame of the crime scene, aiming at illustrating the findings from t he minutes and
48
Vasile Bercheşan, Ion N. Dumitraşcu, „Evidence and Means of Evidence”,
Ministry of Interior Publishing, Bucharest, 1994, pp. 126-164.
49
Ion Vochescu, Vasile Bercheşan, [41], p. 204.
at rendering complete the other settling means. At the same time, the film, the
judicial videophonogram and the audio magnetic tape have the purpose of
faithfully rendering the various aspects of the crime scene investigation.
The technical scientific findings or the criminal expertises play a special
role in establishing the facts regarding counterfeiting of currency or other assets
and, implicitly, in proving the perpetrator`s guilt.
Characteristical to this type of crimes is the criminal expertise of
counterfeit of currency or other assets. Taking into account the proliferation of
currency counterfeit or other assets, especially at international level, this kind of
expertise has an important place in the activity of criminalistic laboratories, both
in the country and from abroad, including within specialized international
organisms in the fight against organized crime 50, organisms that centralize and
process related data and contribute to the formation of specialists, experts, as well
as to the exchange of information between national organisms 51.
The criminalistic examination of currency or other paper assets, supposed
to be counterfeited, is performed by general methods used in writings
investigation 52, metallic coins needing special methods.
Coins or other paper values will be examined under more aspects: of paper
quality, of china ink and ink, of thread-mark, of drawings performed, of the
printing manner, etc.
Usually, the coin paper is very different from the qualitative point of view
from the paper usually found on the market, regarding thickness, elasticity, tear
resistance and, especially, thread-mark. It is thinner and has a special
composition, as the fibers are woven in a certain way, there are metallic fibers, of
plastic or textile materials in various colours, and having a specific
fluorescence 53.
China inks and inks used for printing coins or other assets are special, their
composition assuring, besides clarity and stability of printing, a high resistance at
acids treatments 54. At the same time, drawings existing on coins or on other
assets are performed in various colours and shapes, which supposes the use of
more clichés (one for each colour), in a certain order.
It must be also taken into account the fact that the printing modality in
authentic coins usually supposes a combination of printing methods, of the type:
plan pattern (offset or lithography), deep pattern (tifdruck), high pattern
(photozincography), photoengraving and intraglio procedure – this one is mainly
used at present.
Some of the most counterfeited coins are US dollars, taking into account
their wide circulation. This is done by altering banknotes that is by
50
By the Secretariate O.I.P.C.-Interpol- is the International Central Office for
fight against currency counterfeit.
51
Emilian Stancu, Criminalistic, The Science of Crimes Investigation, vol. I,
Tempus S.R.L. Publishing House, Bucharest, 1992, p. 285.
52
Camil Suciu, [47], p. 482.
53
Emilian Stancu,[51], p. 286.
54
Certain inks contain fluorescent substances and magentic particles.
“transforming” the 1, 2, 5 or 10 dollar banknotes in banknotes with higher
nominal value55.
Counterfeit, invention of dollars supposes the wholly manufacture of the
banknote, which needs adequate paper, inks and printing instruments, etc 56
On the basis of the facts presented, the problems that could be cleared by
expertise may be established, and then are established the questions that the
criminal prosecution authorities should ask to experts.
In case of analyzing the banknotes or other counterfeited assets by
alteration, experts will answer the following questions: if the currency or other
asset presented to be examined is or is not authentic; by what means the
counterfeit was performed; the initial nominal value of the banknote or of the
counterfeited asset; what instruments and methods were used to perform the
counterfeit; if the ink (china ink) of the counterfeit has the same chemical
composition as the ink picked up from the crime scene; if the counterfeit could be
performed with the instruments found on occasion of investigating the crime
scene etc.
In case of analyzing the forgery by counterfeit of currency or other assets,
the experts will answer the following questions: if the paper that represents the
material support of the banknote or of other asset supposed to be counterfeited is
genuine or not; the physical- chemical characteristics of the paper, currency or of
other assets submitted to examination, in case they are not genuine; if the paper
on which the banknote is printed presents the same physical-chemical
characteristics as the paper not used, picked up from the crime scene; which was
the procedure of fulfilling the currency or other asset counterfeit; if the
instruments or devices picked up from the accused or defendant were used to
make the forgery; the relevation of other elements that could demonstrate the
counterfeit of currency or of other asset, with special reference on the threadmark, ink, front and back drawing, printing particularities, including under the
aspect of differences between the dimensions of the currency in litigation,
towards the ones of the real currency 57.
Conclusions
Specific of counterfeiting activity of currency or other assets is the fact that
this operation requires careful, very complex preparation, the author being forced
to find the necessary funds, to purchase specific materials and instruments, to
obtain the collaboration of some “experts”, including those who will introduce
the counterfeit pieces in the circuit. 58
55
For instance, from the 1 dollar banknote a 100 dollar banknote is made, and from
the 5 dollar banknote one of 50 dollars. Usually, in these cases only the numbers that
indicate the nominal value of the currency are altered, both the portrait (on the front) and
the drawing (on the back) remain the same, which represents a certain proof o f
counterfeit.
56
The same distinctions also appear in case of counterfeit of Romanian currency.
57
Ion Vochescu, Vasile Bercheşan, [41], p. 218.
58
Vintilă Dongoroz and others, [42], p. 382.
The objective use of criminalistic tactic, methods and technique in on the
spot investigation of the crime provided by art. 282 of the Criminal Code, the
counterfeit of currency or other assets, can decisively contribute to establishing
the truth by direct findings made on this occasion, as well as from the materials
picked up in order to be analyzed by specialists.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Vasile Bercheşan, Constantin Pletea, Ion Eugen Sandu, Treaty of
criminalistic tactics, Craiova, Carpathian Publishing, 1992;
Vasile Bercheşan, Ion N. Dumitraşcu, Evidence and Means of Evidence,
Ministry of Interior Publishing, Bucharest, 1994;
Nelu Viorel Catuna, Criminalistic, Bucharest, CH Beck Publishing, 2008;
Vintilă Dongoroz, Siegfried Kahane, Ion Oancea, Nicoleta Iliescu,
Constantin Bulai, Rodica Stănoiu, Victor Roşca, Theoretical explanations of
Romanian Criminal Code, Volume IV, Bucharest, Romanian Academy
Publishing, 1972;
Octavian Pop (coordinator), Ion Anghelescu, Lupu Coman, Ion R.
Constantin, Mircea Constantinescu, Ion Grigorescu, Alexandru Hasnas, Vasile
Lapadus ş.a., Practical Criminalistic Treaty, volume 1, Bucharest, Publishing
services, media and propaganda among the population of the Ministry of Interior,
Institute of Criminalistic, 1976;
Camil Suciu, Criminalistic, Bucharest,
Didactic and Pedagogical
Publishing, 1972;
Emilian Stancu, Adrian Cristian Moise, Criminalistics, Bucharest, Juridical
Univers Publishing House, 2013;
Emilian Stancu, Criminalistic, The Science of Crimes Investigation, vol. I,
Tempus S.R.L. Publishing House, Bucharest, 1992;
Ion Vochescu, Vasile Bercheşan, Banknotes and banknote counterfeiters,
Bucharest, Chance Publishing, 1996.
LE RECOUVREMENT DES CRÉANCES
NÉES DANS UN AUTRE ÉTAT MEMBRE DE L'UNION EUROPÉENNE
Assistant Professor PhD. MARIANA CIOCOIU
University Lecturer PhD. SORIN STANCIULESCU
University Lecturer PhD. DANA STANCIULESCU
Abstract
En adoptant la Directive 2010/24/UE concernant l'assistance
mutuelle en matière de recouvrement des créances relatives aux taxes,
droits et autres mesures, on a consideré qu’il est possible d’améliorer le
système d’assistance en ce qui concerne le recouvrement dans le
contexte du marché intérieur, en introduisant des changements dans
plusieurs domaines, au but d’étendre le champ d'application de
l'assistance mutuelle en matière de recouvrement, de fournir les outils
uniformes de travail, ainsi qu'un formulaire pour la transmission des
demandes d'assistance, de permettre aux fonctionnaires d'un État
membre d'être présents dans les bureaux administratifs ou de participer
activement à des enquêtes administratives sur le territoire d'un autre
État membre par voie d'accord.
Key-words: creances, recouvrement, L’Union Europeenne.
L'harmonisation des législations nationales avec l'Union européenne est, d'une
part, une obligation imposée par l'Union européenne à tous les gouvernements des
pays membres et, d'autre part, une méthode qui vise à améliorer les systèmes fiscaux
dans l'ère de la mondialisation.
De même, l'harmonisation des systèmes fiscaux dans l'Union européenne est
apparue comme une nécessité par l'augmentation du volume des transactions
financières à l'échelle mondiale et par l'augmentation de la mobilité des capitaux et
du travail.
La Roumanie, comme d'autres Etats membres de l'Union européenne, a
transposé en droit national les dispositions de la nouvelle Directive, par l’intermède
de l'Ordonnance du Gouvernement no. 29/2011 modifiant et complétant
l'Ordonnance du Gouvernement no. 92/2003 concernant le Code de procédure
fiscale, publiée au Journal Officiel de la Roumanie, Partie I, no. 626 du 2 Septembre
2011.
Conformément à l'article 2 de la Directive, elle doit être appliquée aux créances
concernant:
• tous les frais, droits et taxes de toute nature perçus par un État membre ou par
ses subdivisions territoriales ou administratives, y compris les autorités locales;
• les restitutions, interventions et autres mesures faisant partie du système de
financement totale ou partielle du Fonds européen agricole de garantie (FEAGA) et
le Fonds européen agricole pour le développement rural (Feader), y compris les
montants à percevoir dans le cadre de ces actions;
• les cotisations et autres droits prévus dans le contexte de l'organisation
commune du marché du sucre;
• les sanctions administratives, amendes, frais en relation avec les créances
pour lesquelles l'entraide judiciaire peut être requis, qui sont fixés par les autorités
administratives chargées de la perception d'impôts, de taxes ou droits en question ou
de la conduite des enquêtes administratives sur eux ou qui sont confirmées par les
instances administratives ou judiciaires à la demande des autorités administratives
mentionnées;
• les frais pour les certificats et documents similaires délivrés dans le cadre de
procédures administratives liées aux impôts, taxes et droits;
• les intérêts, les pénalités de retard et les coûts relatifs aux créances pour
lesquelles l'assistance judiciaire peut être demandée 59.
D'autre part, la Directive ne s'applique pas:
• aux contributions obligatoires au système de la sécurité sociale à payer soit à
l'Etat ou à une subdivision de celui-ci, soit aux institutions de sécurité sociale de droit
public;
• aux frais qui ne sont pas prévus dans le paragraphe 2 de la Directive;
• aux droits de nature contractuelle, tels que les montants fixés pour les services
publics;
• les sanctions pénales imposées dans le contexte d’une procédure pénale ou
d'autres sanctions pénales non couverts par le paragraphe 2 point a). de la Directive.
Les autorités compétentes en Roumanie pour le recouvrement des créances
établies dans un autre État membre de l'Union européenne, et pour récupérer dans un
autre État membre de l'UE les créances établies en Roumanie sont, conformément à
l'art. 1784 du Code de procédure fiscale et en fonction de la spécificité de la créance:
• l’Agence Nationale d'Administration Fiscale, pour les créances visées à l'art.
1782 par. 1 points a). et b). du Code de procédure fiscale, à l'exception des créances
prévues au point b).;
• l’Autorité Nationale des Douanes pour les créances visées à l'art. 1782 par. 1
points a). et b). du Code de procédure fiscale qui sont dues à des opérations
douanières;
• l’Agence de Paiements et d'Intervention pour l'Agriculture, pour les créances
visées à l'art. 1782 par. 1 point c). du Code de procédure fiscale.
59
Comme on le voit, le champ d'application de l'assistance mutuelle en matière de
recouvrement a été étendu à d'autres impôts que ceux qui étaient déjà couverts par la
Directive 2008/55/CE du Conseil.
La Directive prévoit que l'échange d'information se fera de deux manières:
• à la demande de l'autorité requérante, quand l'autorité requise communique
toute sorte de renseignements qui sont évidemment pertinents pour l'autorité
requérante au but de récupération ses créances visées à l'article 2 de la Directive;
• sans demande préalable, ce qui représente une nouveauté; ainsi, au cas où un
remboursement de taxes ou de frais, autres que la TVA, est fait par une personne
établie ou résidant dans un autre État membre, l'État membre, dont le remboursement
doit être fait, peut indiquer le remboursement attendu, l'État membre où la personne
est établie ou domiciliée.
La Directive prévoit à l'article 12, premier alinéat que toute demande de
recouvrement est accompagnée d'un titre uniforme permettant l'exécution dans l'État
membre requis. Le titre uniforme reflète le contenu principal du titre original qui
permet l'exécution et constitue la base unique pour les mesures prises dans l'État
membre requis. Il n'est pas soumis à un acte de reconnaissance, de complément ou
remplacement dans cet État membre60.
En ce qui concerne l'exécution de la demande de recouvrement, la Directive
prévoit à l'art. 13 que, pour le recouvrement de la créance dans l'État membre requis,
toute créance à l'égard de laquelle une demande a été faite pour la récupération est
traitée comme s'il s'agissait d'une créance de l'Etat requis, avec certaines exceptions
prévues par la Directive.
L'autorité requise exerce les pouvoirs et les procédures établies en vertu de
dispositions législatives, réglementaires et administratives de l'État membre requis
qui s'appliquent aux créances relatives aux mêmes droits, impôts ou taxes ou, en leur
absence, sur les charges, impôts et charges similaires, sauf si la Directive en dispose
autrement.
En conformité avec l'article 16, premier alinéat de la Directive,
à la diligence de l’autorité requérante, l’autorité requise prend des mesures
conservatoires, si sa législation nationale l’y autorise et conformément à ses
pratiques administratives, en vue de garantir le recouvrement lorsqu’une
créance ou l’instrument permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires dans
l’État membre requérant est contesté au moment où la demande est
présentée, ou lorsque la créance ne fait pas encore l’objet d’un instrument
permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires dans l’État membre requérant,
si ces mesures conservatoires sont également possibles, dans une situation
similaire, en vertu de la législation nationale et des pratiques
administratives de l’État membre requérant.
En ce qui concerne la possibilité d'accorder au débiteur certaines préférences,
un délai de paiement ou un paiement échelonné, la Directive régit cette possibilité, en
pouvant appliquer un intérêt aux montants considérés.
60
Le titre uniforme permettant l'exécution doit nécessairement contenir au moins les
informations énumérées à l'al. (1), art. 12 de la Directive.
L’Article 13, premier alinéat paragraphe 3, stipule que l'État membre ne sera
pas tenu d’accorder aux créances des autres États membres les préférences accordées
pour les créances analogues nées dans cet État membre, sauf dans les cas où les États
membres concernés en conviennent autrement ou que la législation de l’État membre
requis n’en dispose autrement. Un État membre qui accorde des privilèges pour les
créances d'un autre État membre ne peut refuser d'accorder les mêmes privilèges pour
les créances d’autres États membres, aux mêmes conditions61.
La Directive établit que les questions concernant les délais de prescription sont
régies exclusivement par les lois et règlements en vigueur dans l'Etat requérant.
Quant à la suspension, l'interruption ou la prolongation du délai de prescription,
toute mesure de recouvrement de créance adoptée par l’autorité requise ou en son
nom en réponse à une demande d’assistance et ayant pour effet de suspendre,
d’interrompre ou de prolonger le délai de prescription selon les règles de droit en
vigueur dans l’État membre requis est réputée produire le même effet dans l’État
membre requérant, pour autant que les règles de droit en vigueur dans l’État membre
requérant prévoient ce même effet 62.
Conformément à l'article 20, al. (1) de la Directive, l'autorité requise s’efforce
de récupérer auprès de la personne concernée et de conserver les frais en liaison avec
le recouvrement qu’elle a exposés, conformément aux dispositions législatives et
réglementaires de l’État membre requis.
En outre, conformément au paragraphe 2, les États membres renoncent
réciproquement à toute demande de remboursement des frais résultant de l’assistance
mutuelle qu’ils se prêtent en application de la présente Directive. Nonobstant le
paragraphe 2 l'Etat membre requérant demeure tenu de l'État membre requis pour
tous les frais et toutes les pertes subies dans le cadre des actions reconnues comme
non justifiée soit en termes de demande de fonds ou la validité du titre délivré par
l'autorité requérante permettant l'exécution et / ou des mesures de précaution.
Toutefois, l’État membre requérant demeure responsable, à l’égard de l’État
membre requis, de tous les frais supportés et de toutes les pertes subies du fait
d’actions reconnues comme non fondées au regard de la réalité de la créance ou de la
validité de l’instrument permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires et/ou
conservatoires établi par l’autorité requérante. La Directive établit des limites en
61
Selon le paragraphe (4) de celui-ci, l’autorité requise peut, si les dispositions
législatives, réglementaires ou administratives en vigueur dans l’État membre requis le
permettent, octroyer au débiteur un délai de paiement ou autoriser un paiement échelonné et
elle peut appliquer un intérêt aux montants considérés. Elle informe ensuite l’autorité
requérante de toute décision dans ce sens.
62
Si la suspension, l’interruption ou la prolongation du délai de prescription n’est pas
possible en vertu des règles de droit en vigueur dans l’État membre requis, toute mesure de
recouvrement adoptée par l’autorité requise ou en son nom conformément à une demande
d’assistance et qui, si elle avait été exécutée par l’autorité requérante ou en son nom dans
l’État membre requérant, aurait eu pour effet de suspendre, d’interrompre ou de prolonger le
délai de prescription selon les règles de droit en vigueur dans l’État membre requérant est
réputée avoir été prise dans ce dernier pour ce qui est de l’effet précité. Les premier et
deuxième alinéas s’appliquent sans pré (l’art. 19 de la Directive).
accorder l'assistance pour le recouvrement des créances, au relèvement de l'art. 18, à
savoir:
 l’autorité requise n’est pas tenue d’accorder l’assistance prévue aux
articles 10 à 16 si, en raison de la situation du débiteur, le recouvrement de la
créance est de nature à susciter de graves difficultés d’ordre économique ou
social dans l’État membre requis, pour autant que les dispositions législatives
et réglementaires et les pratiques administratives en vigueur dans cet État
membre permettent une telle exception dans le cas de créances nationales;
 l’autorité requise n’est pas tenue d’accorder l’assistance prévue à
l’article 5 et aux articles 7 à 16 si la demande d’assistance initiale effectuée
au titre des articles 5, 7, 8, 10 ou 16 concerne des créances pour lesquelles
plus de cinq ans se sont écoulés entre la date d’échéance de la créance dans
l’État membre requérant et la date de ladite demande initiale;
 Un État membre n’est pas tenu de fournir une assistance si le
montant total des créances régies par la présente Directive pour lesquelles
l’assistance est demandée est inférieur à 1.500 EUR” 63.
En ce qui concerne la langue, la Directive européenne 2010/24/UE du Conseil
apporte aussi des éclaircissements. Ainsi, toute demande d’assistance, tout
formulaire type de notification et tout instrument uniformisé permettant l’adoption de
mesures exécutoires dans l’État membre requis est envoyé dans la langue officielle,
ou une des langues officielles, de l’État membre requis ou accompagné d’une
traduction dans une de ces langues 64.
À cet égard, on garde l'ancienne disposition de la Directive 76/308/CEE du
Conseil. Ainsi, la Directive 2010/24/UE du Conseil ne porte pas préjudice à
l’exécution de toute obligation de fournir une assistance plus large découlant
d’accords ou d’arrangements bilatéraux ou multilatéraux, y compris dans le domaine
de la notification des actes judiciaires ou extrajudiciaires, à condition que, lorsque
ces États membres concluent des accords ou arrangements bilatéraux ou
multilatéraux sur des questions relevant de la présente Directive et lorsque lesdits
accords ou arrangements ne portent pas sur des cas particuliers, ils en informent la
Commission sans délai. La Commission en informe à son tour les autres États
membres
Selon le paragraphe 3 du présent article, lorsqu’ils appliquent une assistance
mutuelle plus étendue en vertu d’un accord ou arrangement bilatéral ou multilatéral,
les États membres peuvent utiliser les réseaux de communication électroniques et les
formulaires types adoptés aux fins de la mise en œuvre de la présente Directive.
63
En cas de refus d'une demande d'assistance, l’autorité requise informe l’autorité
requérante des motifs qui s’opposent à ce que la demande d’assistance soit satisfaite.
64
Bien que certaines parties de ces documents soient rédigées dans une langue autre
que la langue officielle, ou qu’une des langues officielles, de l’État membre requis ne
compromet pas la validité des documents en question ni la validité de la procédure, pour
autant que cette autre langue ait fait l’objet d’un accord entre les États membres concernés (cf.
l’art. 22 paragraphe (1)).
La Directive oblige les États membres à garder le secret de l'information, ce qui
signifie que selon l'art. 23 premier alinéat les informations communiquées sous
quelque forme que ce soit en application de la présente Directive sont couvertes par
le secret officiel et bénéficient de la protection accordée à des informations de même
nature par la loi nationale de l’État membre qui les a reçues 65.
Selon le paragraphe 3 du présent article, l’État membre qui fournit les
informations en autorise l’utilisation à des fins autres que celles visées au paragraphe
1 dans l’État membre qui les reçoit lorsque la législation de l’État membre
fournissant les informations en permettrait l’utilisation à des fins similaires.
Les informations transmises entre les deux pays, le requérant et le requis,
peuvent être utilisé par un pays tiers:
lorsque l’autorité requérante ou requise estime que des informations
obtenues au titre de la présente Directive peuvent présenter un intérêt aux
fins visées au paragraphe 1 pour un
État membre tiers, elle peut transmettre ces informations audit État
membre tiers, pour autant qu’elle respecte à cet effet les règles et procédures
établies dans la présente Directive. Elle informe l’État membre à l’origine
des informations de son intention de partager ces informations avec un
troisième État membre. L’État membre à l’origine des informations peut
s’opposer à ce partage des informations dans un délai de dix jours ouvrables
à compter de la date à laquelle il a été informé par l’État membre souhaitant
partager les informations66.
L'autorisation d'utiliser des informations 67 qui ont été transmises ne peut être
octroyée que par l’État membre d’où proviennent les informations 68.
La Directive distingue deux situations concernant la compétence de la Cour
dans les litiges découlant de l'assistance mutuelle entre les deux états, comme suit:
• les différends concernant la créance, l’instrument initial permettant l’adoption
de mesures exécutoires dans l’État membre requérant ou l’instrument uniformisé
permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires dans l’État membre requis, ainsi que
les différends portant sur la validité d’une notification effectuée par une autorité
compétente de l’État membre requérant, sont du ressort des instances compétentes
dudit État membre69;
65
Les informations peuvent être utilisées pour la mise en œuvre de mesures exécutoires
ou conservatoires en ce qui concerne les créances couvertes par la présente Directive et pour
l’établissement et le recouvrement des cotisations sociales obligatoires.
66
Conformément à l’art. 23 al. (4).
67
Conformément au paragraphe (3) et (4) de l’art. 23.
68
En ce qui concerne la façon d'utiliser les informations communiquées sous quelque
forme que ce soit au titre de la présente Directive, elles peuvent être invoquées ou utilisées
comme preuve par l’ensemble des autorités de l’État membre qui reçoit les informations sur
la même base que les informations similaires obtenues dans ledit État.
69
Si, au cours de la procédure de recouvrement, la créance, l’instrument initial
permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires dans l’État membre requérant ou l’instrument
• les litiges concernant les mesures exécutoires prises dans l’État membre
requis ou la validité d’une notification effectuée par une autorité compétente dudit
État membre sont portés devant l’instance compétente de ce dernier, conformément
au dispositions législatives et réglementaires qui y sont applicables.
Pour faciliter l'assistance, la nouvelle Directive donne aux États membres des
formulaires pour les demandes de renseignements, les demandes de notification, les
demandes de récupération et les demandes de mesures conservatoires, qui doivent
être envoyés par voie électronique, sauf si cela n'est pas techniquement possible.
L’instrument uniformisé permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires dans
l’État membre requis, le document permettant l’adoption de mesures conservatoires
dans l’État membre requérant et les autres documents doivent être transmis par voie
électronique, sauf si cela n'est pas possible pour des raisons techniques.
L’État membre requis procède au recouvrement de la créance dans sa propre
devise70. Les montants qui doivent être versés à l'autorité requérante sont transférés à
l'autorité requérante dans la monnaie de l'État requis et le transfert des recouvrements
doivent avoir lieu dans les deux mois à compter de la date à laquelle la reprise est
faite71.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE:
Costaș, Flavius Costaș, Legislație comunitară europeană, Ed. Hamangiu,
București, 2008;
Directiva 76/308/CEE a Consiliului Uniunii Europene;
Directiva 2010/24/UE a Consiliului Uniunii Europene;
Legea 571/2003 privind Codul fiscal;
Ordonanţa Guvernului nr. 92/2003 – Codul de Procedură Fiscală actualizat și
consolidat la 31 octombrie 2011;
Șaguna, Dan Drosu, Mihaela Tofan, Drept financiar și fiscal european, Ed.
C.H.Beck, București, 2010
uniformisé permettant l’adoption de mesures exécutoires dans l’État membre requis sont
contestés par une partie intéressée, l’autorité requise informe cette partie que l’action doit être
portée devant l’instance compétente de l’État membre requérant, conformément aux règles de
droit en vigueur dans celui-ci.
70
Conformément à l'art. 13 al. (1) le paragraphe 4 de la Directive.
71
Conformément à l'art. 13 al. (5) de la Directive 2010/24/UE.
INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION.
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
University Lecturer PhD. ANDREEA TROANTA R. TURCULEANU
University Lecturer PhD. ALINA TANASESCU
Abstract:
The enforcement of international contracts at the level of the
European Union it is a matter increasingly more dependent on
Community private law rather than national. The study will discuss the
present and future status of private international law in the contractual
area, with a focus on the Rome Convention from 1980 on the law
applicable to contractual obligations and the Brussels 1 Regulation.
Key words: international contracts, private international law,
European private law, jurisprudence.
The modern evolution of the regulatory, technical and practical environment
illustrates that the territoriality principle is being assaulted by the development of
uniformed law, in particular in the European context, with the generalization of the
phenomenon of ubiquity caused by the massive use of digital networks and the
growing privatization/contractualization of systems to ensure protection.
International contract law concerns the legal rules relating to cross-border
agreements. When parties from different countries enter into a contract, they are
governed by international contract law unless they agree to abide by the laws of one
of the countries. It is frequently applied to international sales contracts.
This type of contract law is broadly based on the idea of good faith and fair
dealing in contracts. These principles are the basis of contract law in most
jurisdictions. Good faith includes fair negotiations, an obligation to cooperate and
good faith when terminating a contract. It also ensures that unfair contracts or deals
are not enforced.
International sales contracts are governed by the United Nations Convention on
Contracts for the International Sale of Goods from 1980. The convention was
developed in the hopes of promoting international trade by developing a global set of
rules for contracts. The convention is a compromise between legal systems of
common law, civil law and socialist law.
One key element of international contract law includes the provision that the
parties' nationality does not play any role when applying the law, thereby placing all
parties on an equal playing field. Rules of the contracts are interpreted by what a
reasonable person would consider fair and appropriate given the circumstances.
International contract law is a branch of private international law, which relates to the
cross-border dealings of individuals or companies. This differs from public
international law, which concerns the interaction between governments and other
state agencies.
A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties that
creates a legal obligation between them. The rules related to contracts can vary
substantially between different types of legal systems. In common law jurisdictions,
for example, the participants in a contract are typically allowed a very wide scope
concerning the terms of the agreement and the repercussions of breaking the pact. In
civil law jurisdictions, however, established legal principles are often applied to
individual contracts.
The most basic element of any contract is the mutual agreement between two
parties to participate in an arrangement. Common law jurisdictions typically require
consideration in a contract, meaning that both sides receive something of value as
part of the contract. In civil law countries, however, consideration is not considered a
necessary component.
Historically, merchants developed their own sort of international contract law.
Traders wanting to deal despite differences in language, culture and laws developed
their own code for international dealings. These rules have evolved into the good
faith contract laws of today.
Unlike its public international law counterpart, private international law
traditionally lies on domestic rules of each jurisdiction. Recently, some trends can be
seen both on the regional level and the global level to harmonise private international
law rules. What exactly have these attempts achieve? This editorial article seeks to
explore and outline attempts on both regional and global levels in harmonising
private international law rules. It argues that, like how public international law rules
were formulated, a process of harmonisation of private international law requires a
consensus among global community. To reach such a consensus, extensive
discourses are necessary in order to glean rules which are commonly adopted.
Private International Law (or commonly known in some jurisdictions as
‘conflict of laws’) is a branch of law which is said to have a long historical root. 72
The origin of modern ideas on conflict of laws may be traced back to Italian jurists
after the Dark Ages. ‘The Italian city-states in which Roman law was taught was
independent entities, each having its own judiciary and its own local laws’.73
Hence, when a citizen of a city state came to be in contact with a citizen of the
other city-state, questions of conflict of laws were inevitable. Despite such a long
tradition, private international law has its own unique characteristic. Unlike public
international law where there exists a uniform understanding among international
community, private international law does vary among nations. ‘There is no one
system that can claim universal recognition…’ 74 just one example would sufficient
for the purpose. In common law jurisdictions, a prevailing ‘connecting factor’ 75
72
73
FK Juenger, Choice of Law and Multistate Justice, Transnational Publishers, 2005.
FK Juenger, Choice of Law and Multistate Justice, Transnational Pubslishers, 2005,
p.11
74
J. Fawcett, J. M. Carruthers, Cheshire, North & Fawcett Private International Law,
Oxford University Press, 2008.
75
The term ‘connecting factor’ is explained as ‘…facts which tend to connect a
transaction or occurrence with a particular law or jurisdiction…Connecting factors are taken
which links an individual with a nation has been a ‘domicile’ of such person, in civil
law jurisdictions however the prevailing connecting factor is a ‘nationality’. 76
Such unique characteristics no doubt lead to different methodologies which in
turn cause uncertainty. Suppose Mr. Chan, a Hong Kong labour, was employed via
an agency company in Hong Kong, to work for a Liberian company for a building
project in Singapore.77 There, in Singapore, he drove a car and hit upon Mr. Huang, a
People’s Republic of China (PRC) citizen, causing severe injuries on Mr. Huang.
Soon after the accident, Mr. Chan returned to Hong Kong. Mr. Huang, after a long
repatriation in a hospital in his hometown, decided to come and sue Mr. Chan before
the Court of First Instance in Hong Kong. To determine Mr. Huang’s entitlement to
sue, the judge of the Court of First Instance will inevitably have to resort to a
traditional ‘double actionability’ rule which has been recognised since the case of
Phillips v Eyre78 which in turn was re-affirmed by the House of Lords in Chaplin v
Boys79 and was adopted into Hong Kong by the Court of Appeal in The Adhiguna
Meranti. 80
The essence of the rule is, as propounded by Willes J., for a tort committed
overseas to be actionable ‘…the wrong must be of such a character that it would
have been actionable if committed in [the place of forum]…the act must not have
been justifiable by the law of the place where it was done’. 81 The law of the forum, in
this sense, Hong Kong, is taken to be a governing law while the relevant laws of
Singapore, i.e. the law of the place, has only subordinated role as a checking point to
ensure a civil wrong for such act exists at the place. 82
If, however, one would tweak this factual scenario further. Instead of Mr. Chan
returned to Hong Kong soon after the incident, Mr. Chan travelled to the PRC to set
up his business there opening a chance for Mr. Huang to sue Mr. Chan before the
court in the PRC. The court in the PRC will necessarily resort to relevant statute to
determine the applicable law in this context. 83
The European Community, which formerly known as the European Union, had
passed through series of developments. On 25 March 1957, the ‘Treaty Establishing
the European Economic Community’ (EEC Treaty) was signed effective from 1
into consideration and weighed by courts and arbitrators, in determining the proper law…to
apply to decide the case or dispute’. William Tetley, QC., ‘Glossary of Conflict of Laws’
76
D. McClean, K. Beevers. The Conflict of Laws, Sweet & Maxwell, 2009.
77
Poomintr Sooksripaisarnkit http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/jcls.1000e103
78
Phillips v Eyre (1870) L.R. 6 Q.B. 1.
79
Chaplin v Boys [1971] A.C. 356.
80
The Owners of Cargo lately laden on board the Ship or Vessel “AdhigunaM- eranti”
v The Owners of the Ships or Vessels “AdhigunaHarapan” and Oth- ers[1987] HKLR 904.
81
Phillips v Eyre (1870) L.R. 6 Q.B. 1: 28-29.
82
The Adhiguna Meranti [1987] HKLR 904, 914.
83
Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Laws Applicable to Foreign-Re- lated
Civil Relations (Adopted at the 17th session of the Standing Committee of the 11th National
People’s Congress, 20 October 2010). English translation is translated by Professor LU Song
of China Foreign Affairs.
January 1958.84 On 7 February 1992, the ‘Treaty on European Union’ (EU Treaty)
was signed effective from 1 November 1993.85
It is now established in Article 67(4) of the ‘Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union’, a successor of the EEC Treaty, ‘The Union shall facilitate access
to justice, in particular through the principle of mutual recognition of judicial and
extra judicial decisions in civil matters’. Similarly, in the Article 81(1) and (2) (c) of
the same Treaty:
”1. The Union shall develop judicial cooperation in civil matters having
cross-border implications, based on the principle of mutual recognition of judgments
and of decisions in extrajudicial cases. Such cooperation may include the adoption of
measures for the approximation of the laws and regulations of the Member States.
2. For the purposes of paragraph 1, the European Parliament and the Council,
acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, shall adopt measures,
particularly when necessary for the proper functioning of the internal market aimed
at ensuring: (...)
(c) the compatibility of the rules applicable in the Member States concerning
conflict of laws and of jurisdiction(…).”
With such common spirit, countries within the European Union have now
agreed for the ‘Brussels Regulation’ 86 regulating their conflict of laws problems
among members on jurisdiction and enforcement of judgment matters. They have
also agreed for what came to be informally dubbed the ‘Brussels II Regulation’
relating to jurisdiction and recognition of judgments in matrimonial matters. 87
Within the context of choice of law, there have been the ‘Rome I’ 88 and ‘Rome
89
II’ Regulations regulating among citizens of their Member States applicable law for
84
The European Economic Community (EEC) was renamed the ‘European Community’ by the Treaty on European Union. With the effect of a ‘Treaty of Lisbon’ (signed on
13 December 2007 and came into effect on 1 December 2009), the name of the ‘Treaty
Establishing the European Economic Community) has since been changed to a ‘Treaty on the
Functioning of the European Com- munity’). TC Hartley, The Foundations of European
Union Law, (7thedn) Oxford University Press, 2010, pp. 3-11.
85
TC Hartley, The Foundations of European Union Law, (7thedn) Oxford University
Press, 2010, pp. 3-11.
86
Council Regulation (EC) No. 44/2001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the
recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters. Prior to the
coming into force of the Brussels Regulation, the European Union adopted the ‘Brussels /
Lugano Convention’, which formally known as ‘Conven- tion on Jurisdiction and the
Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters, signed in
Lugano on 30 October 2007’ which in turn replaced the Lugano Convention on Jurisdiction
and the Enforcement of Judg- ments in Civil and Commercial Matters of 16 September 1988
and the Brus- sels Convention of 27 September 1968 on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of
Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters.
87
Council Regulation (EC) No. 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning
jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the
matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No. 1347/2000.
88
Regulation (EC) No. 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17
June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations.
contractual and non-contractual relationships. Under these Regulations, for crossboundary cases involving private citizens of Member States, each Member State does
not need to resort to its own conflict of laws rules, especially among other things
different connecting factors. These Regulations provide presumed rules applicable
among Member States. To maintain such consistency among Member States, the
European Court of Justice also refused recognition of classic doctrines of forum non
conveniens90 and anti-suit injunction91 hence depriving Member States’ courts with
their usual wide discretion to determine jurisdictional questions. In addition to these
Regulations directly relevant to private international law, some legal instruments
may leave one under illusion that the European Union has addressed more specific
issues of private international law. An example of which is the ‘Directive on
Electronic Commerce’.92 However, as North points out, the language of Article 1(4)
of the said Directive is clear.93
According to Article 1(4), ‘this Directive does not establish additional rules on
private international law nor does it deals with the jurisdiction of courts’. Hence, the
Directive made no fruitful addition to private international law. As briefly reviewed
above, whilst there have been some developments on private international law within
the European Union, such developments are limited by geographical scope. Its
application does not have wider impact. Academically, a comparative study of
private international law rules in each jurisdiction to the rules of the European Union
is no doubt inevitable; such study within a narrow context of an ivory tower does not
yield great practical impacts. Such comparative studies and academic discourses have
to be brought to the attention of the wider public, especially policy makers or
legislators whose voices can lead to actions. An interesting question which has to be
asked at this stage is whether various instruments relevant to private international law
as adopted on the European level can serve as ‘models’ for the basis of creating
similar international legal instruments on a wider scale – for example perhaps a
complete ‘private international law’ code for international community?
For more than ten years there has been a debate going on in Europe on the
future of European private law, and especially on the desirability and feasibility of a
European Civil Code. This debate has recently gained special focus when the
European Commission placed the need for a European Code of Contracts on the
political agenda.94 Assuming that at least part of private law could and should be
common in the future, the question arises what structure this future common
89
Regulation (EC) No. 864/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11
July 2007 on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations.
90
Owusu v Jackson Case C-281/02; [2005] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 452.
91
Turner v GrovitCase C-159/02; [2004] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 216; Allianz Spa and Another
v West Tankers Inc. (The “Front Comor”) Case C-185/07; [2009] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 413.
92
Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000
on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce,
in the Internal Market.
93
P. North, Private International Law: Change or Decay,? Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 50:
477-503, 2001.
94
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament,
COM(2001) 398 final (11.07.2001), No. 52.
European private law should have. For most participants in the debate the default
model for such a structure would be a European civil code. 95
A classical code in the sense of the French Code civil of 1804, the German
Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch of 1900 or the Dutch Burgerlijk Wetboek of 1992 would be
the most appropriate form for European private law?
The two main characteristics of a classical civil code are its (presumably)
comprehensive and coherent character.96 Comprehensive in the sense that, as a result
of abstraction, it deals in principle with all matters of private law (as opposed to
public law), not in the sense of exclusivity: the legislator (or the courts) may come up
with specific rules outside the code (e.g. in separate statutes). The code is presumed
to be coherent in the sense that there is no contradiction between the rules contained
in it, that each rule has one true meaning, and that it provides only one right answer
to each legal question. Other characteristics of a classical code include its systematic
character and its use of abstract rules and concepts.
The assumption that a civil code deals with all matters of private law and is
applicable to all conflicts between private parties is based on another assumption, i.e.
that it is possible (and indeed useful) to distinguish between private law and public
law. Private law is usually defined as the law which governs relationships between
citizens as opposed to public law, which is the law which deals with the relationships
between citizens and the state, or among state institutions.
However, this clear-cut distinction does give rise to some doubt. Not only as a
result of the development of administrative law and, especially, of functional fields
of the law which do not seem to fit in very well with this distinction; there is also a
more fundamental critique.
Private law is usually defined as the law which governs relationships between
citizens as opposed to public law, which is the law that deals with the relationships
between citizens and the state, or among state institutions. This definition is quite
descriptive. However, there is another recurrent definition of private law which is
much more political. In this definition private law is the law relating to the private
area which is free from State intervention. In the latter view the only function of
private law is allocation: suum cuique tribuere. In that view private law has an
internal logic of its own which is politically neutral and is only concerned with
giving every person what she or he is entitled to. 97
Especially, private law in that view has neither distribution, nor any other
paternalistic function: rather it is held that private law should not be utilized for
political aims. In that view the main pillars of private law are absolute property,
freedom of contract and fault liability.
But property is protected, promises – agreements - are binding and people are
liable for their torts only when and to the extent that the law says so (Constitutional
law and private law). In that sense all law, including private law, is indeed public
95
See e.g. Arthur Hartkamp, Martijn Hesselink, Ewoud Hondius, Carla Joustra, Edgar
Du Perron, Towards a European civil code, 2nd ed., Nijmegen and The Hague/London/Boston 1998.
96
Martijn W. Hesselink, The New European Legal Culture, Deventer, 2001, p. 11.
97
Daniela Caruso, The Missing View of the Cathedral: The Private Law Paradigm of
European Legal Integration, European Law Journal, 1997, pp. 3-32.
law: there is no area of the law which is free from paternalistic, distribution and other
functional and instrumental intervention by the State. In practice it has become
obvious in the course of the 20th century that large parts of private law are subject to
State intervention, which is driven by political concerns many of which are
distribution. 98
Moreover, the whole acquis communautaire is instrumental, also in the case of
private law. These developments raise the question whether it still makes sense to
uphold a sharp distinction between private and public law. Moreover, within the
English legal system there has never been a strong tradition of distinguishing private
law and public law, although some scholars - who incidentally share an interest in
Civil Law - have made use of this terminology. 99
Therefore, it may be better use a functional approach which the European
legislator has adopted and to address functional fields of the law rather than to
embrace the idea of including all private law within a civil code, and thus reviving a
distinction which does not seem desirable neither from a political nor from a practical
perspective. Instead, it may be advisable to enact one or more functional European
codes, for example in the area of distribution law, company law, or labour law.
Another instance of the fragmentation of private law is not new at all. Indeed, it
has been present from the first codifications: the division of private law according to
the status of the persons involved. In many European countries different (or
additional) rules apply depending on whether the parties are ordinary citizens or
merchants. In addition, more recently a new category has developed: the consumer.
In the first wave of codifications most continental European legal systems adopted
both a civil code and a commercial code. However, since the first half of the 20th
century the significance of this distinction has gradually decreased. And some
countries, notably Italy (1942) and the Netherlands (1992), officially abolished the
distinction on the occasion of the implementation of their new civil codes. 100
There are some strong arguments against schizophrenic European private law,
as Ugo Mattei has called it. 101 First, the distinction between consumer contracts and
commercial contracts is very problematic. Compare Mattei102 ”Since there is no such
thing as a separate market for consumers (demand) and a separate market for
producers (supply), contract law has to face the problem of how to merge supply and
demand into a single market. The creation of two different bodies of law at odds with
each other would ignore this reality, and, as a result, reduce the chance of building
efficient private law institutions for modern Europe”. Secondly, by (re)introducing
contract law the definition and proof of status (consumer or professional) becomes all
98
Strict liability, workers, tenants and consumer protection in the special part, whereas
objective causation rules, the doctrines of abuse of right and of good faith in the general part
have similar effects
99
Peter Birks (Ed.), English Private Law, Oxford, 2000.
100
In the Netherlands the distinctions between kooplieden and other persons, and
between daden van koophandel and other acts was abolished as early as in 1934
101
Ugo Mattei, Efficiency and Equal Protection In The New European Contract Law:
Mandatory, Default and Enforcement Rules, 39 Va. J. Intl L. 537.
102
Ugo Mattei, Efficiency and Equal Protection In The New European Contract Law:
Mandatory, Default and Enforcement Rules, p. 538.
-important, whereas it seems much more efficient to concentrate on contract rather
than on status.
A third fragmentation trend is what has been referred to as the development of
European law into a multi-level system of governance where several institutions are
responsible for the development of certain aspects of the law but no institution is in
charge of private law in its entirety. 103 Christian Joerges suggested that: ”The much
criticised patchwork character of European private law initiatives reflects the lack of
a hierarchical order, and that Europes legal pluralism will inevitably result in
disintegrative effects within formerly national systems.”. Accordingly, he argues that
legal scholarship should try to imagine and conceptualise a law of Europeanisation
rather than some pan-European system that might be codified or compiled out of
Europe᾽s common legal heritage. Rather than creating new static coherent structures
or rigid institutional arrangements we should find a dynamic solution for the
interplay between EU law and all national legal systems of private law. In the process
we will inevitably have to give up some of our hopes for national normative
coherence.
The use of codes is based on the assumption that it is possible to derive right
answers to questions of law relating to specific cases from the words and the system
of the code. This assumption also underlies the use of statutory rules generally.
However, what is typical of a code is that it is more comprehensive (it deals with a
greater part of the law) and it is usually more systematic: not merely a set of articles,
but a system which itself has a normative meaning. Of course, (normative) integrity
is a highly important characteristic of any legal order, because it is ultimately based
on the fundamental value of equality.
It has taken the legislator of a small European country like the Netherlands
more than 50 years to enact its new civil code, and the work has still not been
completed, so the work in extremely difficult at the European level. The relationship
between private law and public law, and between commercial law, civil law and
consumer law, the developments towards a multi-level system of governance, today᾽s
scepticism with regard to the laws integrity, the appropriate mix of mandatory and
default rules, the ideological pillars of the new European private law, and the power
of abstraction, are merely some of the factors which should be taken into account.
The challenge is to develop better and better alternatives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Peter Birks (Ed.), English Private Law, Oxford, 2000;
Daniela Caruso, The Missing View of the Cathedral: The Private Law
Paradigm of European Legal Integration, European Law Journal, 1997;
Arthur Hartkamp, Martijn Hesselink, Ewoud Hondius, Carla Joustra, Edgar Du
Perron, Towards a European civil code, 2nd ed., Nijmegen and The Hague/London/Boston 1998;
103
Christian Joerges, Interactive Adjudication in the Europeanisation Process? A
Demanding Perspective and a Modest Example, ERPL 2000, p. 1-16.
J. Fawcett, J. M. Carruthers, Cheshire, North & Fawcett Private International
Law, Oxford University Press, 2008;
TC Hartley, The Foundations of European Union Law, (7thedn) Oxford
University Press, 2010;
Martijn W. Hesselink, The New European Legal Culture, Deventer, 2001.
Christian Joerges, Interactive Adjudication in the Europeanisation Process? A
Demanding Perspective and a Modest Example, ERPL 2000;
FK Juenger, Choice of Law and Multistate Justice, Transnational Publishers,
2005;
Ugo Mattei, Efficiency and Equal Protection In The New European Contract
Law: Mandatory, Default and Enforcement Rules, 39 Va. J. Intl L. 537;
D. McClean, K. Beevers. The Conflict of Laws, Sweet & Maxwell, 2009;
P. North, Private International Law: Change or Decay? Int’l & Comp. L.Q.
50: 477-503, 2001;
JURISPRUDENCE
Phillips v Eyre (1870) L.R. 6 Q.B. 1;
Chaplin v Boys [1971] A.C. 356;
The Adhiguna Meranti [1987] HKLR 904, 914;
Turner v GrovitCase C-159/02; [2004] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 216; Allianz Spa and
Another v West Tankers Inc. (The “Front Comor”) Case C-185/07; [2009] 1 Lloyd’s
Rep. 413.Owusu v Jackson Case C-281/02; [2005] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 452;
REGULATIONS
Council Regulation (EC) No. 44/2001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and
the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters;
Council Regulation (EC) No. 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning
jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial
matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No.
1347/2000;
Regulation (EC) No. 864/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 11 July 2007 on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations;
Regulation (EC) No. 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 17 June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations;
Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June
2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic
commerce, in the Internal Market;
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European
Parliament, COM(2001) 398 final (11.07.2001), No. 52.

faculty of law and public administration, craiova, romania

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