Conférences et interventions diverses de Pierre Uri

Pierre Uri
Fonds code
PU-238
Date
1990
Title
Conférences et interventions
diverses de Pierre Uri
THESE DOCUMENTS ARE FURNISHED FOR STUDY PURPOSES ONLY.
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DEMAIN L'AN 2000
Quelle Europe voulons-nous?
ACTES DU COLLOQUE
DE LA FONDATION SINGER-POLIGNAC
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le 12 janvier 1990 par la
Table ronde organisée
Ligue Européenne de
Coopération Economique
Editions de la Fondation Singer-Polignac
l-::b
i
/
....
DEMAIN L'AN 2000: QUELLE EUROPE
VOULONS-NOUS ?
Table ronde organisée le 12 janvier 1990
par la Ligue Européenne
de Coopération Economique
à l'invitation de
à l'initiative de
la Fondation Singer-Polignac
Edouard BONNEFOUS
Président de la Fondation Singer-Polignac
Chancelier de l'Institut de France
Ancien Ministre d'Etat
et de
Jean DEFLASSIEUX
Olivier GISCARD d'ESTAING
président honoraire
vice-président
du CREDIT LYONNAIS
de l'!NSEAD
Présidents de la Section Française de la
LIGUE EUROPÉENNE DE COOPÉRATION ECONOMIQUE
Fondation Singer-Polignac
43, av. Georges Mandel 75 1 1 6 Paris
3
TABLE DES MATIERES
Liste des participants à la Table Ronde
p.
7
Message du président Enrique BARON CRESPO
p. 11
Accueil des participants par Edouard BONNEFOUS
p.
1ère partie: Frontières de l'Europe- Institutions européennes
Présidence : Olivier GISCARD d'ESTAING
13
p. 15
Quelle Europe voulons-nous? par Valéry GISCARD d'ESTAING
p. 17
Synergie franco-allemande par S. Exc. M. Franz PFEFFER
p.
23
La nouvelle donne de l'Europe par Nicole FONTAINE
p.
28
Fédération ou confédération par Anita GARIBALDI
p.
31
2ème partie: l'Europe dans le Monde de demain
Présidence : Daniel CARDON de LICHTBUER
p. 35
L'Europe et le Monde par Georges BERTHOIN
p.
35
Europe : forteresse ou passoire par Michel COLLAS
p.
43
C.E.E., A.E.L.E. et Est européen : par Philipp NOORDWAL
p. 47
La diversité c'est la force par Virginia CURZON PRICE
p. 51
Interventions de :Pierre BORDEAUX-GROUL T- Jacques BOUCHACOURT­
p. 54
Pierre URI
Réponses de :
Georges BERTHOIN
p.
3ème partie: L'Europe économique et sociale
Présidence :Jean DEFLASSIEUX
Réflexions sur l'entreprise et l'Europe de l'an 2
par Lo"il< LE FLOCH PRIGENT
000
L'économique et le social: trouver le juste équilibre
par Zygmund TYSZKIEWICZ
Les cadres et le dialogue social dans l'Europe de l'an 2
par Henry BORDES PAGES
58
p. 61
p. 63
000
p. 67
p.
73
The social charter and its value for Europe par Charles JENKINS
p.
77
L'Europe sociale et la démographie par Jacques TESSIER
p. 80
Interventions de : Kl aus SCHNYDER, Dominique VALLET,
p. 82
Olivier GISCARD d'ESTAING, Jacques BOUCHACOURT,
Adolf DEUCHER, Virginia CURZON PRICE
Réponses du Panel
p. 86
5
4ème partie: Culture et environnement
Présidence
:
p. 93
Pierre de CALAN
L'environnement hier et demain par Edouard BONNEFOUS
p.
L'Europe et les médias par Henri AMOUROUX
p. 96
93
Environnement 2000 par Axel IVEROTH
Les impératifs de l'environnement seront-ils respectés dans l'Europe
de l'an 2000? par Monique CAZEAUX
p.
Les risques encourus par Marcel BOITEUX
p. 104
L'opinion d'un Autrichien par Johannes KURZEL-RUNTSCHEINER
p. 110
98
Conclusion des débats par Pierre de CALAN
p. 113
Conclusion de la Table Ronde par Olivier GISCARD d'ESTAING
p. 118
ANNEXES:
Le Conseil de l'Europe dans la construction de la Grande Europe,
par Catherine LALUMIERE
p. 119
Comment "fusionner" l'Europe? par Pierre GERMA
p. 125
L'Europe, défi des années
p. 126
1990 par J.H.C. MOLENAAR
La Ligue Européenne de Coopération Economique
La Fondation Singer-Polignac
p. 132
p.l34
6
"DEMAIN L'AN 2000:
QUELLE EUROPE VOULONS-NOUS
?"
TABLE RONDE DU 12 JANVIER 1990
Organisée par la Section française de la
LIGUE EUROPEENNE DE COOPERATION ECONOMIQUE
à l'invitation de la Fondation SINGER-POLIGNAC
(L.E.C.E.)
LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS
Bernard AMESPIL, Président d'organisation pro fessionnelle.
Henri AMOUROUX, Président de l'Académie des Sciences Morales et
Politiques.
Jacques ANCELIN, Président d'honneur de l'A.F.T.
Thérèse ANDRÉ , Fondation Singer-Polignac.
Raymond AXELROUD, Trésorier de la section française de la L.E.C.E.
Monique BADENES, Conseiller à la Présidence du Sénat.
Jacqueline de BEAUMONT, Secrétaire générale de la section française
de la L.E.C.E.
Gilberte BEAUX, Administrateur de la Générale Occidentale.
Georges BERTHOIN, Président européen de la Commission Trilatérale.
Françoise BILLON, Chargée de mission - Crédit Agricole International.
Marcel BOITEUX, Président d'honneur d'Electricité de France.
Edouard BONNEFOUS, Chancelier de l'Institut de France, président de la Fondation
Singer-Polignac, président d'honneur de la section française de la L.E.C.E
Pierre BORDEAUX-GROULT, Vice-Président du Mouvement Européen.
Henry BORDES-PAGES, Secrétaire national C.F.E.-C.G.C. - Président de la
Confédération Européenne des Cadres.
Henri BOUCHENOT, Chargé de mission Electricité de France - Mission Europe.
Jacques BOUCHACOURT, Vice-Président de l'Union des anciens députés
gaullistes.
Rainer BODEN, Directeur de la Deutsche Bank à Paris.
Alain BOURNAZEL, Vice-Président du Conseil régional d'Aquitaine.
Jean-Pierre BRICE, Direction financière Arjomari-Prioux.
7
Pierre de CALAN, Membre de l'Institut de France, Président de la Commission
économique intemationale de la L.E.C.E.
Guy de CARMOY, Professeur émérite INSEAD.
Daniel CARDON de LICHTBUER, Administrateur de la banque Bruxelles - Lambert,
ancien Président de l'Association belge des banques, Président intemational de la
L.E.C.E.
Henri CARTAN, Membre de l'Académie des Sciences.
Henri CAYRE, Agriculteur, Président de la Commission agricole de la section
française de la L.E.C.E.
Monique CAZEAUX, Présidente du Centre intemational pour une science de
l'environnement.
André CELLARD, Ancien Président de la Compagnie nationale du Rhône.
François CEYRAC, Membre du Bureau du C.E.S. des Communautés Européennes.
Roger CHIPOT, Président des Conseils et Experts financiers.
Armande COHEN, Secrétaire générale de la section britannique de la L.E.C.E.
Michel COLLAS, Président de la Commission économique et financière de l'UNICE.
Virginia CURZON PRICE, Professeur à l'Institut universitaire d'études
européennes à Genève.
Jean DEFLASSIEUX, Président de la B.D.E.I. - Président de la section française
de la L.E.C.E.
Thierry DEMEURE, Secrétaire général intemational de la L.E.C.E.
Dominique DESCHAMPS, Secrétaire général du Mouvement français paneuropéen.
Adolf H. DEUCHER, Industriel.
Odette DOLLFUSS, Vice-Présidente de Femmes pour l'Europe.
Georges DUPUIS, Chargé de mission au Cabinet du Président du Sénat.
Juan DURAN LORIGA, Ambassadeur d'Espagne en France.
Jacques Michel DURAND, Président de l'Académie européenne des Sciences,
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres.
Nicole FONT AINE, Vice-Présidente du Parlement Européen.
Jean FRANCAIX, Compositeur de musique.
Anita GARIBALDI, Présidente de la Maison de l'Europe à Rome.
Eric GEORGES PICOT, Conseiller de l'Institut de l'Entreprise.
Claude-Laurent GENTY, Secrétaire général de l'Union mondiale des Pro fessions
libérales.
Frédéric GÉRARD, Secrétaire général de la Fondation Singer-Polignac.
Pierre GERMA, Président de la Société du Pipeline sud-européen.
8
Olivier GISCARD d'ESTAING, Président du GICEC - Président de la section
française de la L.E.C.E.
Valéry GISCARD d'ESTAING, Président du Mouvement Européen International.
Philippe GODET, Consultant international.
Laurent GREGOIRE, Président de "La Fédération".
Paul B. GROSSE, Senior vice-president Deutsche Bank Francfort.
Jacques NARBONNE, Conseiller d'Etat honoraire.
Michel HEDREUL TENOUARN, Contrôleur financier.
Patrick HOUGUET, Directeur adjoint du Bureau d'information des Communautés
Européennes.
Daniel HOURI, Directeur général de CRESERFI.
Axel IVEROTH, Président de la section suédoise de la L.E.C.E., président de la
commission de l'environnement de la L.E.C.E.
Charles JENKINS, European Editor Economist European Unit.
Daniel JOUVE, Associé-gérant de Jouve et Associés.
Selah KORUTURK, Conseiller à l'Ambassade de Turquie.
Johannes KURZEL RUNTSCHEINER, Conseil Juridique.
Françoise LAMBIN, Adjointe au secrétaire général de la L.E.C.E. internationale
Janine LANSIER, Présidente de Femmes pour l'Europe.
Loïk LE FLOCH PRIGENT, Président de la Société nationale Elf-Aquitaine.
Michel LOUVET, Membre du Directoire de B.I.G.T.
Antoine MARES, Chargé de mission à l'Institut de France.
J.H.C. MOLENAAR, Secrétaire général du Mouvement Européen
International.
Bernard MULTIGNER, Conseiller du Commerce extérieur.
Philipp NOORDWAL, Président du groupe des Employeurs du Comité Economique
et Social européen.
Jacques PE, Secrétaire confédéral C.G.T.-F.O. chargé des questions européennes.
Franz PFEFFER, Ambassadeur d'Allemagne fédérale en France.
Paavo PIRTTIMAKI, Directeur conseil des Organisations économiques de Finlande.
Prince Guy de POLIGNAC, Bailli - Président de l'Association française de l'O.S. de
Malte.
Prince Louis de POLIGNAC, Vice-Président de la Fondation Singer-Polignac.
Prince Edmond de POLIGNAC.
Geneviève RENAULT, U.I.M.M., Service des affaires internationales.
Raymond ROCHEROLLES, Ingénieur.
9
Marie-Paule ROlLAND, U.I.M.M., Service des Affaires internationales.
L. de SAINTE LORETTE, Correspondant de l'Institut - Vice-Président délégué
de la section française de la L.E.C.E.
Klaus SCHNYDER, Directeur adjoint Nestlé S.A.
Alain TERRENOIRE, Directeur des relations internationales Elf-Aquitaine.
Jacques TESSIER, Président honoraire de la C.F.T.C.
Jacqueline THOME PATENOTRE, Membre honoraire du Parlement Européen.
Serge TOLSTOI, Président des Amis de Léon Tolstoï.
Dominique TULASNE, Directeur à la Chambre syndicale des Banques Populaires.
Zygmund TYSZKIEWICZ, Secrétaire général UNICE.
Pierre URI, Prix Robert Schuman.
François VALÉRY, Ambassadeur.
Dominique VALLET, Directeur du département des études au Crédit National.
François de WISSOCQ, Directeur à la présidence - Direction générale du groupe
Elf-Aquitaine.
10
SECTION
FRANÇAISE DE
LA LIGUE EUROPÉENNE
DE COOPÉRATION ÉCONOMIQUE
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disait, avec humour Mme Curzon Priee. Dans la diversité des peuples souverams e(,
conformément à la volonté de chacun d'eux, dans leur complémentarité qui est le
meilleur facteur de l'union. Dans la solidarité des Nations en écartant enfin les
préjugés supranationaux des années 50 qui nous ont fait perdre tant d'occasions, tant
de ressources et de temps! Essayons d'être réalistes. Et puisque nous en sommes à
débattre de l'Europe dans le monde économique de demain, prenons modèle sur le
Japon, ce petit pays dont la superficie représente les deux tiers de la superficie de la
France et qui n'a pas estimé utile de se fondre dans un marché plus large pour devenir
la première puissance économique du monde.
Ill
Pierre URl
Prix Robert SCHUMAN
J'essaierai, suivant mon habitude, de proposer quelques réponses concrètes à des
problèmes qui ont été si bien posés ce matin.
Par exemple, nous avons entendu Mme Garibaldi se plaindre que nous n'avan­
cions pas suffisamment vite vers l'union politique. Là-dessus, le grand problème qui
56
se pose, c'est de savoir comment on y va graduellement. Parce que cela semble
signifier que du jour au lendemain, le pouvoir passe des Etats à l'Union. Comment
peut-on y arriver par étapes? Et nous avons fait, dans le groupe qui a été créé par Pierre
Bordeaux-Groult, quelques propositions très simples sur ce sujet, dont une seule a
besoin de ratification. Cela passe par un accroissement des pouvoirs du Parlement
Européen pour mettre un terme à ce que l'on appelle le déficit démocratique. Par
exemple qu'il puisse faire objection à la nomination, dans la Commission, de gens qui
ont été trop dépendants de leur Gouvernement, ou déplorer que d'autres soient écartés
parce qu'ils avaient été trop Européens, vous voyez à quoi je fais allusion.
Deuxièmement, et là-dessus je voudrais amender l'acte unique, si le Parlement
approuve une proposition de la Commission, qu'elle puisse être adoptée à la majorité
qualifiée, même là où le Traité prévoit l'unanimité. Et que si des propositions restent
en panne pendant trop longtemps devant le Conseil, la Commission puisse saisir
directement le Parlement, même dans les cas où sa consultation n'était pas prévue par
le Traité. En d'autres termes, nous aurions un système, en combinant ces règles, où
la procédure démocratique ferait avancer les décisions beaucoup plus vite, au lieu de
les retarder.
Mme Nicole Fontaine a signalé que les difficultés auxquelles elle se heurtait,
étaient en particulier dans le domaine de la fiscalité. Or, les pays qui préparent une
réforme fiscale, constituent des groupes d'études complexes dans lesquels il y a des
économistes, des hommes d'affaires, des syndicalistes, des politiques, et des fonc­
tionnaires. Par contre sur le plan européen, ce sont seulement des bureaucrates de
Bruxelles qui parlent avec des bureaucrates dans les différents pays. Je crois qu'il
faudrait changer de méthode si nous voulons aboutir à quelque chose.
Je soulignerai au passage qu'il y a quelques années, un projet avait été fait pour
l'Europe, et qui avait l'avantage d'être fait par des hommes de tous bords, c'est-à-dire
le chef du libéralisme en Allemagne, le directeur général de la Banque des Règle­
ments internationaux, le président chrétien démocrate de l'I.R.I., le conseiller
économique d'un gouvernement conservateur et moi-même. Et nous avions été
unanimes pour proposer un système que nous considérions comme rationnel.
Bruxelles pourrait encore peut-être regarder ce qu'il y a à prendre dans ce cocktail
d'idées.
En ce qui concerne 1'intervention de Michel Collas, je voudrais rappeler que dès
le rapport Spaak, nous avions dit:" Avec l'Europe, si nos pays sont capables de se
concurrencer entre eux, et il y a toujours dans l'un d'eux une entreprise d'excellence,
nous n'avons pas besoin d'être protectionnistes. " Mais notre force, cela doit être
d'amener les autres à ne pas l'être non plus. C'est exactement cette capacité de
négoèiation qui ne me paraît pas actuellement être mise suffisamment en œuvre.
Michel Collas a cité des exemples où vraiment la réciprocité est dérisoire, où nous
ouvrons nos portes alors que nous devrions au contraire amener les autres à ce même
libéralisme dans lequel nous pouvons trouver des facilités d'amélioration de notre
bien-être.
Juste un mot pour dire que sur l'unification allemande, j'ai été très heureux
d'entendre l'Ambassadeur qui souhaitait que ce soit une affaire menée conjointement
par la France et par l'Allemagne. Je crois qu'en effet tous les pays d'Europe seront
57
heureux qu'on n'ait pas le sentiment que l'Allemagne seule mènerait une" ostpolitik ",
et si c'est une politique conjointe de la France et de l'Allemagne, je crois que ce sera
avec J'accord de tous les autres pays européens.
Enfin je voudrais dire à mon ami Georges Berthoin comme nous avons pu
apprécier sa vue géopolitique; ne nous y trompons pas, ayons la fierté de le dire, c'est
le modèle européen où le souci de prospérer n'écarte pas celui de la protection
sociale, qui a entraîné l'extraordinaire bouleversement dont l'Est nous donne le
spectacle.
Réponses de Georges BERTHOIN
Je vais répondre très brièvement sur " le cœur qui bat à l'unisson des cœurs
allemands ". Dans sa profondeur, le peuple français, ou le peuple britannique (les
peuples comptent aujourd'hui, et non pas ceux qui font des clapotis parisiens) accepte
l'unification allemande, et ce avec respect. L'émotion de la jeune génération a été aux
côtés des Allemands qui ont franchi la Porte de Brandebourg. Permettez-moi de
donner un exemple personnel : un de mes fils est parti avec son argent de poche,
accompagné d'amis de plusieurs pays, jusqu'à Berlin. Chacun a offert à ses parents
pour Noël un morceau de Mur de Berlin. Le mien l'a placé sur un drapeau européen.
Voilà l'instinct de la jeunesse. L'Europe entière (et le reste du Monde) a vibré pour ce
qui s'est passé à Berlin.
Monsieur l'Ambassadeur, si nous nous souvenons de l'état psychologique dans
lequel nous étions tous il y a 45 ans, vous vous rendez compte du chemin parcouru!
Berlin avait alors un autre sens. Aujourd'hui il a celui de la Liberté, de la Fraternité
et de l'avenir. J'ai organisé une réunion de la Commission Européenne Trilatérale à
Londres, j'ai demandé à l'ancien maire de Berlin de nous parler. A la fin, la salle,
debout, l'applaudissait. Les gens qui vont dans ces réunions ne sont pas des
sentimentaux, pourtant le cœur de chacun a vibré aux côtés de l'Allemagne.
Il y a un pays où on est très impressionné par ces faits, c'est le Japon. Le cœur
des non-Japonais ne vibre pas beaucoup avec les Japonais. Ils sont très frappés de voir
que le cœur de beaucoup de ses voisins, anciennes victimes de l'Allemagne, vibre
avec elle à un des grands moments de son histoire. C'est le miracle de notre unité
européenne. Je voulais vous le dire et ajouter ce commentaire à ce qu'a dit Pierre
Bordeaux-Groult.
58
J:/1-P Jd>
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Room 2 0 6 4
D irect Line : 9 2 7 550 7
BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION
BROADCASTING HOUSE
LONDON WlA lAA
TELEPHONE: 07-5804468
lOth May 1 9 9 0
TELEX.-265781
CA8LES: 8ROADCASTS, LONDON
M . Pierre Uri ,
1, ave du Prés ident Wil son ,
Par i s 8.
Dear M . Uri ,
Richard Mayne and I are very grateful to you for taking
in last Thursday ' s edition o f "ANALYS I S " .
part
With your help ,
I think we were able to add s omething to the
pub l ic d i scus s i on o f an extremely interesting question .
I ' m sarry I did not have the opportun ity o f meet ing
thi s occa s i on .
you
I enclose a transcript o f the programme for your records .
s incerely ,
Fraser Steel ,
Senior Producer , "ANALYSIS " ,
News and Current Affairs , Radi o .
Enc .
on
BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION
NEWS AND CURRENT AFFAIRS DEPARTMENT
RADIO 4
J)o
11ANALYSIS11
�-.
JEU SANS FRONTIERES
Transcript o f a reco�ded documentary
Presented by :
Producer :
Richard Mayne
Fraser Steel
BBC Broadcasting House
Room 2 0 6 4
London WlA lAA
Direct Line : 0 1 9 2 7 550 7
Tx . Date :
3rd May, 19 9 0
Rpt . Date :
4th May, 19 9 0
Tape No . :
TLN0 18/9 0VT1018
Durat ion :
4 4 . 13
CHECKED AS BROADCAST
)Li
TAKING PART (IN ORDER OF APPEARANCE)
El i sabeth Gu igou
Advis e r to Pres ident Mitterrand on European Affa irs
Al a in Lamas s oure, MEP
French Oppos ition Spokesman for East European Affa irs
Pro fes se r Al fred G rosser
Inst itute des S c i ences Pol itiques, Paris
Pro fes se r Thierry de Montbrial
D irector, I FRI, Paris
Peter Ludl ow
Director, Centre for European Pol i cy Studies, Brussel s
Jean-Pierre Cot, MEP
Cha i rman, S oci al ist Group, European Parl iament
Pierre Uri
Former member of sta f f o f Jean Monnet
Pierre Lell ouche
Dipl omatie Adv i sor to Jacques Ch irac,
the Gaull ist Party
Cha irman
of
MAYNE
That great rebel, poet and visionary
Victor Hugo once prophesied that "in the twentieth century
there w i l l be an extraordinary nation, il lustrious,
rich,
thought ful,
peaceab l e,
friendly towards the rest o f the
worl d .
This nation will have Paris as its capital,
but it
w il l not be ca l l ed France : it w i l l be cal led Europe . "
" Oh rea lly?" might be the comment from other capita l s .
But
a s the twent ieth century draws to a cl ose, it does l ook as i f
Europe might b e head ing for something like Victor Hugo's
I t was a
Franco-centric v i s ion .
Or it did, until recently .
Frenchman,
my old boss and friend Jean Mohnet,
who invented
the European Community .
Another Frenchman,
Robert Schuman,
General de Gau l l e saw it more
formal ly proposed it .
nat i onalist ical ly than Monnet and Schuman : he talked in terms
o f a " Europe o f the States " .
But even the Genera l defended
the European Commun ity aga inst what he saw as Angl o-American
threats to it ;
and he stopped Britain joining it in 19 6 3.
Not til l ten years l ater, under Prime Minister Edward Heath,
were we all owed in - and that was thanks to yet another
Frenchman,
Pres ident Pomp idou .
And now,
of course,
in
Brus sel s,
the Pres ident o f th� European Commis s ion,
the
Commun ity's pol icy-making think-tank,
is - you've guessed it
France, in other words,
has
a Frenchman, Jacques Del ors .
l e ft its hallmark on the Community - even to the po int that
its commonest working l anguage is French .
But all this t ime, o f course, France has had her eye over her
l o oking across the Rhine to the growing power o f
shoulder,
Germany .
When Pres ident Pomp idou encouraged Britain to j o in
the European Commun ity,
many people thought he was looking
for a British counterwe ight to bal ance German in fluence .
And
even Jean Monnet ' s father was wary of Germany .
I t was quite
with three Franco-German wars in two generat ions .
natural,
For Jean Monnet h imsel f, Franco-German reconc iliat ion was the
European Commun ity's foundat ion stone - as,
at the heart o f
French pol icy-making, i t still i s .
As you know the Community was built on
GIGOU
the reconc il iation of France and Germany mainly and that
rema ins very important ;
and there can be no alternat ive to
that .
An agreement between France and Germany is not
su f fi c i ent to s o someth ing in the Community,
but it i s
neces s ary .
1
Madame El isabeth Guigou,
MAYNE
advi ser
on
European
a f fa i rs
to the
French
Pre s ident,
Francoi s
Mitterrand,
and a power behind the throne in the pa l e beige
corridors of the Elysee Palace . Mitterrand,
to my mind,
is
the on e European statesman in o f f ice with a c l ear v i s ion o f
Europe ' s future .
He ' s been a fount o f ideas and initiatives :
suggesting the n ine-nat ion Western European Union as a forum
for de fence co-operat ion ; propos ing a devel opment bank to
help Eastern Europe ;
making gestures to Poland ;
drawing
c l oser to America than almost any French Pres ident since
before General de Gaul l e ;
and - with his. German colleague
Chancel l or Helmut Kohl
putting the �idea o f European
pol itical union on the agenda of l ast weekend ' s Dubl in
" summit " .
In this,
as w ith Pres ident Pompidou ' s overtures to Brita in,
some people thought that Mitterrand was react ing to Germany ' s
growing strength .
W ith the prospect o f 7 7 m i l l ion Germans in
the new, un i f ied Germany, he was anxious, perhaps,
to corral
the German Government, l ike a large spirited mustang, within
the r ing fence
of the European Commun ity .
And if the
Community can be g iven a further political dimension, so much
the b etter .
I n France, thi s is a widely shared feel ing .
It
extends from Franco is Mitterrand ' s Social ist Party to the
Right-wing or " Liberal " Giscardians,
one of whose MPs,
and
MEPs, is Al ain Lamass oure .
LAMASSOURE
France is al ready overshadowed by the
In European
Monetary
economie power o f the German� .
thes e drawbacks of a very powerful Germany wil l
Commun ity,
For instance, i f we use the same currency, it will
decrease .
be much s imple r for us French, which have the permanent trade
de f icit towards Germany, to pay that de f icit .
Vis-a-vis the
econom ie competition towards Eastern As ia,
the mil itary
compet ition towards the Sov iet Union or even the mil itary
ri sks in the Med iterranean area, we need a strong Germany .
With in the European Commun ity we don ' t fear Germany . We are
proud of its ach i evements and we can use them for our common
bene f it .
Although
it ' s true,
and
absolutely
MAYNE
fundamental,
that France needs a strong Germany as a partner
in the Community, th is is something that France, l ike others,
has to keep reminding hersel f of,
and be ing reconc iled to .
Al fred Grosser i s in a good pos ition to help that process o f
not only a Pro fesser at the Ecole de Sciences
acceptance :
Po l it i ques,
S c i ences-Po,
but- al so a Frenchman of German
orig in, as you may gue ss from his polyglot ' s accent .
2
During the 5 0 s,
a German paper s a id that
GROSSER
the French woul d l ike to see a German army far bigger than
the Soviet one and smaller than the French one .
We have the
same s ituat ion today w ith economies . The French would l ike to
have a Germany economy smaller than the French one,
but
b igger than the Japanese .
And every time a French paper
speaks about Europe fac ing Japan,
or Europe facing the
Americans, o f course Germany i s a core o f thi s Europe .
When
it i s France fac ing Germany, peopl e f irst forget the l es son
to have a healthy French
taught by Robert Schuman in 1 9 50:
economy, you need a healthy German economy;
Indeed :
but psychologically something's
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chang ing in France .
I t's part�y the passage of time s1nce
the Na z i period,
partly the changes in East Germany and
Eastern Europe .
The upshot, as Al fred Grosser says,
is the
l o s s o f French s el f-conf idence v i s a vi s Germany .
There is really a new weakness today .
In
GROSSER
the l a st twenty o r thirty years there has al ready been a kind
of economie superiority of the Bundesrepubl ic facing France,
and the p ol it ical compensat ions were three .
First, Hitler in
We didn't have Hitl er in the pa st,
you had Hitler
the past .
and the past ;
and 4 5 years later it i s less and l e s s
e f f ic ient .
Secondly it was, w e are one o f the B i g Four,
we
That will disappear as soon
are your hierarch ical superiors .
And the third
as the German probl em is solved with unity .
we have atomic weapons and you have not .
Thi s i s
one is,
a Europe
still true,
but now cames a Europe o f disarmament,
where France w ill be asked to be far more ins ide than at the
and th is superiority is decl in ing too .
So the three
fr inge,
p il l ars o f French equil ibrium with Germany are crumbl ing .
One react ion,
in France as in Brita in,
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has been to take re fuge in the past .
Think of all those old
But as
war f ilms on both country's tel evis ion screens .
Alfred Grosser points out,
the real danger now is not German
national ism : it ' s someth ing el se .
It
is a kind o f sel fishness:
"We are
GROSSER
concerned only with our probl em o f uni f ication,
with all the
troubl e s that it will bring,
and we are not concerned with
things happening outs ide our sphere " .
That is, for me today,
is the German danger .
Do es the Mitterrand/Kohl decl aration draw
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some o f the sting'of that fear?
A b it yes, but anyhow the Germans will be
GROSSER
qu ite busy with the German probl em, because they are soc ially
economically, so tremendous that one can understand that .
3
I f there is,
then, a shift in Europe ' s
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centre o f gravity - away from the cosy Franco-German entente
and Eastwards towards the Elbe - can France compensate for
that by l ooking e l s ewhere? Westward,
towards Great Britain ;
or,
failing that,
southwards towards the other Latin
countries? Counterbalancing Germany, a fter a l l was President
Pompidou ' s instinct, when he turned towards Britain,
as sorne
Thierry de Montbrial,
Frenchmen would like to do today .
the
former dipl omat who now runs I FRI,
the French I nstitute for
Internationa l Rel ations,
knows all about such traditional
bal ance-o f-power pl oys .
I persona l ly believe that the concept o f
DE MONTBRIAL
bal ance o f power is not a n obs o l ete one .
This holds true vis
a vis the Soviet Union but it a l s o holds true for the future
of Western Europe itse l f and this is not new .
For instance,
when the UK was a candidate,
why did the Benelux countries
and the Federal Repub lic o f Germany itsel f at the time want
That was precisely for a bal ance o f
to have the UK join?
power argument because a t the time France was considered too
strong .
Today Germany is probahly going to be a litt l e too
strong, and that has nothing to do with any kind of hostility
it's not the problem,
but we need sorne
vis a vis Germany,
kind o f bal ancing within Western Europe itsel f,
and this
could be achieved through strengthening the rel ationship
I think many people
between France and the UK, for instance .
are thinking in those terms and it seems to me that it makes
And I repeat this is by no means a hostile
a l ot o f sense.
position vis a vis Germany .
In Paris,
then, one might almost suggest
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Or he would i f Britain
that President Pompidou rides again .
could be persuaded to ride with him .
But how would a
Franco-British entente l ook in Brussels, where the Commis sion
and the Council do most o f their Community work?
Peter
Ludl ow,
Director of the Centre for European Policy Studies,
is as it were a European counterpart of Thierry de Montbrial .
I happen to think that a l l this is rather
DE MONTBRIAL
irrel evant,
not simply in terms of ideas but actual ly in
terms o f institutions,
because the Community is now a rouch
maturer institution than it was even ten years ago,
and
even
France
and
within the post-sing le European Act Europe,
d
Germany working in tandem cannet ominate . So that, you know,
finding a l lies is probably comforting to your mora l e but one
of the most important l essons of the functioning o f the
Community in .the'last three to four years is that there are
no fixed coalitions .
The majorities move according to the
It
issues and according to the way in which interests fal l .
would seem to me there fore the l ogical answer to those who
are real ly preoccupied is that your best hope lies in
strengthening the institutions and not in seeking occasional
relationships o f a semi illicit kind with partners across the
Channe l .
4
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Wel l, perhaps it ' s natural for a Brussels
Cornmunity-watcher
to be puritanical about
extramarital
fore ign a f faires .
The Cornmunity inst itut ions are a fter a l l
the matr imon ial home .
Wh ich doesn ' t prevent sorne people
feel ing
that
they ' re dowdy,
stu ffy
and
oppre ssive .
Espe c i a l ly the Brit i sh .
In France, Jacques Delor ' s Brussels
bureaucrats are l es s unpopul ar:
partly no doubt because so
many of the best of them are French .
But even the i r defenders in France admit that there are two
l ack o f e f f iciency and l ack o f democracy .
prob l ems:
On the
f irst s core,
w ith propo s a l s from the Commiss ion,
study by
nat ional o f f ic i a l s,
and then l ong wrangles among
the
Mini sters in the Counc il,
many dec is ions take far too l ong .
More majority vot ing in the Counci l may eut some delays .
But
that increases the l ack o f democracy .
I f a Minister can be
outvoted in Brussel s,
how can his nat ional Parl iament call
him to account?
And wh ile the European Parl iament can sack
the Comm i s s ion , the Commi ss ion i s not the body that takes the
dec i s i ons : that ' s the Counc i l .
The Belgians have put forward various
So what ' s to be done?
sugges t i ons :
s o,
l ess o f f ic i al ly, have the French .
Apart
from more majority vot ing,
the ideas be ing batted about
include a l onger pres idency for the Counc il:
at the moment
each country in turn takes the cha ir for s ix months ;
the
o f the Commiss i on Pres ident by the
European
election
Parl i ament ;
and a b igger say for. the European Parl iament in
the Community l eg i sl at ive process .
Jean-Pierre Cot, a former
French Mini ster,
i s now a member o f the European Parl iament ;
and it ' s from that angl e that he looks at these various
ideas .
Most o f them he l ikes, but . . .
On the other hand I ' m a b it worried by
COT
the renationa l i sation wh ich is implicit in some of the
propo s a l s wh ich are on the tab l e .
For instance,
by the
ins i stence on the rein forc ing o f the Council o f Ministers to
the detriment o f the Commi ss ion, of Jacques Delors and the
Comm i s s i on,
and o f giving the Council o f Ministers the
pol itical rol e and reducing the Commiss ion to a purely
I th ink that
admini strative and techn ical body .
Simil arly,
the propo s a l s wh ich are being fl oated, perhaps more in France
than in other countries,
of a . .
sort of a senate of the
European Cornmunity wh ich would be a second chamber a l ongs ide
the European Parl iament and wh ich be . . would be composed of
del egates o f the . . our national parliaments, would al so be a
measure o f renat ional i sat ion in fact because it would mean
that the representat ion o f European electors which is the
European Parl iament would be checked by a national v iew in
the second chamber .
So I ' m a b it worried by these proposals,
·
which l ook interest ing at f i rst s ight in terms o f hav ing a
more s ophist icated po l iti c al structure, but whi ch in fact
So I think we have to watch out
amount to renat ional isation .
about that .
5
MAYNE
It may not be total ly coincidental that
the s econd chamber idea about which our Socia l i st MEP Jean
Pierre Cot has h i s doubts is a proposal made from the
oppos ite s ide o f French pol it ics by the former French
Pre s ident Valery G i scard d'Estaing, whose party i s Liberal
and Centre Right .
Here,
as in ether instances,
French
domestic p o l itical battl e s s eem to be being fought out on the
European stage .
But there are a l so rea l d i f f erences o f
Alain Lamassoure, the G iscardian MEP,
fundamental v i ewpo int .
unl ike s orne Socia l i sts, is wide awake to national concerns .
The most important t h ing for us is to
LAMASSOURE
spec i fy the l evel o f competences between the European l evel
and the state l evel .
Today Pres ident Giscard is in charge o f
th i s exerc i s e on beha l f o f the European Parliament and i s
trying to spec i fy which competences must be vested in the
European union .
Smal l number o f competences as a matter o f
fact :
fore ign pol icy,
defence,
management o f the great
economie market and the great i ssues of env ironment,
and
that's a l l .
And a l l the rest can rema in within the
competences o f our states .
Th is,
o f course,
is the heart o f the
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matter :
how much loss o f nat ional independence
would
" po l i t ical union"
involve?
Would the Monarchy really be in
danger, a s Mrs . Thatcher seems to think? What are Pres ident
Mitterrand ' s and Helmut Kohl's ideas of "pol itical union "?
When I d i scussed th is with Mitterrand's adviser i n the
Elysee,
E l i s abeth Gu igou,
she was beth reassuring and
re freshingly undogmat ic .
We are in a process where we
have
GUIGOU
preparatory work
for an i ntergovernmental conference on
pol it ica l union that should take place para l l e l with the
intergovernmenta l con ference on .economie and monetary union
and I hope rea l l y that the Government of the United Kingdom,
f o l l owing its very pragmatic approach, wi l l participate to
preparatory work, and then it w i l l certainly be in a pos ition
to
inf luence even the def init ion o f that political union .
Everything i s open .
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framework?
Would defence be included in that general
GUIGOU
The
common
message
of
Pres ident
Mitterrand and Chancel l or Kohl said we would have to def ine
the common princ iples o f foreign pol icy and security .
We
think that at f i rst we have to work between the Twelve on
fore ign pol icy and to talk about our security ;
and then we
w i l l see a fterwards how we deal with prob lems o f defence .
6
Note the characteristic Latin concern to
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d e f ine princip l e s f irst be fore getting on to the hardware or
- though there may be an e l ement o f d ipl omacy
" n itty gritty "
or even embarra ssment in not wanting to talk about defence
just yet .
That's something we'll come back to .
But some people in Brita in may a lready be protesting .
I've
pol itica l union,
heard comp l a ints here that a l l th is
security,
defence - is n't what they voted for in the 19 7 5
r e ferendum that conf irmed British membership o f what people
then cal l ed " the Common Market " .
They say they thought they
were buy ing only economie co-operat ion ana free trade .
If
so,
they obv i ously hadn't heard what some o f the p ioneers o f
European un ity had b een saying s ince the beg inning ; people
l ike my f o rmer coll eague on Jean Monnet's sma l l staf f, P ierre
Uri, the real grey eminence beh ind the Common Market Treaty .
URI
I must insist that European des ign wa s
pol itical from the very first day . And the institut ions were
so arranged that they could real l.y be a kind o f structure for
a more p o l i t ical type o f European union .
Y ou can eas ily
conce ive the progre s s ive steps to an economie union .
The
real d i f f iculty i s that when you talk about a pol itical union
means de fence and diplomacy,
and it's very hard to see
it
how you would divide it between what the states do,
what the
union does, it seems it should overnight be trans fer o f power
from the states to the union .
MAYNE
However,
Wh ich o f course it won't .
Pi erre
Uri d id rem ind me that the
original
Schuman
Decl arat ion ,
wh ich l aunched the Community process,
spoke of
" the federation wh ich is ind i spensable to the maintenance o f
peac e "
whi l e the Common Market Treaty cal l s for " ever
c l oser union " .
And o f course the debate about "what the
is precisely the one that
states do and what the union doe s "
Mrs . Thatcher was addre ss ing in Dub l in - though in what seems
Yes,
to me an excess ively timid and minima l i st way .
is a h ighly amb iguous phrase .
But I'd be
"pol it ica l union"
very surpri sed i f anyone in France or in Europe saw it as
meaning a un itary European State .
A federat ion o f states,
but noth ing l ike as central ised as even the USA .
perhaps,
The who l e idea o f a federat ion, .surely,
i s to do at every
l eve l o f government only those things that can't be done
properly closer to the grass roots .
Yet in Brita in, for sorne
reason,
nearly everyone th inks o f a European federation as a
European unitary state .
7
One reason why the French are treating a l l this as a matter
o f urgency lies far b eyond the present Community ' s existing
prob l ems,
and the changes that wil l result from a united
Germany .
That reason is the revolution in Eastern Europe
felt,
I suspect,
a litt l e more deeply in Paris than in
London .
Cultur a l l y,
there ' s l ong been bath a Paris-Warsaw
you might cal l them the Chopin and
and a Paris-Mos cow axis:
the Turgenev connections .
But even diregarding
such
cultural ties, the East European expl osion has really put the
European Community on the spot .
No one I talked to in Paris
dipl omatie
was more aware o f this than Pierre Lel_ l ouche,
advis e r t o the l eader o f the Gaul list Party, Jacques Chirac .
There ' s basically three kinds o f Europe .
LELLOUCHE
There ' s a kind o f united Europe which may develop over time
Economical ly,
political ly and
towards the 2 1st century .
militarily.
There's yesterday's Europe : cold war,
division .
That's finished .
There's a third Europe .
That is the one I
fear :
it's the Europe o f 19 14,
the logic o f national power
and disorder, and we have signs of this re-emerging,
both in
Eastern and in Western Europe .
Just make sure that we don ' t
trade Yalta for the Balkans o f 19 14 .
That would be
really
bad .
The French,
who suffered so rouch in the
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Great War o f 19 14 ,
have every reason to fear the anarchie
Balkanisation o f Eastern and Central Europe that helped to
trigger that appa l ling conf lict . And i f Pierre Lel l ouche, on
the Right of French politics, is alarmed at that prospect,
his Le ft wing counterpart,
Jean Pierre Cot,
is no less
anxious to stabilise a potential ly dangerous situation .
We must come up with something in terms
COT
of a pan European structure because it wil l be the only way
of giving a l l partners,
but especial ly the Soviets,
the
necessary guarantees they're entitled to in terms of an
overall
continental stability and security.
So we have
to
work rouch fa ster than we could have expected and the
technicalities aren't so important in my view .
But what I do
think is very important is that we do come up with sorne kind
o f an umbre l l a structure within which the German unification
from a Soviet
can fit . Because if we don't do that,
wil l . .
point o f view - and we were in Moscow with the Bureau o f the
S ocia list Group o f the European Parliament j ust a few days
it is j ust unacceptabl e to lose everything vis a
ago - w e l l,
S o I think it is
vis Germany with no alternative guarantee .
very important today to do the·both - bath things in parallel
- rapid German unification within the European Community but
at the same time, a pan-European .structure o f security .
8
MAYNE
Jean Pierre Cot, before he became an MEP,
was a jun io r Min ister under Franco i s Mitterrand .
Despite the
Brit i sh notion that " the French " in the Community are a lways
gang ing up in the ir nat ional interest,
Cot and the Pres ident
certa inly don't see eye to eye on everything:
the view from
Bru s s e l s o r Stra sbourg is not a lways the v iew from Pari s .
But on the need for seme pan-European structure the two men
certa inly agree .
Pre s ident Mitterrand has h i s own genera l
recipe ;
and h i s adv iser,
E l i s abeth Guigou,
did her best to
exp l a i n what it was .
GUIGOU
There should be a bonfederation that
would be a gathering o f beth Western and Eastern European
countr i e s .
O f course the confederation is not meant to be
against the European Community a s seme commentators,
you
know,
hast i ly and wrongly thought that would be,
but it i s
meant t o have a place where Eastern countries would have an
equal dial ogue w ith Western European countries .
Would the European Community f igure in
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such a confederat ion as an ent ity, a s ingle ent ity,
or would
it be the individua l states?
That kind o f th ing has not been settled
GUIGOU
yet .
As you know,
Pres ident Mitterrand has said frequently
that he had no d e finite scheme and that he wanted everyone to
say what they thought about that .
So we know that seme
Eastern countries have al ready made known that they were very
interested because they need to talk about their common
prob l ems in a common pl ace .
One o f the fears that the Pres ident has
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without seme sort of stab i l ity system
expressed is that,
the countries o f Eastern Europe might dissolve
be ing set up,
into the s ort o f anarchy that preceded World War I, 19 14.
Is
that s t i l l a fear in h i s mind, d o you th ink?
We l l there is certa inly a risk, yes,
and
GUIGOU
i s why he thinks that the Eastern European countries
th is
Most o f them have minority
should not be l e ft by themselves .
have nationa l ities probl ems and most of them are
prob l ems,
So
eager to treat those questions in a mul ti l ateral frame .
it's certa inly . . the confederat ion is certa inly a way to try
to deal w ith that kind of quest ions .
One way,
perhaps .
But from the opposite
MAYNE
Jacques Chirac's
s ide o f the pol itical spectrum in France,
adviser P ierre Lel l ouche would l ike to know what real
substance there is in Mitterrand's proposa! .
9
You know confederation is like apple pie
LELLOUCHE
and motherhood .
Everybody ' s for it .
I f we ' re a l l wise,
Germans stay nicely anchored in the West, the Rus sians manage
a transition to democracy and capitalism,
and a l l o f that
happens al so in.Eastern Europe,
then yes,
we wil l have a
con federation and a nice European family with 50 0 mil lion
peopl e .
On the other hand, if you l ook at the reality,
it ' s
somewhat dif ferent .
Let me tel l you what it l ooks like.
It
l ooks l ike three hundred mill ion very rich West European,
which may or may not get their act together .
East o f that,
you will find a 1 0 0 mil lion poor East Europeans with a hard
time getting to our l evel and East of that, very very poor
Rus sians .
I f you l ook now at the South o f the Med you wil l
find very quickly 3 0 0 million Muslims, very poor a l so, and an
exploding Middl e East with l ots of chemical and nuclear
weapons a nd mis sil e s .
It ' s a nice family but it ' s a family
which will need time to get there and we shal l be surrounded
by l ots o f probl ems .
So the con federation is not exactly for
tomorrow morning .
And o f course when you analyse
the
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a l l sorts o f possibilities
probl em a s Pierre Lell ouche does,
each tai l or-made for each o f the countries that are
crop up,
And that ' s
in Europe but outside the European Community .
but
quite a l ot o f countries - not just in Eastern Europe,
al so in the West,
in the European Free Trade Association,
EFTA.
I f some o f them obtained cl oser links with the
might not this tempt some o f the Community ' s own
Community,
more reluctant members - Britain, say,
Denmark ,
or Greece to s eek simil ar special arrangements, no l onger part o f the
I asked Pierre Uri whether he thought
Community ' s hard core?
the EFTA countries might indeed trigger o f f such a process
My feeling is that several of them will
URI
want to join and some o f them probably will want to join the
Economie Community without becoming members o f a political
union.
So that the two or three countries which you
mentioned,
which might not be very enthusiastic about the
idea o f political union, would not be isolated .
There would
be ethers in the s ame case, and also countries from the East .
I n the Community itse l f then,
you see
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what might be described as a kind of dartboard Europe with,
in the centre the countries forming a political union .
Around them members o f the Economie Community forming a large
possibly other countries associated to
economie community,
tho s e a s are .the 'current members o f EFTA and then maybe an
even further periphery o f countries which are not quite
It ' s
a s s ociated but which have links with this huge entity .
a very complicated picture .
10
URI
It ' s true it is, but you know I insist on
the fa ct that the articl e about association in the Rome
Treaty has been v ery fl exibl e and has been applied in very
di f ferent directions .
Most people have forgotten that for
instance we have a treaty of association with I s rael which is
absolutely a singul ar case but one application is the Lome
Convention and the other one is the agreement with EFTA .
MAYNE
Well,
the Dublin summit has more or less
endorsed that idea by o f fering association agreements to the
countries o f E astern Europe - each presumably to be designed
for each individual case .
Dartboard Europe,
in other words,
may well be t aking shape ; and its outer ring may well include
the former satellites of Moscow .
Coul d it extend further, to
make a Europe,
in General de Gaull e ' s words,
" from the
Atl antic to the Ural s " ?
Many peopl e I talked with in Paris
thought that the Soviet empire might ultimately break up .
But even short o f that,
they were well aware o f how an
expanding dartboard Europe might look when seen from Moscow .
Jean Pierre Cot,
a s he told us, was in the Soviet Union very
recently .
Did France and her partners need to o f fer Mr .
Gorbachev s omething in exchange for the Westward maves that
his former satellites were making?
Yes,
obviously the Soviet Unions do need
COT
something in the trade- o f f,
and ·one of the probl ems with the
Soviet Union today is that it shows signs o f weaknes s .
A
weak superpower is a factor o f serious instability,
so we
must give the Soviets sorne assurances in this .
I think the
Soviets readily agree that a European Community,
a strong
is a factor o f stability .
I think they
European Community,
agree that American commitment to Europe today is a factor o f
stability in Europe al so.
I think they ' re not far from
thinking that NATO
can be help ful,
even though they
obviously can ' t say so .
But that ' s not enough .
Because i f
it ' s only that,
i t really means that these structures they
have been fighting against for the past 30 years suddenly
become the dominant structures within a recomposed Europe .
MAYNE
usually
time .
So what ' s the answer?
Al fred Grosser
has at l east four for every question :
but not this
I see only two answers and the two
GROSSER
The first is, the Soviet Union is
both .
answers are wrong,
It is too heavy - and it would
a part o f this future Europe .
to have all
And,
dominate it even ' i f it is demoralised .
European countries westernised �ith the exception of the
That
What does it mean for the Soviet Union?
soviet Union .
is terri fying .
11
MAYNE
So what seems to be needed
both to
reassure the Soviet Union and to give the West better
guarantees against overreaction in the East - is some form o f
over-arching
East-West security system t o repl ace
the
confrontation o f the so-called Cold War .
And if we ' re to
build that roo flike structure then the West had better get
its own house in order first . And that,
as Pierre Lellouche
points out,
is g oing to be a very tough task - not least for
the French .
For him, it takes precedence even over pl ans for
economie union .
LELLOUCHE
This is going to be a �· matter o f a major
debate which is going to split every and all parties in
France .
We have to decide whether we continue with the
security arrangement in Western Europe,
and if it is so then
we can continue with the economie and political progress . But
if we don't s olve the first issue,
we won ' t get anywhere in
Those who talk today, like Mr .
Del ors,
of
the s econd part .
accel erating Europe o r even o f European economie o r monetary
union al one,
are not
fixing the problem .
They
are
daydreaming,
they
are
jumping
into
a
world
of
supranationalism o r monetary policies a s i f this was enough
to pres erve the unity o f the structure .
My own view - and I think the consensus
MAYNE
in Paris - is that the European Community has to work on
not wait for the security
several canva se s simultaneously,
I t has
picture first to be completed, dried and varnished .
to ful fil its own economie and monetary programme, reform its
institutions,
and at the same time move towards common
European structures
for foreign a f fairs,
security
and
But these,
as Pierre Lell ouche insists,
can ' t be
defence.
either pan-European or negl ect fuL of the Atl antic Alliance
what he cal l s,
rather charmingly,
our "prudent coalition o f
countrie s " .
I think the first question is to ask
LELLOUCHE
whether we feel that it is still use ful to have a Western
European,
I insist,
We stern European security system .
Or
whether we shoul d jump right in into a common European house
or whatever .
I believe that we are entering a phase o f
profound instanility i n Europe and that therefore any policy
that woul d call into question or terminate our prudent
defence policies and prudent coal ition of countries would be
in some
So I think we need to continue,
a foolish policy .
form,
a Western European security system . Now, the issue is,
how can we guarantee that a unified Germany will be part o f
that West European ensembl e,
and how can we
that ensemble,
guarantee that this ens emble will be stabilising and not seen
as a force of aggression to a Soviet Union who will be a
major ongoing revolution .
12
To me,
that all sounds very sens ibl e:
MAYNE
it's certa inl y in l ine with the universal French des ire to
t i e Germany into the system .
But there's no denying that it
al s o r a i s e s formidabl e probl ems .
They're usually summed up
under the heading of " national sovereignty " .
I thi nk that
But as President Pompidou
now that's l a rgely a shibbol eth .
" it's almost impossible to have a common
once p o inted out,
de fence i f you don't have a common government " .
Will anyone
in Europe put up with that?
Not,
for the moment,
the
Brit i sh ;
and not,
s ince General de Gaull e,
at l east,
the
French .
De Gaul l e,
a fter all,
withdrew France from the
integrated Organ i s ation o f the Atlant ic � -All iance,
l eaving
France in the All iance, as he put it, but no l onger in NATO .
Most o f the peopl e I talked to in Paris were conv inced that
the Atl ant ic All iance must be both retained and reshaped .
But they were al s o very scept ical about whether France would
re-enter NATO .
A European defence arrangement,
within the
All i ance :
that might be a su itabl e fig leaf to cover the
re integration o f French forces .
But direct re integration
into NATO :
no .
However,
there was one excepti on .
Al ain
Lamas s oure,
the G i s cardian,
actually bel i eved that France
might well s imply return to the full NATO fold .
It may be a problem for sorne sectors o f
LAMASSOURE
the French publ ic op inion .
Withdrawal from NATO was a
dec i s ion made by General De Gaulle and this pol i cy was
General De Gaulle didn't want
pursued by all h i s successors .
France to be automat ically i nvolved in a Third World war
which would have involved Europe because, through NATO, many
American forces and Ameri can nuclear weapons were based and
stat ioned
in Europe and would have been the f irst targets .
But
i f the in fluence o f the Americans is to decrease with in
NATO and if the Europeans take the main respons ibil ity in the
new structure,
th is object ion will di sappear .
So I think
most French will accept re integration of the French forces
w ithin NATO .
Why,
I wondered, were Al a in Lamassoure
MAYNE
and the G i scard ians so adamant in what was so much a minority
however s ens ibl e it seemed? When I did begin to get
v iew
sorne inkl ing on the subject,
what should it be but yet
another facet o f the Franco-Ge rman problem .
Jacques Chirac's
adv i s er, Pierre Lell ouche, suppl ied the first clue .
I f we d ivorce in the security f i eld,
the
LELLOUCHE
econom i e s o f ·the 'two countr ies are go ing to go d i f ferently
They're go ing to foll ow the ir trad it ional h istorical
also .
route al s o .
How
MAYNE
the se cur ity f ield?
could France and Germany d ivorce
13
in
LELLOUCHE
Wel l it's very s impl e.
And there are
forces
in both countries who'd l ove to do that.
In Germany
the natura l tendency o f the German peopl e, e special ly of the
s eventeen new m i l l i on peopl e in this new Germany,
wi l l be to
go
for a happy,
rosy Europe in whi ch a l l us and Soviet
forces w i l l move out, a l l nuc l ear weapons wil l move out, that
they would recover ful l sovere ignty,
demil itarise East
Germany a s a l ready Mr .
Genscher and Kohl have dec ided,
in
sorne we ird fashion and unilatera l ly,
Germany would bas ically
be dem i l itarised and neutral i sed even though it would pretend
to be s ort of a p o l itical member of the pol itical NATO which
would l ook l ike the Pal ace in Ja ipur, you know, the Palace o f
the wind,
wh ich have the facade and behind there's nothing .
Simi larly on the French s ide as wel l,
there are people who
bel ieve they would permit France to move back to the Rhine,
to the nucl ear fortress,
preserve the image of nuclear
seniority in Europe,
s ince Germany will have no nukes, we
will
have the nuke s,
and sort of look more
senior
pol iti cally. But that would be a recipe, not only for d ivorce
Because
in the short run, it w i l l be a rec ipe for disaster .
it would be absurd to bel ieve that Germany,
with the third
with eighty mi l l ion peop l e,
a quarter
economy in the world,
of the populat ion of the community, with neighbours highly
unstab l e around it in Eastern Europe, that that Germany could
That's a joke !
l ong rema in neutral and demil itarised .
And so back to the Gi scardians and Al ain
MAYNE
Lamas soure .
And to almost the po int at wh ich we began .
but he
Lamassoure has every confidence in the Germans
doesn't want France to set them a bad exampl e .
France is a member o f the All iance,
but
LAMASSOURE
not o f NATO and there is a ri sk that the Germans should
It would be a major
propose the same s ituat ion for Germany .
risk .
So we urge the French authorities to propose the
re integration o f France into NATO and i f thi s is so, it would
be politically impossible for any German Chance l l or to decide
the withdrawal o f Germany from NATO.
14
MAYNE
Over the past few years ,
as I know ,
the
French de fence e stab l i shment has been nudging ever c l oser to
the Germans ,
and ever further away from the strict and now
obsol escent doctrines of General de Gaul l e .
There ' s a l s o
been an a lmo st wistful feel ing in France that it would be
nice to have cl oser relat ions with Britain .
To anyone l ike
mysel f with a foot in each country ,
so to speak ,
they seem
ama z ingly a l ike .
Proud , anci ent , highly central ised states ,
only recently ret i red from imperial status .
Each convinced ,
at heart ,
that its own l anguage and l iterature should be
supreme .
Each s l ightly and secretly envious o f America .
Each with an exce l l ent c iv i l service .
Each with a sma l l
nuclear deterre nt .
Each rather insular and bossy ,
but
carrying o f f its arrogance with pol ite styl e .
In Europe ,
they d i f fer in the i r rhetoric :
but whi l e the Brit ish tend to
d i sm i s s French v i s ions as unrea l istic , it o ften seems t o me
that Brita in is unreal istic in its reduct ionist refusal to
l ook ahead .
The resul t , as we a l l know , i s that France made
sure the European Community was tailored to her measurements ,
wh i l e Brita i n ,
coming al ong later , had to put on second-hand
cl othes .
In Par i s ,
wh i l e everyone I spoke with was friendly to
Britain ,
they a l l seemed to share a s imilar att itude towards
us :
t ired patience ,
stra ined a f fection ,
as i f to sorne
scapegrace member of the European family whom they ' d dearly
love to reform .
When I asked Al fred Grosser if the French
and the British ever saw eye to eye , he had to delve into the
past for an answer .
There
has
been only once
a
real
GROSSER
Franco-British commun ity of thinking - that was between
Fi rst ,
Edward Heath and Georges Pompidou ,
for two reasons .
Pomp idou d i strusted the Germans , and secondly ,
Heath was the
only European Prime Minister Great Brita in ever had ;
and as
l ong as no other Edward Heaths cornes ,
there w i l l not be any
kind o f Franco-German counter-a l l iance or triangle with Bonn ,
because
there
is
a neces s ity o f
a
real
British
parti c ipat ion .
Jean Monnet a lways used to say that the
MAYNE
sti l l less by words :
Brit ish are n ever convinced by ideas ,
but only by facts .
That was in the 1 9 5 0 s .
Th irty and more
years l ater ,
J ean Pierre Cot has noticed the same th ing ;
wh ich is why he seems conf ident that Britain won ' t f inal ly
impede the moves towards "pol itical union" proposed by
Franc o i s Mitterrand and Helmut - Kohl .
15
COT
There seems to be a sort of a pattern o f
Brit i sh att itude which has been developing over years with
Brita i n start ing by say ing no ,
lett ing conferences or
discuss ions or negot iations going al ong ,
eventual ly voting
against or re fus ing to subscribe to the resul t ,
and then
tagg ing a l ong a fter a l l .
And that pattern we saw for the
S ingl e Act ;
it repeated its e l f with the Social Charter in a
way . I t s eems to be the same pattern wh ich i s devel op ing now ,
because the British have not obj ected formal ly to the whole
idea of a second conference on institutional matters ;
and it
i s a pattern which is an interest ing strategy in terms of
Br i t i sh interests in fact , because the Brit ish have been abl e
to s l ow dawn a certain number of things through thi s
attitude .
They obviously have been instrumenta l i n d i luting
But I think that at the same t ime in a
the S o c i a l Charter .
way i t precludes Brita in from really oppos ing the result of
th i s maj or e f fort ,
once it has been dra fted and i f the
British Government ' s views have been reasonably taken into
I expect that Britain wi l l probably go a long the
account
same way it has gone along in the last two occas ions .
That ' s my impress ion - or my hope - too .
MAYNE
How rouch s imp ler it would be i f we weren ' t put o f f by the
and paid closer attent ion to the real and varied
rhetor i c ,
strands o f French thinking about Europe .
Of course we ' d have
to
get used to thinking f irst about
obj ectives
and
principles ,
and then about how to achieve and apply them .
can
We ' d have to rea l i s e that good procedures , l ike skat ing ,
We ' d
ca rry peopl e further than they at f irst th ink pos s ibl e .
have to accept that the European Commun ity ,
so l argely the
fruit o f French imaginat ion , is a proces s not a product - or ,
that
" We don ' t
in the words o f an old Army march ing song ,
know where we ' re go ing unt i l we ' re there " .
All we know ,
a
French diplomat added when I quoted that to him ,
i s that
we ' re go ing there together .
16
The reason i s s impl e :
we ' re a l.l in the same boat .
It ' s a
j o int venture :
we a l l take turns on the t i l l er ,
and a l l
d i s cuss the p l an o f the voyage . Sorne of us supply more fuel
and food than ethers :
sorne tend at times to stamp about
cro s s ly on the deck .
But the man at the chart table at
present , it seems to me , is Francois Mitterrand : he knows the
t ides and the shoal s as we l l as anyone .
And i f we l ook at
the so-ca l l ed n itty-gritty o f French ideas about Europe ,
I
think we ' l l find that they ' re modest , f l exibl e , and sensible .
The French st i l l have psychological and ether probl ems with
Germany ,
espec i a l l y a united Germany :
but they know that
strengthening the European Community is the best response .
Happ i l y the Germans agree .
What rema ins i s to see how ,
and
how far to go .
The French al so have probl ems over security
partly the l egacy of General de Gau l l e ' s years ,
and defence ,
They rema i n l oyal to
partly inherent in the subj ect itsel f .
the At lantic All iance ; but they know , as we a l l should ,
that
it needs reshaping to g ive the Community countries a greater
c o l l ect ive role as that of the Un ited States inevitably
shrinks .
No Frenchman I talked to was unreal i stic about
Eastern Europe :
they were a l l concerned that the Community
should do its damnedest to ensure stabil ity there .
O f course , there are disagreements - about priorities ,
about
deta i l s ,
about tactics .
And about " pol it ical
union" ,
amb igu ity rema ins .
All I can say is that it won ' t resemble
Victor Hugo ' s European nat ion with a capital i n Paris
or
London ,
or Berl in .
Whatever it is ,
it won ' t be a unitary
no less than the Brit i sh ,
w i l l see to
nat i on .
The French ,
that .
17
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Par i s ,
l e 1 8 a vr i l
1 99 0
MESSAGE D E P I ERRE U R I A U COLLOQUE D E M I LAN
N o u s approch o ns du quara n t i è me a n n i versa i re de la d é c l arat i on SCHUMANN ,
pas
premi e r
dans
la
créa t i on
marqua
le
Depu i s ,
l es progrès ont é t é i mme n se s ,
:narché commun généra l ,
é l ect i on
d i re c t e
du
des
Commu n a u t é s
qui
E u r opéenne s .
re l a nce pa r Eura t om e t s u r t ou t par l e
é l ar g i ssement e n de u x é t a pe s d e s i x à douze membres ,
Par l e me nt
au
su f f rage
u n i verse l ,
prépa ra t i on
d' un
espace commu n a u t he n t i qu e qu i accomp l i sse ce q u i é t a i t déj à proj e t é dans l e
tra i t é
de
Rome .
Et
voici
que
l ' a u t re
mo i t i é
de
l ' Europe
su b i t
un
bou l e ve rseme n t qu i é t on ne par s o n a mp l e u r e t sn rapi d i t é .
·,
'
I l est h e u re u x q u e ce s o i e n t
l i be r t é
au
pér i l
de
leur
l es h omme s q u i dans ce pa y s o n t l u t t é pour l a
vie
qu i
rassemb l e n t
des
par t i c i pa n t s
p l u s i eurs pays p o u r prendre l a mes u re des espoi rs e t des r i sq u e s .
venus
de
1
N ' ay ons
ma l gré
à
la
pas
pe u r
de
des
protec t i on
soc i a l e ,
pri nc i pes ,
parce
doive
c ' e st
par ce
u n e c r o i ssa n c e pro l o ngée ,
l e s c r i se s ,
d i f férence
l ' a f f i rme r
et ,
que
s ' accompagner
ou
Etats- U n i s
même
si
personne
d ' un
du
les
progr ès
notre
parce q u e
J a pon ,
n ' est
réa l i sa t i ons
n i er g u e
n ' ose
que
dans
le
le
Europe
pas
i nd i f férent
restent
de
connu ,
l e mod è l e e u ropéen ,
vie
à
é l o i gnées
pr ogrès de
n i veau
a
de
la
la
des
prod u c t i on
t ou s ,
qu ' i l
a
provoqu é c e t t e frénési e d ' appe l à l a l i berté dans des pay s où l e soc i a l i sme
a va i t é t é dé f i g u r é par l ' o l i ga rc h i e de l ' appare i l .
Ma i s regardons l es réa l i tés en
sûr
que
l ' appe l
les
régu l a t i ons
marché ,
au
face .
A l ' ouest
en o u b l i a nt
nécessa i res ,
n'
il
n ' e st pas
l es f l u c t uat i ons i rra t i onne l l e s e t
él b ou t i sse
pas
cap i t a l contre l e s i nt é r ê t s des t ravD i ll e u r s ,
à
du cont i nen t ,
faci l i ter
à
les
f av e u r s
au
e t q u e n o u s ne c an t i n i ons pas
ne conte n i r l ' i nf l at i on qu ' a u pr i x d ' u n chô mage persi sta n t .
De l ' a u t re c ô t é ,
l a f i n de l a domi nat i on d ' u n e superpu i ssance ,
de dé ma nt e l er u ne g e st i on abu s i v e me nt c e n t ra l i sé e de l ' économi e ,
se
retourner
t r i ba l e s ,
vers
comme
l es
si
nat i ona l i smes
l ' h i st o i re
l es
n ' o u v ra i t
plus
le
étroi ts
c ho i x
et
q u ' e ntre
l ' i n t e n t i on
vont- e l l es
des
des
c o n t ra i re s .
L e se ns d e votre ré u n i on c ' est d ' o u vr i r u ne v o i e c ommu ne v e r s l ' a v e n i r .
Que
de
notre
côté
le
grand
espace
e u r opéen sllche
me t t re
l a c r o i ssance a u
ser v i ce d e l ' e mp l o i e t l ' e f f i ca c i t é a u se r v i ce de l él j u st i ce .
Iii
l u ttes ,
' ·
N os pays se sont j u gés trop pe t i t s pou r deme u re r i so l é s ,
u n vaste
marché
sau ra i t ê t re q u e
et
à
conunencé
f é d é ra l e ,
s ' ori e n t e r vers une
l a i ssant
i l s ont const ru i t
u n i on p o l i t i qu e
l eu r c u l ture et
qu i
ne
la condu i t e de l a v i e
q u ot i d i enne à chaque pays t o u t e n l es conc i l i a nt avec l a f orce accrue e t l a
pa i x assu rée q u i résu l t ent d e l ' u ni t é .
Que l e x e mp l e pou r f a i re é chapper l ' Est à ses contrad i c t i ons v i o l e nt e s
A
côté
d ' u ne
sate l l i t es
ne
superpu i ssance ,
pe u ve nt - i l s
l es
t r o u ver
pays
l es
t r a i t s or i g i na u x de c haqu e pays e t
conq u i s
par
vo i es d ' u ne
f orce
uù
l es
a n c i e ns
conc i l i at i on entre
l es
l a coopé rat i on f é c onde dans l ' a c t i on ?
Que
l ' U n i o n Sov i é t i q ue t i re t ou t es l es conséqu ences d ' une c onst i t u t i on q u i
est
en t hé or i e c e l l e d ' u ne f é dérat i on pou r accept e r ,
u ne
i ndépe ndance
des
pays
qu i
la
réc l ament
et
le
à
l ' i mage de l ' Ouest ,
ma i nt i e n
d' un
grand
e nsemb l e voué au progrès économi q u e e t à l ' ami t i é e n t re l es pe u p l es .
C ' est à
ces cond i t i ons que
l ' Eu r ope
monde pou r en o r i enter l e dest i n .
t o u t e ent i ère gagnera
l a con f i a nc e du
Par i s ,
MESSAGE D E P I ERRE U R I
le
premi e r
pas
Depu i s ,
l es progrès o n t é t é i mmenses ,
Marché commun généra l ,
é l ect i on
d i re c t e
du
dans
la
de
créa t i on
la
Par l e me n t
au
su f f rage
u n i verse l ,
que
bou l e versement qu i
Il
est
l i be r t é
he u r e u x q u e
au
pé r i l
E u r opéenn e s .
é l ar g i ssement e n deux ét apes de s i x à douze membres ,
t ra i t é
Et
Commu n a u t é s
qu i
re l a nc e par Eura t om e t surtout pa r l e
a c c omp l i sse ce q u i
Rome .
déc l arat i on SCHUMANN ,
des
espace commu n a u t he n t i qu e q u i
de
1 8 a v r i l 1 99 0
AU COLLOQUE DE M I LAN
Nou s approchons d u q u a rant i è me a n n i ve rsa i re
marqua
le
voi c i
l ' a u t re
préparat i on
d' un
é ta i t déj à proj e t é dans l e
mo i t i é
de
l ' E u r ope
subi t
un
é t onne par son a mp l e u r e t sa rapi d i t é .
ce
de
soi e n t
l eu r
p l u s i eu rs pays pour prendre
l es hommes qu i
vie
qu i
dans ce pays ont
rassemb l ent
des
l u t t é pour
part i c i pants
la mesure des espo i rs e t des r i sq u e s .
venus
la
de
N ' ayons
ma l gré
à
la
pas
pe u r
de
l es c r i se s ,
d i f f érence
c ' est
parce
u ne c r o i ssance prol ongée ,
des
p rotect i on
soc i a l e ,
pr i nc i pe s ,
parce
d o i ve
l ' a f f i rmer
Et a t s- Un i s
et ,
que
s ' accompagner
mê me
personne
d ' un
si
ou
notre
n ' est
réa l i sat i ons
n
i er g u e
dans
le
E u r ope
a
c onnu ,
parce q u e l e modè l e e u ropéen ,
J apon ,
l es
n ' ose
progrès
du
que
le
n i vea u
pas
restent
é l o i gnées
progrès de
de
vie
à
i nd i f férent
la
des
l a produc t i on
de
t ou s ,
qu ' i l
a
provoqué c e t t e f r é né s i e d ' appe l à l a l i be r t é dans des pays où l e soc i a l i sme
a va i t é t é d é f i gu r é par l ' ol i ga r c h i e de l ' appare i l .
Ma i s regardons l e s réa l i t é s e n face .
sûr q u e
l es
l ' appe l
régu l a t i ons
ca p i t a l
contre
au
marché ,
A
en o u b l i ant
nécessa i re s ,
l ' ouest
du c on t i nen t ,
il
n ' e st pas
l es f l uct u at i ons i rrat i onne l l e s e t
n ' abou t i sse
pas
l e s i nt é r ê t G des trava i l l e u rs ,
à
facj l i t e r
l es
faveurs
au
e t q u e n o u s n e can t i n i ons pas
à ne cont e n i r l ' i nf l a t i on q u ' a u pri x d ' u n chô mage pers i st ant .
De
l ' a u t re c ô té ,
f i n de l a domi nat i on d ' une su per p u i ssa nce ,
la
de démant e l er u ne gest i on abusi v e ment centra l i sé e de l ' é conomi e ,
se
retou rner
t r i ba l e s ,
vers
comme
l es
si
nat i ona l i smes
l ' h i s t o i re
l es
n ' ouvra i t
plus
le
étroi ts
cho i x
et
q u ' entre
l ' i nt e n t i on
vont- e l l es
des
des
l u ttes
e xcès
c o nt ra i re s .
L e sens d e votre ré u n i on c ' est d ' ouvr i r u ne v o i e commune vers l ' aveni r .
Que
de
notre
côté
le
grand
espace e u r opéen sa c he met t re
l a croi ssance a u
serv i ce d e l ' e mp l o i e t l ' e f f i ca c i t é a u serv i ce d e l a j u st i ce .
Nos pays se sont j u gés t rop pe t i t s pou r deme u rer i so l é s ,
u n vaste
marché e t
sau ra i t ê t re
que
à
commencé
f é déra l e ,
s ' ori enter
l a i ssant
vers u ne
i l s ont const ru i t
u n i on pol i t i q u e q u i
l e u r c u l ture et
ne
l a c o ndu i t e de l a v i e
q u o t i d i e nne à chaque pays t o u t e n l es conc i l i ant avec l a f orce accr u e e t l a
pa i x assurée q u i résu l t e nt d e l ' u n i t é .
Q u e l exemp l e pou r f a i re échapper l ' Est à ses contrad i c t i ons v i o l e nt e s
A
côté
d ' u ne
sat e l l i t es
ne
s u pe r pu i ssance ,
l es
pe u ve nt - i l s t ro u ve r
t ra i t s or i g i na u x de chaque pays et
Que
pays
les
conqu i s
voi es
par
d ' u ne
f orce
les
anc i e ns
c onc i l i at i on entre
l a coopéra t i on f é c onde
dans
l es
l ' act i on ?
l ' Un i on Sovi é t i qu e t i re t ou t e s l es conséquences d ' u ne c onst i t ut i on qu i
est en t hé or i e ce l l e d ' u ne f é dérat i on pour accept e r ,
u ne
uù
i ndé pendance
des
pays
qu i
la
réc l a ment
et
le
à
l ' i mage de l ' Ouest ,
ma i nt i e n
d ' un
grand
e nsemb l e vou é a u progrès économi q u e e t à l ' ami t i é e n t re l es peu p l e s .
C ' e st
à
ces cond i t i ons q u e
l ' Europe t ou t e ent i è re gagnera
monde pou r en or i e nt e r le dest i n .
l a con f i a nc e du
(Jf\
- N\ os 1' o
2_q_ J o.. it
V\� G h,_ � " �
fh
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(
t<lL,
EXPO.SE AU CONGRES DES ECONOM I STES DE L A N G UE FRA NCA I SE PAR I S I I ASSAS
LE 5 J U I N 1990
pa r P i e rre U R I
M o ns i e u r l e Prés i de n t vous me perme t t re z d e prése n t e r d ' a bord
q u e l qu e s r e ma r q u e s s u r l e su j e t d ' ensemb l e t e l qu ' il est présen t é s u r v o t r e
dépl i an t
l a l i st e des po i nt s d e v u e s u r l es ma rc hé s f i nanc i ers est-e l l e
même assez l ongu e .
On par l e d ' a bord de l a dé r è g l e me n t a t i on des ma rchés : c ' e s t u n
vocabu l a i re e mpru n t é a u l angage a mé r i ca i n . O n peu t e n t ro u v e r d e s e xe mp l e s
e n France . Les S I CA V sont d i spensées d e c ompre ndre 3 0% d ' obl i ga t i on s , qu i
l es ont e mpê ché de bé n é f i c i e r pl e i ne me n t dE�s hausses d u ma rché d e s a c t i on s ;
e t l e s f onds d e p l aceme nt s sont pe u t - ê t r e e x e mp t é s d e s p l a f onds a u xq u e l s
i l s é t a i e n t sou mi s . M.a i s e n r e va nche i 1 r e s t e q u e l a COB est chargée de
f i xe r certa i ns r è g l es , u n pe u sur l e modè l e de l a �mc a mé r i ca i ne , et e n
part i cu l i e r e l l e se p r é o c cupe de repre n d re l e s bé n é f i ce s i n d u s des i n i t i é s ,
e t e l l e v i e n t d e f i xer des rè g l e s a p p l i c a b l e s a u x gé r a n t s d e por t e f e u i l l e
sans q u e
c e s règ l e s a i e n t v i sé t o u t e s l es i r régu l ar i tés poss i bl e s .
L ' a u t re t e r me , c ' e s t l a mode r n j sat i on : comme n t l ' e n t e nd- t-- on ?
I l y a ma i nt e na n t ce qu ' on a p pe l l e e n France , d ' u n t e r me u n peu a bu s i f , l e
marc h é cont i nu c e qu i v e u t d i re q u e l es a c h e t e u r s eve nt u e l s pe u ve nt se
r é g l er s u r ce q u i se passe a u cours de la séa nce a u l i e u d ' ê t r e condamnés à
ag i r e n fonct i on des résu l ta t s de l a v e i l l e , a l ors q u ' i l pe u t y a v o i r u n
renversemen t bru t a l d ' u n j ou r à l ' a u t re . Da ns l a mode rn i sa t i on o n i nc l u t
peu t - ê t r e a u s s i l e s programme s d ' ord i na te u r s dont o n a v u l e s consé q u e nc e s ,
d è s qu e l ' on dé passa i t
cer t a i nes l i mi t e s , a u c o u rs d u Krach d ' Oct obre
1 9 8 7 . On v e u t proba b l e me n t d i re aussi. que l e marché f i na n c i e r est o u v e r t 24
l! e u re s su r 2 4
é t a n t d o n n é l a r a p i d i t é d e s commu n i c a t i o n s , les ondes
a l l a n t a u ss i v i t e que l a l u mi è r e on po u t p r a t i q u e me n t passe r des ordres 24
h e u re s s u r 24 de S a n Frans i c o à S i ngapou r .
I l faut bi en
Le t r o i s i è me thème v i se l ' i n t e r na t i ona l j sat i OTJ .
avouer qu ' e l l e n ' e s t pas nou ve l l e . V o i l à b i e n l ongtemps q u e l a commu n au t é
i nt e r na t i ona l e t o l è r e l es para d i s f i sc au x . E t c e qu i se passe a u x Ba hamas
f o u r n i t un a l i b i à la créat i on de hâvres f i sc a u x c o n c u rre n t s en E u r o pe , et
la
On résume r a
ma i n t e n a n t à l ' i n t é r i e u r ù e l a Co mrnu nu u t é e ll e - mê me .
s i t u a t i on d ' u n mot , e l l e s i g n i f i e q u e l e s E t a L s v o l e n t l e s E t a t s .
d e c onse r ve r ces marchés o ù l e s é t rangers se
i mpô ts de l e u r pa y s> ? Le ra ppor t d e s Nat i ons
U n i es s u r l es mu l t i na t i ona l e s , g u i date o n v i ron de 1 9 '7 4 , a va i t f o u r n i u ne
p l u t ô t que d ' i n t rodu j re des cont r ô l es e t des _ péna l i t é s ,
ré ponse qu i ,
é l i mi na i t p u r e me n t e t s i mp l e me n t l ' :i n t é r ê t d u recours ù c e s mé thodes de
f ra u de . Ce qu i est l e p l u s i mpor t a n t , c e ne sont pa s l es a c t i onna i r e s
'
p a r t i c u l i e r s , ce sont l es mu l t i na t i or �� l e s . LE! r a ppo r t proposa i t g u e l l es
s o i e n t i mpo sé e s dans l e pay s où e l J es o n t J o u r s i è e; e soc i a l s u r l e u r s
béné f i ces mo n d i a u x conso U dés , sous d é d u c t i o n d e s i mpô t s pnyés a i l l e u r s . Du
r é f u g i e nt
pour
é v i ter
Etai t- i l
l es
i né v i t a b l e
coup,
pou rqu o i a l l e r s ' i ns t a l l e r a u x Bahamas avec l es d i f f i cu l t é s des
r e l at i ons t é l é phon i q u e s s i on n ' y gagne p l u s r i e n p u i sq u ' on a pas d ' i mpô t s
à d é du i re 7 Une nu ance : l e s pays e n d é v e l o p po mo n t a va i e n t f a i t remarq u er
qu ' i l s pouva i e nt accorder certa i ns a ba t t e me n t s d ' i mpô t , pa r exemp l e pou r
f a-c i l i te r l e s r a t t rapages da ns c er t a i ne s régi ons , e t q u e l ' e f f e t en sera i t
a nnu l é : l a réponse é ta i t g u ' i l s n.égoc j e nt avec l e pa ys d u si ège , e t q u e
c e t a bat t e me nt reste acqu i s sans ê t r e r e pr i s dans l e bé né f i ce mond i a l sous
l a seu l e condi t i on qu ' i l ne so i t pas d fscr i mi na t o i r e , c ' e s t - à - d i re q u ' i l ne
soi t pas i ns t a u ré e n faveur d e s seu l s i nvest j sseme n t s é t rangers e t q ' i l
s ' é t e nde aussi b i e n a u x ent repr i se s l oca l es . Du mê me c o u p on é l i mi ne ra i t u n
a l i b i q u e l es Bahamas f o u r n i ssent à l ' é t a b l i sse me n t d e parad i s f i scau x à
L u xembo u rg , à Mona c o ou à J e rsey . On ne pourra i t p l u s d i re qu ' à d é f a u t l es
capi t a u x s ' e n i ra i e n t à l ' a u t r e bou t du monde .
I l s resteront dans l a
Commu na u t é .
Dans l e t i tre que j ' a i e u l ' i mpru dence d e proposer " candi t i ans
f i sca l es
de
l ' i n terna t i o na l i sat i o n ,
c ond i t i ons
pol i t iques
de
la
rat i ona l i sa t i on" ,
i l me pa ra i t pe r t i ne nt de rappe l e r l es rése r ve s q u '
e xpr i ma i t L ord KEYNES , ce l l e s qu i é t a i ent i nc l uses dans l es a c c ords de
Bre t t on Hoods , ce l l es du rapport SPAAK e t du Tr a i t é de R ome . Car on a va i t
des rai sons d e cra i ndre l es e f f e t s d e mou v e ments de ca p i t a u x à c o u r t t e r me
q u i ne sont pas t ou j o u r s ra t i onne l s , q u i pe u ve n t r e poser sur de f a u sses
an t i c i pa t i ons , sur des r u me u rs , ou su r de f a u sses ma noe u vres des banq u e s
c e n t ra l e s ,
e t qu i pe r t u r bent l e s taux de c hange dans des cond i t i ons
contr a i re s à l a compara i son des compé t i t i v i t é s dans l e d oma i ne des b i ens e t
des ser v i ce s .
Passons donc ma i nt e na nt au su j e t g u i e s t proposé
f i sca l e s de l ' i nt e r na t i ona l i sa t i on .
l es c o nd i t i ons
U n évé neme n t maj e u r ne devra i t pas ê t re pe r d u de vue : l es E t a t s­
U n i s , l a Su ède , l e J apon ont mi s à p l a t l e u r système f i sc a l pour é l i mi ne r
l es comp l i ca t i ons dont i l s é t a i e nt a l ou rd i s e t l es d i s t orsi ons q u i e n
résu l t a l e n t . Pourqu o i n e pr o f i t e - t - o n pas d e c e q u e n o u s sommme s e n t r a i n
de créer l ' E u rope , e t au t i t re de l ' a c t e u n i q u e d ' accomp l i r e nf i n ce q u i
é t a i t déj à pré v u il y a p l u s d e trente a ns dans l e Tra i t é d e Rome , p o u r
j et e r à bas t ou s n o s système s f i sc a u x des p a y s e u ropée ns , qu i sont a u ss i
comp l exes ,
i ne f f i caces ,
i néqu i ta b l es
l es
u n s . que' l es
autres,
et
y
su bst i t u e r u n système ne u f , c o mpr é h e ns i b l e pou r t ou s , e t assurant par l u i ­
mê me , e t d u f a i t de sa stru c t u re , sa propre appl i cat i on . J e ne peu x j ama i s
m ' empêcher de r a ppe l er qu ' u n proj e t d e cet ordre a é t é conç u p o u r l ' E u r ope
e t d ' u n accor d u n an i me e n t r e c i nq économi stes de c i nq pays d i f f é r e n t s et
d ' a l l égea nce po l i t i qu e di verse , l ' A l l ema n d é t a lt Herbert G I ERSCH , D i re c t e u r
de l ' I nst i ut de K i e l , l e pape du l i béra l i sme dans s o n pay s , l e Be l ge é t a i t
A l e xa ndre LANFALOUSSY ,
D i r ec t e u r Généra l
de
la
Banq u e des Règl eme n t s
I nt e r na t i o na u x ,
l e Bri ta n n i q u e é t a i t Si r A l e c CA I RNCROSS , Conse i l l er d u
Gouverne me n t Br i t a nn i qu e e t u n g ra nd techn i c i e n à l a f o i s d e s probl è me s
bu dgé t a i res e t mon é ta i re s , 1 ' I t a l i e n PETR I LL I , l e Prési de n t de l a H o l d i ng
d ' Etat l ' I R I ,
e t chré t i e n démocra te ,
e t d a ns c e t t e a f f a i re j ' é t a i s l e
Franç a i s .
probl èmes
seu l e me n t
L e pre mi e r p o i n t que j e d o i s sou l i gner , c ' est. q u e pou r 1 993 l es
f i sc a u x q u i. concernent l e s mou v e me n t s de ca pi t a u x ne v i se nt pas
l ' i mpos i t i on des soc i ét é s ou des revenus de va l e u rs mob i l i è res ,
·-
i
,, )
ma i s
que
le
f i nanc i è re
proj e t qu i
T. V. A.
l es
d i s t ordu s .
débat
sur
l es
i mpô t s
i nd i rects
a f fecte
a u ss i
la
c oncu rrence
i l va de soi que s i on a va i t su i v i l a commi ss i on dans u n
favor i sa i t à l ' e xporta t i on l e s pays q u i a v a i ent des t a u x de
pl us bas , 1 es mou veme n t s des cu pi t a u x e u x - mê mes a u ra i e nt é t é
I l est assez e x t raord i na i re q u e l es 1 7 membre s d e l a Commi ssi on
ne se so i e n t pas aperç u s que l e u rs se�v i ces a va i e nt p u b l i é deux di rect i ves
c on t rad i c t o i res
l ' u n e marqu a i t q u e ,
du mome n t qu ' i l y ava i t marché
c ommu n , i l n ' y a va i t p l u s d ' export a t i o n , donc pas d ' exonérat i on , et que l e
vende u r devra i t puyer à son propre gou verneme nt , l ' a u t re sou l i gna i t q u e l a
T. V. A.
é t a i t u n i mpô t s u r l a c onsomma t i on .
J ' a i d i t qu ' i l f a l l a i t l es
économi stes de l a Commissi on Economi q u e pou r exp l i q u e r a u x c i t o y e ns comme n t
on pou va i t absorber s o i - même ce qu ' on ava i t v e n d u à d ' a u t re s .
L a vér i t é est q u e , avec des mécani smes prod i g i e u se me n t comp l i qu é s
pou r c o nc i l i e r c e q u i é t a i t i nconci l :l a bl e ,
l a Commi ssi on s ' est l a i ssé
prendre par u n f onc t i onna i re qu i r essorta i t ce
g u i a va i t é t é la t hèse
a l l emande dans l a q u e re l l e des t axes a u dé but de l a CECil . Ce t t e thèse ava i t
é t é écartée par u n Comi t é d u p l u s ha u t n i veau , pr é s i dé par l e Pr i x Nobe l
T I NBERGEN . On a v ai t montré q u e l ' essent i e l dans l a c oncu r r e nce é t a i t q u e
l es
i mpô t s
1 ' o r i gi ne
écartée .
payés p a r l e c onsomma t e u r so i e nt l es mêmes q ue l l e q u e s o i t
du
produ i t .
La t hèse a l l ema nde ava i t é t é t r ès l ég i t i me me n t
D u poi nt d e v u e q u i nou s occ u pe a u j our d ' hu i , s i c e t t e i dée ava i t
été
r e pr i se ,
et
la
Cornnd si on
n' a
pas
l'
l ' a bandonne r , l es capi t a u x se pré c i p i t e ra i e nt
favori sés dans l e u rs ventes par des taux plus
arri vera i t d ' u n po i nt de v u e macro-éco nomi q u e à
l es rece t t e s f i sc a l e s d e s pays qu i s o n t déj à
perdre des recettes a u x pays e n dé f i c i t .
ai r
d ' ose r
dé f i n i t i v e me nt
vers l e s pays qu i sera i e nt
et
on
bas de la T . V . A .
c e t t e absurd i t é d ' accr o i t r e
e xcédent a i res , e t de f a i r e
A ce prob l è me i l y a u ne sol u ti on s i mpl e , i l a f a l l u se ba t tr e
be a u c o u p pou r l a r é pandr e ,
l e Mi n i s tre f ra nç a i s s ' e n est a t t r i bu é l e
mé r i t e ,
l a vér i t é e s t q u e l ' a f f a i re ava i t é t é l ongueme n t e t d i ve rsme n t
préparée .
Ré f l é c h i ssons à
ce
q u ' est
la
T. V. A.
c ' est
un
i mpô t
où
l ' achete u r pa i e l e t a u x p l e i n s u r l a va l e u r d u produ i t , c e pe ndant q u e l e
vende u r dédu i t l e s i mpô t s pa yés e n amant . I l su f f i t de su ppr i me r l a t a xe
compensa t o i re
à
l ' entrée ,
et
du
même
c ou p . l ' Etat
où
se produ i t
la
c onsomma t i on t ou che l a tota l i t é d e son i mpô t sans a v o i r r i e n à récu pérer
s u r ce l u i qu i a u ra i t pré l evé sa d i me a u pussage . Ma l he u re u se me n t , l ' homme
qu i se prése nte i ndû me n t comme l ' i nve n t e u r de l a T . V . A .
a a pporté u n e
cont r i bu t i on i ncontestabl e e t dont on n ' a r r i ve pas à sor t i r : u ne année o ù
l e b u dget manqua i t d ' argent , on a i mag i né l e décal age o ù l e s a c h a t s ne sont
l e mo i s su i vant
il
e n résu l t e ra i t u ne
dédu c t i bl es des v e n t e s q u e
l es
pour l es achats f a i t s dans l eu r propore pays ,
d i st orsi o n pu i squ e ,
e n t repri ses f ont u ne avance à l ' Etat , c e pe ndant q u e , s i e l l es ne payent pas
de taxe compensat o i re sur l e u rs i mpor t a t i ons , e l l es ne pra t i qu e nt pas c e t t e
que
manoe u vre ,
pou r c o r r i g e r c e t t e f a u sse
I l fau t donc ,
même avance .
l ' i mpô t so i t i mmé d i at e me nt acqu i t é au pays d e dest i na t i on s u r l a par t i e
aj ou t é e >. I l f a u t a u s s i
d ' achats q u i sera dédu c t i b l e d u reste d e l a v a l e u r
mo i ndre
n ' ont p a s l a
les décotes q u i
e xonérat i ons e t
les
su ppr i mer
j u st i f i cat i on : que l ' on ne pré l è ve pas des i mp ô t s d i re c t s e xcessi f s s u r de
q u ' on l e u r pe r me t t e l égal e me nt
pe t i t es e n t re pr i ses , c ' est compréhens i bl e ;
de gardE�r l es i mpô ts g u ' ont é t é pré l evés s u r l es c onsomma t e u r s e t q u i
)
)
d o i v e nt é t re reversés à l ' Etat , c ' est u n e démagog i e dont l a France n ' a pas
à ê t re f i è re , et dont e l l e a u ra i t l ' occas i o n de se déba r rasse r .
Con t re ce t t e propos i t i on on fa i t va l oi r q u ' i l n ' y a pas de
contrô l es q u i p e r me t t e nt de savo i r s i des prod u i t s q u i se f ont e x o n é r e r
s o n t e f fe c t i veme n t vendus dans u n a u t r e pa ys . Qu ' on r e ma r q u e a u passage q u e
l e sys t è me q u i a va i t é t é u n mo me n t sou t e n u pa r l a Commi ssi on abou t i ssa i t à
·
des pra t i qu e s t ot a l e me n t d i f f é r e n t e s su i va n t g u ' i l s ' a g i ssa i t d ' u ne v e n t e
d a n s u n pays d e l a Commu nau té ou d a ns
n pa y s t i ers i
e t on n e v o i t pas
t rès prat i q u e me nt comme nt o n s ' y seru i t pr i s si la ve n t e a u pa ys t i ers
t ransi t a i t à t r avers un pays de la Commu na u t é . Ma i s à c e prob l è me i l y a
u n e r éponse t rè s s i mp l e .
La Commi ss i on a c o n f ondu l a su ppress i on des
f r ont i ères et la su ppr e ss i o n de s contrô l es a u x f ro n t i è res . A u x E t a t s- Un i s ,
l e s d i f f é r e n t s Etats ont des syst è mes f i sc a u x d i f f ér e n t s ,
i l y a donc e n
po i n t i l l é des f ront i è res f i sca l e s , i l n ' y a p a s po u r a u t a nt de c on t r ô l e a u x
s ' opé r e r d ' u n e man i ère très s i mpl e . Q u e l e
f r o nt iè re s . L a v é r i f i c a t i o n
vende u r pa i e par prov i s i on à l ' E t a t dans l e q u e l i l se s i t u e , e t q u ' i l so i t
rembou rsé q u a nd i l fou r n i ra l e doc u me n t pro u v a n t d ' u ne pa r t qu ' i l a é t é
payé en prove n a nce de 1 ' é t range r ,
e t d ' a u tre par t q u e son ache t e u r a
acqu i t t é l a T . V . A à son propre Gou ve r neme n t . V o i l à g u i n ' empêche e n r ] e n
l es échange s ,
a l or s
q e
t o u s c e u x q u i v ou l a i e n t c on s i dér e r g u e t o u t e
e xonéra t i on e x i gea i t
l e lilD. i nt i e n des c o n t r ô l e s a c t u e l s f e r o n t r i r e l es
gens compé t e n t s ; à q u i fera- t - o n
c ro i re q u e , q u a n d u n cami o n t ra nsporte
6 0 c a i sses , l e s doua n i ers pe u v e n t e f f e c t i veme n t en véri f i e r le contenu ?
Et
n ' a- t - o n
j ama i s
e nt e n d u
par l e r
des
f r a u des
prod i gi e u se s
qui
se
man i festent
à
l ' e xport a t i on
en
de hors
de
la
Commu na u t é
de
produ i t s
a gr i c o l e s q u i
s o r t e n t par
u n por t ,
bé n é f i c i e n t
des
rest i t u t i ons ,
et
rentrent p a r u n a u t r e ?
L e contrô l e propo�>é r e sse mb l e à ce l u i q u i deva i t
j auer d a ns l e doma i ne i nt é r i e u r ,
où l e s a ch at s des u n s f o u r n i ssen t u n
r e c o u pe me n t s u r l e s achats des a u t r e s . De u x déta i l s s u p p l ément a i re s . L e s
verrte s p a r c or resp o nda nce s o n t f a i t e s pa r d e s e n t r e p r i ses su f f i samme n t
i nf ormées des ma rchés d e s a u t re s p a y s pour q u ' o n l e u r i mpose de me t t r e
dans l e u rs pr i x l a t axe du pays dest i na t a i re , a u q u e l e l l es l e r e verseront .
Quant
au
traf i c
frontal ier
ou
a u x t ou r i st e s
dé j à a u j ourd ' h u i
l es
contrô l e s so n t fa l b l e s e t l e s f r a nc h i ses s o n t l a r ges ,
on paye e n f a i t
l ' i mpôt du pay s de produ ct i on . Su r l a p l u pa r t des pr odu i t s i l n ' e n résu l t e
pas de d ésé q u i U . b r e s mass i f s ,
y u e ce s o i t s u r l ' a l i me ntat i on ou su r
l ' h a b i l l e me n t ,
et
l e s q u e l q u e s prod u i t s s u r . l esq u e l s au c o n t ra i re l e s
d i storsi ons e t l es d é t o u r n e me nt s ùe t ra f i c pou r ra i e n t s e ma n i f e s t e r sont de
ceux qu i sont sou m i s , soi t à l ' i mma t r i c u lê.1 t i o n , s o i t en o u tre à des t a xes
a nn ue l l es , q u ' i l s ' ag i sse des v o i t u r e E; ou des appa r e i l s de t é l é v i s i o n . Et
l es pa ys dest i na t a i res a u r o n t a i n s i t o u s l e s moy e n s de rat tr a per l e s t a xe s
q u i a u r a i e n t é t é i nd û me n t pa yées à d ' a u t r e s
taux en éta i t p l u s
u
peut
u
parccfue l e
bas .
Passons à u n d e u x i è me t h è me du mou v e me n t de ca pl t a u x se d i r i ge a n t
v e r s d e s e nt r e pr i ses : i l s s o n t é v i d emme nt t n f l u e n c é s p a r l e s prof i t s . S i
e n t r e pr i se s
des
béné f i ces
l es
sur
ou
soc i é té s
l es
sur
i mpô t s
l es
sé r i eu se s
très
de
r i sq u e
on
même s ,
les
pas
sont
ne
i nd i v i du e l l es
Il
I c i i l ne f a u t p a s pousser l e s d i f f i cu l t és"à l ' e x t r ê me .
d i st orsi ons .
n ' est pas nécessa i re q u e l es t a u x des i mpô t s so i e n t l es mê me s . Ce q u i est
essen t i e l c ' est que l ' é c he l l e de ces i mpô t s n e mod i f i e pas la renta b i li té
c ompara t i ve , e n d ' a u t res t e r me s CJ U e l e s béné f i ces après i mJ=>ô t se si t u e n t
dans l e même ordre e t a u même rang q u e l es béné f i ces a v a n t i mpô t . Par
-- !.; .
a i l l e u rs i l est dé r i so i re de c o mparer t o u j ours l es t a u x sans cons i dé re r
l ' ass i e t t e des i mpô t s . N o s e n t r e p r i se s o n t u n e ce r t a i n e t e ndance à c i t e r
l es t a u x a ppa r e mme nt t rè s rédu i t. s u u xg u e .l s p l a f on n e n t l es i mpô t s s u r l es
pa rt i c u l i e r s a u ssi b i e n q n e s u r ) es en t r e pr i sc�s d e pu i s l e s r é f ormes du
P r é s i de n t
REAG A N .
On
ou b l i e d e nous d i r e q u e� pr a t i q u e me nt t o u t e s l es
déùu c t i. ons o n t d i spa r u , e t i l n ' e s t pas e x c l u g u e l e s i mpô t s so i e nt p l u s
l ourds q u ' avant , c ' e s t e n e f f e t c e q u i s e passe e n c e q u i concerne l es
e ntrepri ses .
Quant à
l ' t mpos i t i on des r e v e n u s d e s capi ta u x ,
a bou t i à a u cu n accord .
l es d i sc u s s i ons à
Bruxe l l e s n ' ont
Une
prem1 e r e propos i t i o n é t a i t q u e l e s ba nques d é c l a r e n t l es
i n t é rê t s e t ct i v i de nd.es q u ' e l l e s v e rse n t , q u ' il
s ' a g i sse d ' u n r é s i dent ou
d ' u n non- ré s i de nt : o n a h o n te de pe n s e r q u e n e u f membres de la Commu na u t é
su r
douze
ont
r e f u sé
ce
syst è me
de
dé c l a ra t i o n
c omme
c o n t ra i re
a u secret ba n c a i r e , d a n s l e même t e m ps q u ' o n t r ou ve t o u t à f a i t n o r ma l q u e
l e s e n t r e pr i ses d éc l a rent a u f i sc l e s s a l a i r e s d e l e u r s e mpl oyés .
Une
Commi ss i o n v i g ou r e use a u ra i t obt e n u un accord g u i répond à la j u st i ce l a
p l us
é l é me nta i re
si
elle
a va i t
me nacé
d ' i nc i t e r
la
Con f é d é ra t i on
:Eu ropéenne d e s Sy n d i c a t s à d é c l a r e r u n e grè v e g é n é ra l e des i mpô t s par
1 ' ensemb l e des sa l a r i é s , e n n ' o u b l i a n t pas qu ' i l s r e pr é s e n t e n t l es 5 / 6è me s
de s c o n t r i bu ab l e s . Ce t t e s o l u t i o n a dune é t é r e f u sé e . O n a pr oposé a l ors u n
p r é l è v e me nt à l a so u r ce q u i ser a j_ t i mmé d i n t eruen t l e vé pnr l e s banq u e s , l e
t n u x p r opo sé é t n l t de 1 5% , l ' A ll e ma g ne a f a j t l ' e xpé r i e n c e d ' u n t a u x de
1 0 % , e l l e a été i mmé d i a t e me n t v i c t i me d ' u n t ra n s f e r t de ca pi tau x su pé r i eu r
à
100
mi l l i a r ds d e marks v e r s l e b n v r e f i sc a l d u L u xe mb o u rg . E l l e n e
pou va i t
mi e u x a v o u e r
l e s f ra u d e s q u ' e l l e a v a i. t
t o l érées
j u s q u ' a l or s ,
pu i sq u ' a u c u ne ù i sp o s i t i o n du c ode f i sc a l n l l e ma n d ne d i spe nse l es r ev e n u s
d e s ca p i t au x d e pay e r l ' i mpô t , d ' a u t a n t p l u s q u e c ' est u n pa ys q u i pra t i qu e
e n o u t re l ' i mpô t g é né r a l sur l e cap i t a l .
O n a é t é ame né à se contenter de dé c l arat i ons s u r l a c o rd i na t i on
des contr6 l e s : q u a n d n e u f pa y s s u r douze re f u se n t l a d é c l a rat i on par l es
banqu e s , o n v o i t q u ' i l ne s ' a g i t q u e d ' u ne r é po ns e p u r e me nt verba l e . Ma i s
d u c o u p c e r t a i ns pay s ont é t é c o n t ra i nt s à des mesu r es pol i c i ères , e n
e x i geant l a déc l ar a t i on par l es d é t e n t e u rs de cap i t a u x e t par l e u r s banques
des t ra ns f e r t s à l ' é t r ange r .
Quand on re f u s.e des mesu res à
la f o i s
é l égantes e t
équ i tabl es,
on
abo u t i t
à
de s
sol u t i on s q u i
sont a u ssi
dépl a i santes q u ' i ne f f i caces . .
I l n ' e st pas i mposs i bl e d ' i ma g i n e r u ne so l u t i on où l a f i sca l i t é ,
f a i re c o n c u r r e n c e à l ' é par g n e , y i nc i t e v i goure use me n t sans
de
u
e
i
l
au
q u i au c o n t ra i re rédu i se l e s i néga l i t é s de
l es i né g a l i té s ,
accro î t re
f or t u ne , e t q u i f i na l e me nt t ndu i se la dé c l a r a t i o n spontanée des capi t a u x
q u ' o n a p l a c é s à l ' é t ra n g er .
Premi ère remarque : ce n ' est pas l a ba i sse de l ' i mpô t q u i. s u f f i t
accro î t re l ' é pa r g n e , l ' e x p é r i e n ce REAGAN g u i pré t e n da i t rechercher c e t t e
j u s t i f i cat i on v e rt u e u se e s t su f f i sa mme n t dé monst ra t i ve . Le _,.t a u x d ' é pa rg ne ,
pe u t - ê t r e p o u r des r a i sons démogrnpb l qu e s , ma i s ce n ' est pas n o t r e suj e t ,
n ' a j ama i s é t é p l u s bas . Et i l s ' e s t t ou t s i mp l e me n t . pa ss é q u e l a ba i sse
des i mp6 t s a accru l a c o ns o mma t i o n et déc l e n c h é un d é f i c i t e xt é r i e u r q u i
est u n s c a n d a l e pou r l e mo nd e , pu i s q u e c ' e s t l e pa ys l e p 1 u s r i c he q u i
à
1
)
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l es
f onds dont
on
a u ra i t
t e l l e me nt
beso i n p o u r sor t i r de
la
mi sère
les pays en d é ve l oppeme n t .
Il
s ' a g i ra i t
l ' on regarde
o n s ' a pe rc o i t
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l ors du
l oi
qu ' i l
MONORY ,
qu i
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s i mp l e
e n lliD. t i è r e
a va i t
de
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t axa t i ons
les
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n ' y a pas u ne
ou
s u bst i t u é ,
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d ' a ss u r a n c e
Si
Dans cert a i ns cas
i mmob i l i e r s ,
l a rgeme n t
l ' é pargne
u n i f o r me .
f i sca l i t é f r a nç a i se ,
f a ve u r .
a l or s
sur
la
me l i - mé l o .
pe t i t e
c u r i e u se me n t ,
c e rt a i ns
on
syst è me
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Assez
a
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il
ne
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ou
l ' é pargne ,
moment
c o n t r a i re
l es i nc i t a t i ons q u e d o n n e
s ' agi t
p l aceme n t
d ' é pa r g ne
au
qu e l l e s sont
pré t e nd
a u ss i
la
c ompte
e nc ourager
e l l e - mê me ,
tout
de
le
par
e x e mp l e
bien
que
par
revenus
des
l ' i mpô t s de bou rse .
L ' a u t re
capi tau x ,
e l l es
du
Mu t u e l
Créd i t
f i sca l
comme
sur
au
au
prendre
ac t i ons .
et
On
de
doit
l es
plus
l es
i nc i t a t i ons
deux
const i t u e r
accorda i t
un
:
c ' é ta i t
c o mport a i t
une
r e t ra i te
ret i r e ra i t .
la
plus
u ne
au
pré l è veme nt
en
g r os
bou t
qu i
un
l i béra t u :i re
e st
sur
rédu i t e ,
et
dont
e n d ' a u t res t e rmes ce
d ' a u t ant
plus
d ' argen t
S i ngu l i è r e
sur
en
marg i na l
aux
de
ce
qu i
qu ' i l s
du
c ô té
et
moyens
de
i ncroya b l e é t a i t
du
Mi n i stre
e mp l oyés
verse me nt s ,
que
la
a va i t
au
i ma g i né g u e
des
s i ngu l i e r
qu i
qu ' o n
t r a nche
proposé
prof i ta b l e
s u pé r i e u r
se
à
et
ret r a i t e
c ' est
Mi n i st re
a va i e nt
du
obl i ga t i ons ,
r e t ra i t e"
n ' est
est
j u s t i ce ,
l i vr e t
l ' avoir
à
revenus
plus
l es
Mi n i st r e a va i t
la
en
revenus
f a i f;a i t
d ' i mpô t
du
J rr a t i onn e l l e ,
l e s comp l é me n t s de
c on tr i bu a b l es
not i on
le
l es
outre
ou
vue
fai t
aux
d ' é pargne
l i bé ra t o i re
pré l è ve me nt
é l evés .
taux
f or t e s
sur
on
gue ,
à
l e r e v e n u s i gn i f i e
cont r i bu a b l e s
:
où
su i t e
Le cas
" pl a n
moment
pre l è ve me nt
le
le
o b l i ga t i ons ,
s ' i nvest i r
plus
d é du c t i . on
T o u t e d é d u c t i on
é l evée
l es
les
tout
à
revenus
l es
l i vr e t s A
l es r e v e n u s des obl i ga t i ons
de
e st
sur
des
sur
tuut
ma r c h é des act i o n s .
bou t s
qu i
f a v e u rs
l ' i mpô t
r e ma rq u e r
i nc i te
au
des
p l a f onnée
c ombi n a i s o n
c o n t ra i re
BALLADU R ,
l ' a u t re
sont
a u x a bat teme n t s s u r
cette
l es r i sq u e s du
d ' agi r
ce
l ' exonérat i on
p l a f onneme n t
f i na nc i e r ,
pu i squ ' e l l e
d onne
de
l es a c t i ons ,
des
marché
mé t hode ,
vont
à
qu ' aux
taux
de
ce
l ' E ta t rende
revenus
plus
e nc o u ra g e me n t
à
l ' épargne .
dédu c t i o n au
sur
ceux
la
c o n t r a i re
A l ors
tout
d ' i mp ô t
su r
est
pou r c e n t age
revenus
plus
moye ns ,
S I CA V
plan
d ' Etat ,
t i tre
on
On pe u t s e demander s i
d ' é pa rgne
sans
popu l a i re ,
ma i s avec exonéra t i on des r e v e n u s
c a p i t a l i sa t i on ,
de
en
mis
sont
obj ec t i f s
ont
qu e l l e
pou r
ils
un
vend
des
donnent
qui
mécan i smes
reserve ,
dé mocra t i q u e s ,
où
on
sont
ne
pu i sq u ' i l s
ne
ve rse
pas
des
n ' i n t é ressent
pour t ou c h e r de l ' argent , e t par c onséq u e n t
i mmé d i at e me n t beso i n d ' u n c o mp l é me n t d e r e v e nu s .
a t t e ndre
l ' heure
revenu ,
le
qu ' on
en
à
On
le
i lllLl g i n é ,
l ' arge n t ,
l es
où
ma i s
aux
i l s exc l u e n t c e u x q u i
par l é
o n verse
fin,
pe u ve n t
qu i
été
a
qu i
où
revenus
l es
mécan i smes
que
il
re t i rera
qu ' on
r i en
mome n t
t ype, de 'Pl a c e me n t o u b l i e n t de
l ' argent .
l ' E t a t v o u s v e r s e de
et
méc a n i sme
nouveau
chaque
l ' a r b i t rage .
et
l ' é pa rgne
entre
d i s t i nguer
a c h è t e u ne a c t i on ,
le
d i spa r a t e s à
part i c u l i è r e s e t
des
que
su r p l u s
au
r e ma r q u e r a
On
f a v e u rs
la
est
de
pu i sq u e
mi s
l ' é pargne
évi ter
r i che .
so l u t i on
s ' é t a i e nt
Et
u ne
sur
l aq u e l l e
d ' a c c ord
ne t t e .
l ' i nj u s t i ce
où
?
Ce
Rédu c t i o n
on
est
l es
e x pe r t s
n;ne
sera i t
et
non
d ' a u t.ant
dont
j ' ai
r é d uc t i on
pas
d é d u c t i on
plus
rembou rsé
même r é du c t i o n d ' i mpô t p o u r u n c e r t a i n montant
du
même
coup
i nc i t a t- i on
plus
forte
pou r
l es
d ' é pa r g n e
de
r e pr é s e n t e
l ' i mpô t
que
propor t i o nne l l e me n t
l ' i n t é r e ssé
ne
se
si tue
é l e vées .
sa l t
On
i mpô t
su r
proj e t
le
que
revenu
av a i t
été
l ' i mposi t i o n
N i chol as
un
i mp ô t
r e pr i s
d i re c t e .
c h e r c h a i e nt ,
c ' é ta i t
par
moi
à
l ' é pa rgne
r e v e nu
que
la
l u i - même
i mpos i t i o n
était
e nsu i t e
ce
qu i
e f f i ca c e ,
fai l le
Lu xembou r g ,
on
Et
aura
par
Ne
gue
du
mu l t i p l e
l ' e nsemb l e
et
d ' a u t a nt
hommes
apparent
et
et,
l es
f or me s d e
ce
sur
r e v e nu s ,
syst è me ,
que
de
Le
les
taux
i n t e r v i e nne n t ,
u ne
accesso i r e me n t
1 ' é t e nd u e
q u a nd
qu ' i l s
de
me
de
la
j ' étais
a va i e n t
f ra u d e .
l ' i nv i t é
sur
d i sa n t , " s :i
vous
et
de
il
voi r
J ' é pa r g n e
le
pl us
mé ca n i sme
s a ns
capi taux
sans
d ' un
de
l es
on
me t
son
argent
à
ln
a ve c
les
Grande
taux
plus
c ' est
g é n é r a l i sa t i o n
est
l es
Bre t a g ne ,
f a i bl e
ce
sur
pa r
et
que
le
é t ai t
s n. l ar i é s
le
pa t r i mo i ne
su rtaxe
plus
est
j ' ava i s
sur
r e ndeme n t
ù ne
de
ont
barême
ma i n t e na n t
cet
d u pe r i e
des
5 / 6 è me s
l ' l mpô t
p r og r e ss i v e
a nt i - é c o nomi q u e
p l us
sur
vertu
le
d ' autant
pl u s
qui
d ' c->. n t r e pr i se
For u m Eu r o pé e n
mo i ,
de
et
l i mi t e r
de
ont
qu ' i l s
l i mi t a i t
f r an ç a i s
Da vus ,
reconnu
q u i d (w ra i e nt
Ja
f or t
concu rrence
au
a ppara i t r e
d i f férences
l es
sans que
revenu ,
de
l ' i mp ô t
l a Commu na u t é
pour
f a i sa i t
l ' E u r o pe
le
a u tres
su rcharge
L ' autre
réd i gé
et
de
des
c ' est
l es
qu ' el l e
prod u c t i f .
pr é s i d é
capi t a l
che f s
est
e s t dans
des r e c o u pe me n t s pou r l ' ass i e t t e d e
le
est
t ax e
l u i - même
capi t a l
r e pr é se n t e n t
véri tabl e
u ne
l ' i mpô t
et
s i m p l e me n t
le
r e ve n u
u ne
de
sur
l ' a u t re
c o mp l é t é
mo n t r e n t
que
sa l a i r e s
l ' aba t t e me nt
i n t e l l i ge nt s
sa l a i r e s
l es
la
entre
1 ' u ne
r e ve n u ,
concurre n t i e l l e
autour
déc l arés ,
r -e v e n u .
gu ' i l
que
Les
pouvez
le
re v e n u
du
le
d ' autant
sur
du
à
d' un
l es
j e pr oposa i s ,
o rga n i sé
r e c o u p e me n ts q u e
un
l i gn e s ,
sur
revenus
u n t a u x proport i o n n e l
f o u rn i t
taxe
le
l eur
é c o n om i q u e me n t
si
dist i nguent
s t a t :i s:;l i qu e s
s u ppur t e nt
de
système
sur
é l ev é
sur
capac i t é
t i ra i e nt
Etats
ce
e mp r u n l é
que
r a p por t
la
sur
ca l c u l
que
de
a c q u i s i t i ans
outre
de
plus
a
é t udes
est
a
pa y s
l ' i mp ô t
propo r t i on
qu ' i l
le
des
même
a de u x mé t h ode s ,
c o n s é qu e n t ,
qui
à
c ' est
revenu .
le
Eu ropé e n n e
par
14
c a l cu l
rec e t t e s ,
mou v e me n t s
y
d ' a f f a i res
a u t re s
1 ' i nv e s t J. sseme n t
l es
pl us
oubl i e
le
bé n é f i c i é .
capi ta l
l ' a ba t t e me nt
c o n t r i bu a b l e s
leur,
l es
n' y
c ou p l e r
un t a u x progress i f
que
a v a n t age
i J
le
gue
ma i s e n
pu i sq u e ,
il
Tous
par c o n sé q u e n t
Les
reconnu
pas
de
pu i sq u e
q u ' u ne
co nsé q u e n t q u ' o n d e v ra r e mbou r s e r l a r é d u c t i o n
Fra nce
sur
pr oport i o n ne l ,
su r
qu ' i l s
c ' est-à-di re
l es
sys t è me
des
ce
reconnu
c ompr e na i t
1 ' excès
du
l'
ce
à l e dé c l a r e r à Par i s pou r obte n i r l a r é d u c t i o n
d é pa r t
?
il
toutes
a l ors
équi tabl e ,
c ap i t a u x ,
ma i s
la
cô t é ,
c ' est
su i t e ,
au
et
à
que
rapport
que
ont
a i l l e u rs
comp l e xe ,
l i bé r a t i o n
par
ba r ê me
d i f f é r e nt i e l l e
p l u s é l evé ,
la
capi tal
r e ve n u s ,
sa l a i res
un
de
f a u dr a i t - i l
le
l ' u n i forml t é
est
plus
la
et
on a va i t
de
par
d épa r t
et
e s t d ' a u t a n t p l u s i nc i t a t r i c e
c o ns i dérabl e ,
Et
pas se u l e me n t
a v a n t a ge
si ,
sur
l es a u tres
le
f u i tes
a
mis
s ' agi t
l i q u i dé ,
d ' i mpô t d o n t
l es
ne
de
s i mp l e
pe r me t t r e
des
d ' i mp ô t .
stock
été
so c i a l e me n t
pour
l ' i mpô t
ava i t
Il
d é c l e nc h e r
qu ' o n
le
p a r f a i t e me nt
l i q u i da t i on s .
é l evé .
gra nd
Us
f or t e
su bst i t u e r
sn v o i r
Car
t rouvé .
pl u s
g l oba l e ,
son
fait
g l oba l e
de
d é p e nse
dans
m ' ont
pl us
sera i t
d ' au tant
i n�a g i n é
la
MEADE
dé pe nse
pl u s
su r
deux
e x t r a or d i na i r e me n t
addi t i onner
est
J a mes
r é du c t i o n
a va i t
l ' a v a .i s
la
d é pe nse
fal l a i t
nette
KALDOR
l es
qu i
s e ra i t
une
progress i f
Tous
i mposi t i o n progress i ve s u r
pn s d a n s u n e d e s t r a nches l e s p l u s
prat i q u a i e n t
c o n s i d é r ab l e me n t
q u e ··· 'j e
l ' a va nt a g e
s ' é t e nd r e à
d é l oy a l e
r e n c ontra i
d' un
cours
dé j e u ne r
d e s s y s t è me s
l ' E u r ope ,
que
nous
en
f ont
ceux
qu i
vol ent
l ' Etat
à
la
fois
su r
la
T, V.
A.
et
sur
l ' i mpô t
sur
l es
béné f i ces , n o u s sommes avec vous" . U n a u t re avant age d ' u n e i mpos i t i on du
c a p i t a l , c ' est qu ' e l l e i nc i t e à son e mp l o i l e pl us produ ct i f au dé t r i me n t
des rési dences seconda i re s .
E t j e d i ra i s a u pa ssage que l a t e chn i qu e
f i anç a i se q u i exonère l es t r o i s q u a r t s d e l a va l e u r des bo i s e t f or ê t s est
e x a c te me n t l e c o n t ra i re de c e qu ' j l f a u dr a i t f a i re , le r é su l tat est que ces
f or ê t s ne sont pas e xp l o i t é e s , e t qu e . l e pay s qui en possède la ma sse l a
p l u s é t e n du e deme u r e i mportateu r , n. l ors q u e l a bonm� mé t hode c ons i st e a u
contra i re à i mposer u n e charge f i xe g u i ne pe u t ê t r e couverte q u e s i l ' on
e xp l o i te de f a ç on ra t i onne l l e ces bo i s e t f or ê l s .
I l f a u t b i e n a u ss i pa r l e r
l ' i mpos i t i on des pl u s - va l u e s . S i o n
l i t l e s oe u vres d e H I CKS , o n v o i t q u e l es p l us-va l u es sur l e capi t a l
d o i ve n t ê t re c o ns i dérées comme u n r e v e nu , s :l ce l u i - c i est dé f i n i comme c e
q u e l ' on p e u t dé pe nser sans s ' a ppa u vr i r . Les so l u t i ons d o i v e n t ê t r e t rè s
si mp l es
et
i mmé d i a t eme nt
compr é he ns i 'b l e s .
D ' abor d ,
au
rebours
des
dé format i ons du proj e t q u i ont é t é i n t r odu i t es par u ne h a u te a u t or i té e n
France , l e système do i t ê t re u ni f orme , s ' a pp l i qu e r d e l a même man i èr e a u x
t i t res e t a u x b i ens i mmobi l i er s , p o u r pe r me t t re u ne gest i o n rat i on ne l l e du
pat r i mo i ne q u i ne s o i t pas d i stordue par la d i f f é re nc e des i mpos i t i an s . La
propos i t i on q u i a va i t été f a i t e a u Conse i l Economi q u e Franç a i s , c ' é t a i t q u e
l es p l u s - va l u e s r é a l i sées so i e n t acc ompagnées
d ' u ne dou b l e correct i on d e
l a va l e u r d ' e ntrée ; i ndexat i on s u r l es p ri x , e t d ' a u t r e p a r t add i t i on à
c e t t e va l e u r d ' u n i nt ér ê t f i c t i f , l u i - mê me i ndexé , par a n n é e de dé t e nt i on :
i l devra i t a l l e r de s o i
qu ' obten i r 5 0 % de ma j ora t i on e n c i nq j ou r s ou e n
c i nquante a ns ne c onst i t u e pas l e même r e ndeme nt du capi t a l .
de
I l f a u t e nc ore d i re u n mot des d r o i ts de success i on ou p l u s
génér a l e ment des dro i ts de mu t a t i on à t i t r e grat. u 'i t . I l e x i st e s u r c e po i n t
des t e ndances d i vergentes en Eu r ope .
La France e t ,
se mb l e -t - i l ,
a u ss i
l ' Al l emagne , o n t d e s t a u x p l u s bas , d e s a ba t t e me n t s f o rt s , e t d e s t a u x
i nter mé d i a i re s
q u a nd
il
s' agit
de
la
l i gne
d i recte ,
et
un
f ossé
i nf ra n c h i ssabl e
avec
l e s a u tres
l i gnes de
dévol u t i on
qu i ,
a ve c
des
aba t t e me nts dé r i so i res ,
su pportent i JlllDé d i a tement des t a u x t o u t à f a i t
e xcessi f s . Le ré s u l t a t est de pr i ve r de t o u t dr o i t de d i spos i t i on e f f ec t i ve
ce l u i q u i a gagné e t épa r g n é ,
en assu rant au c on t ra i re u ne protect i on
abso l u e contre l a concu rrence à ce l u i qu i ,
pou r r e prendre l e mot de
BEAUMARCHA I S , s ' est t o u t j u st. e donné l a pe i ne de Ji a î t re .
C ' e n est a u poi n t q u e l es A mé r i ca i ns se dema n d e nt pourqu o i n o u s
prat i qu ons des dro i ts d e success i on pu i squ e , a u l i e u de re d i st r i bu e r l a
i l s f i ge n t l a f or t u ne dans l es
f or t u ne e t de r e no u ve l e r l es é l i te s ,
c ' e s t - à- d i re à
l e u rs
i l s f on t cou r i r a u x e n t repr i se s ,
d ynast i e s .
Et
l e r i sque du r é t ab l i sseme nt de
ce qu i s ' est mon t r é s i
t ra va i l l eu rs ,
hasarde u x dans l ' h i st o i re , l a monar ch i e h é r éd i t a i re .
Cependant
des
cand i t i ans
taux
tout
à
fai t
1 • o n rédu i se ou
sur
la
par
mé d i ca l e ,
en
de
du
ma n i ère
bou r se ,
une
l es
achats
le
pas
des
l es
d ' n ne
taux
si
est
à
du
t i tre
gra t u i t
ca p i t a l
ma i s
ce l a
devra i t
à
dans
à
des
e x i ger a i t
que
cas
l es
de
d i spara î t r e
d ' u ne
je
l ' i mpô t
c o n t re
en
ou
é l e vé
n ' e n o n t pa s ,
venus
d ' apport
écon omi q u e
e n t r e pr i se
t rè s
c o n t r a i re
n o u vea u x
droi ts
tout
g e st i o n
détent i on
bonne
por t e s u r ceu x q u i
concurrence
t ransmi ssi o n
la
f a sse
Fra nce
n ' était
la
et
d i spa ra î t re l e s d r o i t s s o u v e n t t r è s é l e v é s
capi tal ,
ce r1 u ' o n appe l l e
l e s mu t a t i o n s à t i t r e
mê me q u ' on
condi t i o n qu ' i l
la
t a xe r a i t
s u ppor t a b l e s ,
e x e mp l e ,
où
bourge o i s i e
l ' on
ra t i o n n e l l e s ,
c i rcu l at i on
o n é re u x ,
mê me
que
plus
sur
le
et gtt '
comme
de
que
la
à
la
capi ta l ,
il
s i t u a t i o ns
f u s i on
c l i entè l e
d i sa i s
serve à é c a r t e r
a c q u i se s .
soc i é t é s ,
c o n t r a j re
à
De
l es
la
la
i mpô t s
me i l l e u re
u t i l i sa t i o n des c ap i t a u x .
De
réu n i r
un
l u sorte
accord
su bst i t u e r
Il
me
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pa r l e
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n ' est
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et
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t q u ' a u c u n e u n i on moné t a i r e
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que
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pas se u l e me n t
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l ' a cc o r d de
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r e ssou rce s ,
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le
A l l enk'l f:ine .
l ' autre
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Ma i s
ses
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Mo n é t a i re .
qu ' i l
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l a c o nverge nce des c ompé t e nces .
i mpru demme nt
premi è r e
j ' ai
u na n i me
c e n ' est
deux autres
f a c t e u rs j ou e n t
un
r6 l e
domi n a n t ,
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l es
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pe u ve nt
dé l i t s
de
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ma i s
d ' i n i t iés
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f on dé s s u r
la
pas
cas
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spé c i a l i s t e s .
i ls
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ma r c h é
tout
autre
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e x i gence
le
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budget
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des
sera i t
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et
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non
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Boys ,
a f f a i re
le
la
e n t re
me i l i e u r e
perme t t e n t
s i t u a t i ons
l a moder n i sa t i on d e s ma r c h é s ,
c o n t re
i l s r é vè l e nt à q u e l
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qui
du
on a
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d ' u ne
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revenus
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ma r c h é
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de
le
r e connue
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d ' un
pa i e
et
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ne
l ocata i re
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le
pour
l ' espace
l o ye r .
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pa r
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a
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E ta t s ,
ne
rn t i onne l l e
prod u c t i f s
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l u xu e u x
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de
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t rè s
que
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Pourq u o i
pr i v i l i g i ée
comp l é me nt e mpr u nt é ,
l oc a l
pol i t i q u e
les
l ' i mpos i t i o n d e s r e v e n u s
un
qu ' à
d ' une
entre
i :mmro o b i l i e rs .
é v i demme nt
une
e x i gence
l e s p o l i t i q u e s budgé t a i res e t
r e l a t i on a v e c l a produ c t i v i t é .
moye n n e
c o mmu na u � é s
les
pour
du
les
d ' é ga l i sa t i o n
le
pa y s .
et
pl u s
de
red i s t r i bu t i o n qu i est u ne des t â c he s maj e u re s de l a pu i ssance p u b l i q u e .
Des
proposi t i ons
qui
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été
fai tes
et
gui
ont
été
oubl i ée s
t ra ns f orma i e n t l e s bases f on d é e s s u r l es candi t i ons de l ogeme n t e n u n
i nd i ce f i abl e d u revenu par t ê t e . C ' 6 ta i t p l u s ra i sonnabl e q u e d e v ou l o i r ,
pou r u ne part i e ,
a j o u t e r u n c o mp l é me n t à l ' i mpô t s u r l e revenu , quand o n
sa i t q u e dans l e cas de l (j_ Fra nce , u n ca l c u l s i mp l e mo n t r e q u e l e s non­
sa l ar i é s ne pa i e nt pro bab l e me n t pa s l e t i e r s d e c e q u ' i l s dai ve nt . Des
proposi t i ons
qu i
av a i e n t
été
é l a bo r é e s
a u pa r a v a n t
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au
contra i re à i nt é resser les é l u s l ocrwx ù un me i l l e u r f o nc t i onneme n t de
l ' i mpô t d ' Etat .
Cet e xposé , i né vi t a b l en1e n t , a t ou c hé des po i nt s très d i vers e t
f o u rn i t des r é p o nses t e c h n i q u e s c a s pn r c a s . C e q u ' i 1 fa udra i t t e nt e r de
syn t hé t i se r ma i n t e na n t ,
c ' e s t l ' o r i e nt a t i on g é né r a l e g u e d e vr a i e n t prendre
l es
f i nances
pu b l i qu e s .
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le
f onc t i o n n e me nt
des
ma rc h é s
doi t
f a v or i se r
l ' e mp l o i ,
i l est c l a i r q u e ce u ' e s t pas a u j ourd ' h u i l e cas .
A i nsi l a taxe profess i onne l l e f ra n ç a i se ne f a :i. t pr a t i q u e me n t r i e n pa yer a u x
c h e f s d ' e ntrepr i se q u i t ra v a i l l ent seu l s , e t i l y a t o u t d ' u n c o u p u n
ressa u t s ' i l s e mbau c h e n t u n e mp l o y é o u u n c o mp a g n o n : c ' est e xac t e me n t l e
cont ra i re des i nc i ta t i ons q u ' i l c o n v i e n d T a H de donner . De même i l est
a bsurde q u e le f i na nc eme n t des a l l oca t i ons f a m i l i a l e s , a l ors q u e toute l a
popu l at i o n e n p r o f i t e , re pose s u r des cot i sa t i ons des e n t r e p r i s e s : c e doi t
ê t r e u n e ch a r ge de l ' e nse mb l e d e s c i t oy e ns .
Un a u t r e e f fort d o i t ê t r e d e contra i nd r e l e s Amé r i ca i ns à rédu i re
et f i na l eme n t à é l i mi ne r l e u r dé f i. c i t : c ' est u n v é r i t a b l e d é v o i e me n t du
mou ve me n t des capi t a u x dans le monde , c ' est l a c n u s c d ' u ne hausse des t a u x
d ' i nt é r ê t , e t par consé qu e n t d ' u ne l i mi t a t i o n d e l ' i nvest i sseme n t dans l es
a u t re s pay s , c ' est f i na l eme n t , e t c ' es t l à l e p l u s grave , u n b l ocage d u
d é v e l oppe me nt du t i ers monde qu i é t a i t l ongt e mps pr i s e n t re l a ba i sse de ce
q u ' i l venda i t et la hau sse des i nt é r ê t s q u ' i l paya i t .
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moyens d e
l u tte
contre
l ' i n f l a t i on .
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s ' en
r e met t r e
à
l a pol i t i que
moné t a i re , c ' e s t - à- d i re à l ' i n t e r ve nt i o n d e s ban q u e s c e n t r a l es , so i t su r l a
q u a n t i t é de
monn a i e ,
s o i t d i re c t e me n t ou
i ndi r e c t e me n t s u r l e s t a u x
d ' i n t é rê t , o n abou t i t à c e r é s u l t a t paradoxa l g u e ) a t e ndance a u p l e i n
e mp l o i f a i t ba i sser l a b o u rs e ,
l ' acc r o i sseme n t d u c h ô mage l a f a i t monter ,
puree q u e l e s o pé r a t e u rs cra i gne nt u n e r é a c t i o n d e l a ba n q u e Centra l e q u i ,
d è s q u e l ' e mpl o i s ' a mé l i o re , y a p e r c e v r a i t comme u n r i sq u e de s u r c h a u f f e .
Si
l ' on
ve u t q u e l es marchés f i na n c i e r s so i e nt un bon i nd i c a t e u r de
1 ' av e n i r de
l ' économie comme u n le pré t e n d sou v e n t ,
i l f a u t é v i demme n t
De s e x pé r i e n c e s dans l e
d ' a u t res mé t hod e s d e l u t t e cun t r e l ' i n f l at i ml .
i l s ' agi t de
p as sé , e t l ' exemp l e d e cer t a i ns pa y s , mon t r e n t l a v o i e
dans u n e
et ,
me t t re tous l es é l é me nt s de l u s i t u a t i on s u r l a t ab l e ,
l e s opt i ons
d ' opé r e r
d i sc u ss i on a v e c t o u t e s l e s pa r t i e s i n t é r e ssée s ,
nécessa i re s .
la
que
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pos e
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Le
l a pr'os pé r i t é q u i
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par son su ccès ,
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n ' ou bl i e pas , a u moi ns e n t hé or i e , l u protec t i o n s o c i a l e , f o u rn i t l e modè l e
Est - c e - q u e ce q u e
qu i a d é c l e n c h é l a fré n é s i e de l i bé r a ] :l sa t i on à J ' Es t .
n os
c o n t red i re
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He u re u s e me n t ,
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en
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ressources nat u re l l e s e t d e s hommes capa b l es
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n ' Bs L
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l ' é qu it é .
--- !1
sort i e de l a
i nd u st r i a l i sé e ,
l ' Est .
monde
Et
l e s accords de
por t é e
pu i ssance
du
l ' a r ge n t .
c oncert e n t
ce sont
autre
l i be r H�
dest i n s
c r o i ssa n c e
se
progrès e t
autre
de
bes o i n
l ' Ouest
le
l ' Eu r o pe pe u t a v u i r u n su j e t de f i e r t é ,
:mê me
d i gne
ù
L ' Es t
t p l e d ' a ss i s t a nce L e c h n j q u o q u e l ' Est a be s o i n ,
mi sère des pays e n d é ve l oppeme n t .
a ss u r e r
n' y
qu ' i l
:
d i pl omate sov i é t i q u e e x poser c c q u ' é t a i t l a n o u v e l l e
pa ys , j e su ü ; i n t e r v e n u , pa r u n e sor t e de j e u de mot s ,
f o r mu l e d e l a ma i son commu n e j c pré f è r e r a i s c e l l e d e l a
Su d
e n t e ndu
de
ont
pas c o nt r a d i c t o i r e s .
sont
ne
i n i t i a t i ves
c e n t ra l i sé e s
or i e n t a t i o n
en
les
J EAN MON N ET AN D TH E A M E R I CANS
A Confere n ce Sponsored by
The Frankl i n and Eleanor R ooseve lt I nstituts and the
A m e r i can Council for J e an M o n n et Studies
F ran kl i n O . R oosevelt Li b rary
Octobe r
1 1 -1 2,
1 990
H yde Park, N .Y.
The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt l n stitute and the
American Council for J ean Monnet Studies
J EAN MON N ET AND THE AMERICANS
Conference Program
T hursd ay. Octobe r
1 2 :0 0 - 3 : 3 0
p.m.
·
11
Participants arrive at Beekman Arms and
S uper 8
4 :00 p . m .
Participants depart Beekman Arms for F O R Library
4 : 1 5 p.m.
Participants depart Super 8 for F O R Library
4 :30 p . m .
Rose Garden
Ceremony in H o n o r of
E l ea n o r Roosevelt's B i rt h day
4 : 45-5 : 1 5 p . m .
Conference Center Lobby
R e g i s t ra ti o n
5 : 1 5 p.m.
W. A verel/ Harriman
Conference Center
and Search Room
Session 1
5 :30 p . m .
Wei come
Williarn J . v�nden He uvel
Presioent, Roosevelt lnstitute
J . Robert Schaetzel
President, Jean Monnet Council
E l ea n o r Roosevelt and Jea n M o n n et :
A Sha red Vision
Ruth Morgenthau
5 :50 p . m .
Fra n kfu rte r , H o p k i n s ,
C l ifford Hackett
6 :20 p . m .
Commentary and Discussion:
Robert Nathan and Arth u r Sch lesinger, J r .
Moderator: Andre Kaspi
7 :00 p . m .
Cocktails
M o rg e n t h a u
Eleanor Roosevelt Gallery
7 :30 p . m .
A u ditorium
Oinner
Ses s i o n I l
8 :45 p . m .
Auditorium
E u ropean Views o f J ea n M o n net
Yves Conrad, Rene Foch , Richard Mayne,
Pierre Uri, Edmond Wellenstein
Moderator: George Bali
J EAN MON N ET AND TH E AME RICAN S
Changes in Conference Program
1)
A l a n M i lward w i l l re p l ace P i er re U ri as a c o m m e n tato r i n
Sess io n I l l ;
P i e rre Uri w i l l s e rve as a co m m entato r i n Sess i o n V I l
i n stead o f A l a n M i lward .
2)
Richard M ay n e w i l l n ot be able to atte nd the co n fe re nce .
Ann oun cemen ts
wi l l be o p e n at 7 :0 0 a . m .
1)
Fo r those peo p l e stayi ng at the Beekman Arms, the d i n i n g ro o m
2)
For those p e o p l e stay i ng at t h e S u per 8 , there i s a d î n e r l ocated a
l ittl e n o r:th of t h e motel o n the rig ht s ide of the h ig hway .
T h e re
w i l l be coffe e a n d d a n i s h i n t h e l o bby o uts ide the Harriman
C o n fe re nce C e nte r and S earch R o o m fo r those peo p l e who o n ly want a
l i g ht
b re a kfast.
Fr iday.
October
12
8 :30 a . m .
Depart hotel s for F O R Library
Ses s i o n I l l
9 :00 a . m .
Harriman Conference
Center
Dean Acheson and Jean Monnet
Doug las Brinkley
Session IV
1 0 :00 a.m .
Commentary: J . Robert Schaetzel and
P i e rre U ri
Moderator: William J . vanden H e uvel
Jean M o n net and the America n P ress
Don Cook
Commentary: Francois Duchene and
Richard Mayne
Moderator: Leonard Ten nyson
1 0 :45
Coffee Break
Session V
1 1 :1 5 a.m.
Foster D u l les a nd Jean M o n net
Pascal ine Winand
Commentary: Robert Bowie and
Rich ard G riffiths
MctJerat::r: Loet Velmans
1 2 :1 5 p.m.
A u ditorium
Buffet Lu ncheon
Session VI
1 :30 p . m .
Geo rge Bali a nd Jean M onnet
David Dileo
Commentary: Edmond Wellenstein and
John Tuthill
Moderator: Ted Van Dyk
Ses s i o n V I l
2 :30 p . m .
A Tale of Two Cities
Thom as Schwartz : "John McCioy in Bonn"
John Gilling ham : " David Bruce i n Paris"
Commentary: Alan Milward and
Hans J uergen Kuesters
Moderator: Henry Nau
3 :45 p . m .
Coffee Break
Fr iday.
October
Ses s i o n V I I I
4 :00 p . m .
12
T h e l n s i ders :
Bowie, N a t h a n , Sch a etze l ,
S h e rr i l l W e l l s
T om l i n s o n
Commentary and Summing Up:
Francois Duchene, Rene Foch, Andre Kaspi, and
Richard Mayne
Moderator: Art h u r Sch lesinger, Jr.
5 :1 5 p.m
Return to hotels
7 :00 p . m .
Depart Beekman Arm s for FOR Library
7:1 5 p.m.
Depart Super 8 fo r FOR Library
7:30 p.m
Eleanor Roosevelt Gallery
Cocktails
8 :00 p . m .
A uditorium
Dinner
9 :00 p . m .
A uditorium
C l o s i n g Remarks
Georç: -! Bali and Max Kohnstrlmm
Sat u r d ay.
O ct o be r
13
9 :00 p . m .
Depart Beekman Arms for FOR Library
9:1 5 p.m.
Depart S u pe r 8 for FOR Library
9 :30
Tou r of the Roosevelt Home and Vai-Kill
i n Hyde Park*
-
1 2 noon
* N ot e : Please sign up for this tour at the registration table by 9 a.m. on Friday morning if you
plan to take part. The buses for the Penta Hotel in Manhattan and the Marriott Hotel and Kennedy
Airport on Long Island will depart at 9:30 a.m. on Saturday, so if you are taking one of those buses
it will not be possible to join the tour. The Manhattan bus will arrive at the Penta Hotel at about
noon, the Long Island bus will arrive at the Marriott at about 12:30 and at Kennedy at about 1 :30.
A u d it or i u m : Dinner on Thursday and lunch and dinner on Friday will be served in the auditori u m .
T h e auditorium i s t o yo u r left as you enter t h e museum and down t h e stairs just beyond t h e portrait
of Winston C h u rch i l l .
Rest Rooms : Rest rooms are down t h e stairs i n t h e lobby o f t h e Harriman Conference Center and to
your left .
Messages: If your are expecting a phone cali, please check at t h e Reg istration Table for messages.
AMERICAN COUNCIL FOR JEAN MONNE T STUDIE S, lNC.
5 0 5 CONSTITUTION AVE N E
WASH INGTON DC 20002 USA
!202) 543 2315
JOHN J. McCLOY. HoNORARY CRAIRMAN !1895-1989)
J. ROBERT J. SCHAETZEL, PRESIDENT
EDWARD M. STR AUSS. JR .. SECRETARY AND TREASURER
CLIFFORD P. HACKETT, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
June 1 5 1 9 9 0
W e a r e v e r y happy t h a t you c an a t t end t h e c on f e r e n c e o n
" Monne t and t h e
Ame r i c an s '' a t t h e F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e ve l t L i br ary , Hyde P a r k , New York o n
O c t ob e r 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 9 9 0 .
Th i s l e t t e r w i l l prov i d e s orne o f t h e d e t a i l s o f your
p ar t i c i pa t i on ; f u r t h e r i n f o r ma t i on wi l l f o l l ow as s oon as i t i s a va i l ab l e .
The J e a n Monn e t Counc i l h a s a n e t t i c k e t ing a r r angeme n t w i t h P a n Ame r i c an
Wor l d A i rw a y s f o r v e r y advan t ag e ou s f a r e s f r om B r u s s e l s , Fr ank f ur t , G e n e v a ,
London , M i l an and P a r i s . Under t h i s a r r angeme n t , you s h o u l d m a k e r e s e rv a t i on s
w i t h t h e n e a r e s t P an Ame r i c a n o f f i c e ( no t w i t h a t r a v e l agen t ) f r om o n e o f
t h e s e c i t i e s t o a n d f rom N e w Y o r k a t t h e m i n i mum e c onomy f a r e ( c a l l ed t h e non­
r e f un d ab l e f a r e ) .
The t i c k e t mu s t be wr i t t e n and paid for in W a s h i n g t on by
t h e Jean Monn e t Coun c i l .
The f ar e w i l l be c ompu t e d by P a n Ame r i c an , W a s h i n g t o n f r om t h e f or e ign
currency i n t h e c i ty f r om whi c h you t r a v e l . We a r e con f i de n t t h a t t h e f i n a l
c o s t , wh i ch wi l l depend on t h e d a t e you t r a v e l a n d t h e p r ev a i l i ng c u r r e n c y
e x c h a n g e r a t e , w i l l b e b e l ow o r very c l o s e t o t h e o n e t h o u s and do l l ar a i r
exp e n s e a l l ow a n c e . W e r e gr e t t h a t t h e t r a v e l a l l ow a n c e c a n o n l y b e u s ed f o r
d i r e c t t r a v e l c o s t s t o a n d f r om t h e c o n f e r e nc e .
The numbe r o f non - r e f un d ab l e t i c k e t s f r om any c i ty i s l im i t e d ; t h e r e f o r e i t
i s t o your a dv a n t ag e t o m a k e your r e s e r v a t i on a s s oon a s p o s s ib l e . I n any
c a s e , be s u r e to a l l ow t im e f o r u s to s end your t i c k e t a i rma i l to your
Europe an addr e s s . A l s o , the s oo n e r we know about your a i r t r a v e l p l an s , the
b e t t er we can a dv i s e on o r a r r ange t r an s por t a t ion f r om New York t o Hyde P a r k .
I f you a r r i v e i n t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s e a r l y f o r p e r s o n a l r e a s on s , p l an t o be i n
Manh a t t a n by m i dd a y Thur s d a y , O c t 11 w h e n we wi l l prov i d e t r a n s p or a t i o n
d i r e c t l y t o H y d e P a r k wh i ch i s a b o u t 5 0 m i l e s n o r t h o f N e w Y o r k C i ty . I f you
are f l y i ng t o p r o c e ed i mmed i a t e l y t o the c o n f e r e n c e , mos t Pan Am ( and o th e r
a i r l i n e ) f l i gh t s t o N e w Y o r k a r r i v e t oo l a t e i n t h e a f t e r n o o n t o g e t t o Hyd �
P a r k b e f or e t h e c o n f e r e n c e s t a r t s a t 1 7 0 0 on Thur s d a y . I t m a y be m o r e
c onven i e n t t o f ly Wedne s d a y and spend t h a t n i g h t i n N e w Y o r k . I f t h e r e i s
s u f f i c i en t i n t e r e s t , w e m a y b e a b l e t o a r r ange c onven i e n t ho t e l s p a c e f o r
Wedne s d a y n i gh t i n Manh a t t a n .
You may , o f cour s e , a l s o t r a v e l i n a n o t h e r c l a s s t h a n e c onomy bu t s u c h
t r a v e l w i l l n o t bene f i t f rom t h e n e t t i c k e t i ng a r r angement d e s c r i b e d above .
You m a y a l s o t r a v e l to any o t h e r P a n Amer i c a n c i ty i n t h e Un i te d S t a t e s and
s t i l l bene f i t f r om t h i s d i s c o u n t p l an . I f you w i s h , you may t r a v e l by ano t h e r
Ame r i c an a i r l i n e t o and f rom N e w Y o r k b u t i n t h i s c a s e t h e J e a n Monn e t Coun c i l
w i l l b e l im i t ed t o re i mbu r s em e n t o f your a c t ua l t r a n s - A t l a n t i c f l i g h t c o s t s up
to $ 1 0 0 0 . B e c au s e t h i s c o n f e r e n c e is pa r t i a l l y s uppor t e d by U . S . Gove rnmen t
f un d s , Amer i c an a i r c a r r i e r s mus t be u s e d whe n e v e r av a i l ab l e . I f i n doubt
about t h i s o r any o t h e r a s p e c t of t h e t r a v e l , p l e a s e c a l l or wr i t e me .
P ag e Two
To make your r e s e r v a t i o n , s imp l y c a l l the n e a r e s t P an Am age n t , t e l l h i m
t h a t y o u w a n t t o make a r e s e r v a t i o n und e r a N e t T i c k e t ing Agr e em e n t wh i c h i s
c o n t a i ne d i n the a i r l ine ' s c omp u t e r s y s t em und e r the d e s i gna t i on
" RP * 2 0 2 5 4 3 2 3 1 5 " ( wh i c h i s the J e a n Monne t Counc i l ' s W a s h i ng ton t e l ephone
numbe r ) . The agent wi l l then have a l l o f the i n f orma t i on n e eded to make your
r e s e rva t i on . You s ho u l d then s end me a note w i t h the Pan Am r e s e r v a t i o n d a t a ;
I w i l l ge t your t i c k e t and r e turn i t to you w i th e t h e r i n f orma t i o n on the
c o n f e r e nc e .
The r e wi l l be about 7 0 p e r s o n s a t the c on f e r e n c e wi t h a good m i x t u r e o f
a c ademi e s , pub l i c and p r i v a t e s e c t or pa r t i c i p a n t s and f r i e nds and
a c qu a i n t anc e s of J e an Monne t . We are c on f i de n t t h i s w i l l be a v e r y i n t e r e s t i ng
program as we l l as a unique g a t h e r i ng of tho s e i n t e r e s t e d in Monn e t and h i s
e r a . A p r e l i m i n a r y c o n f e r e n c e program , now i n p r e p a r a t i o n , wi l l b e s en t a t the
s t a r t o f the s umme r .
We wou l d l i k e t o i n c l ude you in one o f the program s e gme n t s e i th e r on a
pane l or a s a de s i gn a t ed d i s c us s an t . More d e t a i l s wi l l appe ar in the program .
I f you have a s pe c i a l i n t e r e s t in s orne a s p e c t o f Monne t ' s r e l a t i ons wi th
Ame r i c an l e ade r s o r s orne l i m i t a t i o n on your pa r t i c i p a t i on , p l e a s e l e t us know
a s s o on a s po s s i b l e .
W i t h be s t w i s he s ,
FOR
THE ORGAN I Z E R S
�/4C l i f f ord Ha c k e t t
Exe c u t i v e D i r e c t or
P i e r r e Ur i
1 , Ave P r e s i de n t W i l s on ,
PAR I S 1 6 eme , F r a n c e
JEAN MONN •.'l' AN D '.rHE Al"1E . ICAN PRESS
b y D on C ook
m o re
WR S
't-l h e n
I
t h an
forty
wr i t e
one
to
p re p ar i n rs
y e ar s
as a
re t urn h o t n c
c o r r e s p o nd e n t
a C01 1ple
i n Eu r op e ,
p e r s o n a l b ackward G l an e e
of those
that
gr e &t
I
wr o t e
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on
to
a h e adl ine
q u art e r o f
and
sense
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out
11 t o
be pre t t y
f if t y
of
what
a c t iv e
y e ars
T im e s .
In
also
W3 S
p u sh
p r o v e d t h at
credit
in my
l i f e t i me
c o mp e t i t i on .
f or
1
s
m or e p r o g re s s . 1
1
11
that
I
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away with
with
is
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sense
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c o lu m n
my
int e r v i e ,,; e r .
M o nn e t
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saw one
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of
that
to
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up wh at
i a s h in gt o n
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ever
c it e d
m an h e bad k n o wn i n h i s p r o f e s s i 1 m al
it 1 s
and
I
sh ap ffi n g o f
int e rv i e w ,
a l s o m ad e
and m ana g e m e n t
my
s e t t le
e v e r y t h ing .
-- that
It
f u t u re
i f you
Scotty
11
and
and
the
Je an M o n ne t ,
c o u ld n o t r e c a l l
an h o u r w :i! t h 1'-l onn e t
and w r i t in g h i s
a s t h e g r e a t e st
w an t s
m ake
in
a sk e d t o
c o v e r i ng
c ov e r e d ,
a p ar t i c u l ar way .
f rom E u r o p e
e lected t o
t h e m t h r ou gh ,
l a b or
of the
abou t
after
I s t ar t e d out with out
known o r
I
ago
c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h M on n e t
i mp o r t an t
a b a c kward -g l an c e
1 1 \Vlonn e t
in
wh i l e
s p e ncl
re t i re m e n t
r e p o r t in g
J e an M o nn e t
h av e
o f m an y
a f t e r m y r e t u rn
J am e s R e s t o n
I
c o nve r s a t i on a l d e l i tjl;il t ,
h o .V h i st o r y w a s m o v ing ,
S oon
men
e xp l a i n t h a t
a c en t u r y ,
s t imu l a t i o n
the
s t an d s o u t
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went
c l e ar e r
all
ye Rrs
and w a s
piece s
c r o wd e d p an o r a m a o f p o st -war E u r o p e an h i s t o r y ,
h e s i t at ion that
of
l if e .
for things y ou
c an
" In t h i s t m-.rn e v e r y b ody
o f t he
central
p ro gr e s s
i s made
and w i t h §; o v e r n m e n t
t o get h e r on
th in g s
t h in g s
y ou
by
and
can
v U U .K. ' t;
n v u u c: v
--
c..
I w a s n o t su rp r i s e d t o f i n d m y s e l f i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h S c ot t y ,
v i c e -v e r s a ,
and a t
f o r i t h a d h a pp e n e
close
t wo Am e r i c a n
e n c ou n t e r .
But
j o u r n a l i st s
in t h e
w o rk e d a l r ! J o s t
e n t i re l y
t h e o u t s t an d i n g p e r s o n a l it y
Was there
Well ,
certainly
the
But
sub j e c t
t o d o c u m e nt
of
l e g i on ,
and
as
o r m e m o r an dum s
of
impre s s ion s ,
r e m e mb e r e d
c ou r s e
it
was
j ou r n a l i s t s
l ab o r
care e r s
o the r
almost
and t h e
or
mu ch
l e ad e r s ,
t h e re
entirely
c on c e rn e d ,
is
no
there
f o r l·'l o n n e t ' s
h o we v e r ,
a very
o r b anke r s
letters
or
c om m u n i c at i o n s
c on v e r s a t i o n b e t we e n Monn e t a n d h i s f r i a n d s o f t he
int e r l o cut o r s
h i s ixtHx�xgtMXX t o ok a w a y a n d c o n s e r v e d h i s o wn
own p ar t i c u l a r a t t r a c t i o n i n Monn e t ,
e a ch m ad e h i s
own
j u d gm e n t s
and int e r p r e t at i o n s .
p a rt
j u d gm e nt s ,
p e r iod ,
I
am
t oo ,
t o ld b y h i s
Fran c o i s
Duchene#
--
J� a s i c a l l y he
pre s s ,
bu t
and t h at
I
su s p e c t
t o b e c om e
fh e p o in t
f or Fre n c h
t h at
am
j ournal i st s
e s t ab l i s h t he m s e lve s
was d i f fer�nt
and t h e
o r n e g at ive l y
there
�
or
also
an
it s
e ar l y p o s t -war
s e ldom
if
j o urn a l i s t s wh o
int e l l e c t u a l
t ed i ou s
ever
c8me
to
s o rn e
f i lt e r a t work ,
o r t ir e s o m e
were not
i n t h e i r v i s i t s .i
i s t h at
�
p r i m a r i l y �b e c au s e
ou t l o ok o f
the
that he
j o urn a l i s t s
w i t h M o n n e t , and
I th
in
a b ou t
r e gu l ar s
t r y in g t o m ake
o r E n 3 l i sh
f o r M on n e t
pro f e s s icmal
was
for h i s
and e n j o y e d t alking t o t h e
o un d t o b e
r ep e a t e r s
I
advi s e r s
l ik e d t h e p r e s s
that
A nd M o n n e t
and
j b u rn a l i st s wh o v i s i t e d h im
the
and R i c h ard M a y n e ,
j ourn a l i s t s wh o rn h e
e n c ou r a g e d
of
c l o s e pre s s
c omm e n t e d e i t h e r p o s it iv e l y
s e e h im .
one
or
f ound h i s
a lt h o u gh
is
i l l u siv e
e a ch
m ad e h i s
as
U n l ike M 0 n ne t ' s
off ic i a l s
are
in
and t h e A m e r i c an
p roblem ,
t o d e f in e .
g o v e rn m e n t
were
wh o h a d
b r o ad e r t h an t h at ,
Am e r i c an p r e s s
one
that here
e xp e r i e n c e .
were
'rhe
a d i s t an c e
J e an M o n n e t
Je an M on n e t
and I
at
-- one
xmimmmm�mmm
in c lu de d . '
a r a t h e r ab s t r a c t
or
the
f ar a s S c o t t y
o f Monnet
i n du s t r i a l i s t s
� a c h of
and
of
bo t h
was t h é fact
o f t h e ir r e p o r t o r i al
r e la t i o n s w i t h p o l i t i c i an s
p re s s . ·
t w i l ight
af f in i t y b e t w e e n
supp o s e
was .
f r i a n d s were
t h at
a unique
I
wh a t w a s u n i q u e
w a rm l y
y e ar s ,
of t e n o v e r t h e
i n t:u r o p e
W a sh in g t o n -- a n d b o t h
pre s s ?
J
or
it
o r Ge rm an
did .
of the
rep o r t e r s .'
w a s p e rf e c t l y p o s s ib le
But
the
n a t u re
j ou r na l i s t s t o
Am e r i c an pre s s
of
i t s r e p o r t ing
--
C o ok 1 s M o nne t
i s ne it h e r a
It
note
3
s imp l y
that
the
s u rp r i s e
pre s s
i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i p l om at i e ,
d o o u s t ep
the
from
n or
a c r i t i c i sm
in �u r o p e
e c o n om i e
will
and t h e G e rm an s
�he
k a l e id i s c op e ,
h a v in � t o p i e c e
t llr e B r i t i sh v i e w ,
all
f or di s t an t
i s p ar o c h i a l
or
F in an c i a l 'r i m e s
or Die
Zeit
t h e i r news
c o n s t an t l y
the
Th i s d o e s n o t
s u p e rf i c i A. l
o r '_eh e
Gu a r d i an i n L o n·�i o n ,
i n G e r m an y
are
t h o ro u gh ,
c overa�e .
Am e r i c an p o in t -o f -v i e w ,
the
o f this was
t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s
19 5 2 ,
to
o n the
f r on t
e c on o m i e
th i s ,
t o have
the
t o ge the r t h e
t o m ake
try
wh y
Fre nch
s e n ::; e
t h a t E u r o p e an
not?
vie w ,
of
it
j ou rna l i sm
H e w sp o p o r : l l ik e t h e
L e t1 onde
i n P ar i s ,
D ie We lt
and f i r s t -rat e
in
t he Ame r i c an p e r sp e c t i v e ,
r at h e r more
of
j o u r n al i s t i c
I t h ink ,
fact
t h e v e r y h e art
b i r th
of
o f .C:u r o p e a n
and s e cu r i t y
in
the
an
the
o v er -v ie w ,
B i J p r o ach t h an
that
l au n c h e d t h e
Fre nch
:lmH �
the
N AT O Tre at y
s e cu ri t y
natu r e ,
grou ndwork
t h at
o f �urop e ' s
in
from
d r e w J e an M o n n e t
It
M a r sh a l l P l an p l a c e d
e conomie
fact
f rom
Un it e d S t at e s
'11he s e
t w o Amt� r i e an
laid t h e p o l it ic a l ,
gre a t
wou l d have
id e a o f p o o l i n � F r e n c h
e v e r t o h av e
r e c overy
p l a c e d the
mB88 1 9 4 9 .
f o r M o nn e t ' s
and S t e e l C ommu n i t y .
or t h e
f ou n d a t i o n s
c e rt a ih l y
p a n-1�u r o p e a n
Europe an C o a l
indu s t r y ,
at
and t h e
l in e
comm itm ent s ,
Monne t
WH S
It
t h e m s e l ve s .
and
.
t h e � w ay ,
Am e r i c an p re s s a n d v i c e -ve r s a .
P a rt
1947
to be
m or e Eu r o p e an i n int e l l e ct u e l
t h e E u r op e an s
to
a l w ay s h ad
it
any
it s
� a i r e n o u Gh ,
di s t in gu i sh e d
of E u r op e ,
see
on
to
c o v e r i n G t h e E u r op e an
mean
-- f a r f r o rn i t .
Bu t A m e r i c an r e p o r t in g o u t
a l m o st
s cene ,
G e rm an vie w i n orde r t o
Am e r i c an s .
will
an oth e r way .
�u rop e a n
report
de v e l op m e nt s
�ng l i sh
But A m e r i c an re p o rt e r s o n t h e
were
j ou rn a l i sm
alway s à a s i c ally
or p o l i t i c a l
a n a t i o n a l p e r sp e c t iv e .
F ran ch t h e i r w a y
o f �ur op e an
a ccept ed i t ,
o f Am e r i c a n - b a c k e d r e c o v e ry
innovat i on
of
the
b e e n imp o s s i b l e
f or
and G e rm an h e avy
without
and
those vit al
s e cu ri t y .l
C o ok ' s M onnet -
-
4
f o r t h e A�e ri c an pre s s th i s w a s the g o l d e n age o f wr i t t en
M o re o � � r ,
j o u rn a l i sm -- p a rt i c u l ar ly for f o re ign c o r r e sp ond a n t s .
t h e dom inance o f t e l e v i s i o n ,
and we were the
Th i s w a s b e f ore
t e l ev i s ion o f t h at e r a .
H e p o rt e r s 1 ,a�� the wr i t t e n word w a s t h e c o ndu i t o f inf orm ing Am e r i c an s of
wh at w a s go in g on i n Europ e ,
a s Am e r i c a f i na l l y t urn e d away f rom it s
old i s o l a t i o n i s m and m arched i n t o i t s n e w sup e r -p ow e r ro le in the world .'
�jgorou s anà e xp e r i e n c e à
P o s t v·ar Eu rope w a s s warm inc w 1
m e r i c an j ou rn a l i st s , m o st o f t h em
e x -war c or r e spondant s .
th�
A l l o f u s were h av i n g t o m a s t er an e n t ir e l y n e w
f i e ld o f rep ort i n p; .., b ou t s u ch a r c an e mat t e r s a s b a lan c e of p ay me n t s ,
t rade de f ic i t s ,
inf la L ion r at e s ,
r e c ov e ry p r ogram s ,
in t e rn a t iDn a l c r e d i t and c u rre n c y value s ,
c ou n t e rp art f u nd s ,
the st ory of .l:!:urope an re c o v e ry
and all the oth e r co mp l e x i t i e s of
•·
in th e l 9 3 0 s
I n the pre -war y e a r s o f the wo r l d depre s s i o n /and the r i s e of
we h a d all e;rown up at a d i s t an c e from Eu rope wi th th at
NMM .F a s c i sm
k i n d of vl i s t f u l wonde r ing ,
" Wh y c an ' t al l t h o s e l i t t l e c o u nt r� s g e t
�o!-J��xltf��
etting
t o g e t h er " ,
a n d n o\'1 w e w e r e in Eu rope m ak in g it h app e n .·
mor e i n t e r e s t e
In f ac t we w e r e
t o g e the r than t h e Br i t i sh or t h e F r e n ch
or t h e G e rm an s wh o w e r e m o re int e re s t e d in h o w t h e y w e re d o i n g v i s -a-v i s
e ach o t h e r .
So oner o r l at e r ,
any Ame ri c an c o r , e sp onde n t i n burope
s e eking s e r i ou s l y t o i n f o rm and be informed about Eu rope w ou ld s e ek out
J e an Monnet . �
(;t i.J �T (j;/
aLLbGtfsl v d i f f e re n t
In t h o s e day s p r of e s s i onal re l at i nn s h ip s b e t w e e n r e p or t e r s a n d new s
s ou rc e s at wh a t e ver l e v e l were
F or
e x am p l e ,
t h an the y are t o day .i
in a l l my y e a rs in Europe whe n you s aw a e;ove rnm e nt o f f i c i al
it was a lway s 6i t he u n spoke n a s sump t i o n that the c o nv e r s a t i o n w a s
o f f t h e r e c ord -- t h a t i s ,
the m at e r i a l c ould be u s ed b y the rep o r t e r ,
but t h e o f f i c i al n e v e r n am e d or g u ot e d d i re c t l y .
A� w�
i
c orre spon Qent worke d ,
and it w a s re a l ly only in the Am e r i c an Emba s s i e s
whe re a n o f f i c i n l would AlTi IIi b e g in by s ay i n g :
o f f the re c ord ,
Î h i s w a s t h e way a
a re n ' t w e . "
" N ow \·J e a r e t alkin g
For the Europ e an o f f i c i al s ,
the re w n s n o
su ch thi n g a s " on th e re c o rd " / ex c e p t a t o p e n n e w s c on f e r en c e s .
,
C o ok ' s M onnet -- 5
Th i s ,
o f c ou r s e , m ade f o r an ent ire ly d i f f e r e n t atm o sph e re o f
b e t w e e n r e p o rt e r s and s o u r c � s .
opene s s and m u t u a l t ru st /
I t m ode , in f ac t , f o r genu ing pe r s on al
f r iend sh ip s of a kind t h a t I f ind ve ry d i f f i c u lt t o e nv i s ag e e v e r
d e v e l op ing i n t h e wo rld o f t e le v i s i on j o urn a l i sm ,
whe r c e v e r y t h i n g i s
on the r e c o rd s o und-b it e s and t h e re ' s no p o int in s e e in g t h e m an if
it ' s n o t go ing to be o n c am e r a .
T e l e v i s i on has c r e a t e d an adv e r s ar i al
q u al i t y in t od ay ' s j ou rn a l i s m that imxmwmxmwtimkmxmmmmi wou ld be q u i t ê
o u t o f p l a c e i n any m e e t ing with J e an Monne t .
G an y ou s e e a Sam
D o n al d s o n shoving a m i cr ophone at Monn e t and growl inf, : 11
r1 onne t ,
" N o w f'l i s t e r
i f y o u are r; o ing t o p u t a l l o f the Ge rm an c o al and s t e e l and.
all o f t h e Fre nch c o al and s t e e l i n t o one big p o o l und e r one m anagem ent ,
n o m at t e r what y ou c a l l i t sure ly t h at ' s g o i n� t o b e the b i gge st c art e l
i n h i st ory ,
i sn ' t it ? "
There i s n o d o ubt t h at ,
h ad a v e r y s oft
a s H i ch ard !Vl ayne t e l l s m e ,
sp o t f o r t h e U . S .' p re s s " .
th at in Am e r i c a n c om p any
d i f f e r ent m ode ,
m o re ove r ,
lau gh ing m ore ,
b e in g
b u t i t wa s s w i t ch inr; int o a
a s l i ght h i gh . "
W it h t h e B r i t i sh ,
of the 6ity ,
H ayne ob s e r ve d ,
" f'lonn e t ch an c; e d char a c t e r ,
m o r e one o f t h e b o y s - - it wasn ' t f a l s e ,
" t-'lonnet alwa y s
Monne t ' s f rie nds t e nded t o b e inf luent i al m e n
....: r e asury an d F ore i gn Of f i c e o f f i c ia i s ,
p o li t i c i ans s u ch a s .C:dward n . � a th or Hoy Jenk in s .
and a f e w ke y
En g l i sh j ourn a l i s t s
s imp � y d id not s e e k h im out on any very r e gu lar or s u s t ain ed b a s i s ,
p o s s ibly b e c au s e t h e y
tft· f ound in t h e 19 5 0 s and 1 9 6 0 s t h at �n g l and ' s
long s e l f -e x c lu s i on f r om Europe l e f t them w i t h out rou ch to d i s cu s s w i t h
Monnet .
N o r d i d he
Andr é Font aine ,
out ,
s e e a l l t h a t m u ch o f French j ou rn a l i st s .
Hene D e.b e rn at ,
H en r i P i e r r e ,
O c c a s i onall
Ado lph e Ivl ax wou ld seek h im
bu t odci.l� e n o u gh he a l m o s t n ever s aw Fran c e ' s le ading p o l i t i c a l
c omm e nt at or Haymond Aron .
�
H e d i d s e e H e n r i Be
ve -N e ry ,
.;;;
the O l y mp ian
ed it or o f Le Mo nde -- b u t a l w a y s i t w a s Monnet wh o went t o EM the Le Mond
offic e s ,
and no t the et h er way .�
o
v v v �·"-
•
As
• V t. ..l L J. •_, o
f o r the
an y of u s .
McC l oy ,
1940
after
-
V
Am e r i c an p r e s s ,
S c o t t y .Lle s t on kn e w M o nne t
H e r e c a l l s that he w a s
int r odu c ed t o M anne• by J ohn J . ·
then h i s n e i ghbor i n W a sh in0t on ,
o r e ar ly
the
19 4 1 .
drama
l on 13 e r t h an
p r o b a b l y s o r1 e t im e in l a t e
M o n n e t bad a r r i v e d in W a s h i n g t o n from Lond o n
and t r a g e d y
o f the
fall
o f F r an c e ,
h av in g b e e n
a s n ign e d
p e r s o n a l l y b y W i n s t o n Church i l l to work out o f t h e Bri t i s h Emb a s sy w ith
f-1 i s s i o n
W alt e r L ippmann \v a s of c o u r s e
t h e wart i r:1e Br i t i sh Purch as ing �.
anoth e r of Monn e t ' s e a r ly a c qu a in t an c e s at that p e r i o d ,
o f w h i c h Monnet
wrot e i n h i s Me m o ir s :
I t w a s in W a sh in gt o n t h at I grew a c c u s t ome d t o workin g o n a
b a s i s o f t o t al t ru st w i t h ou t st anding ne w sp a p e rm an ,
W a lt e r L ippm ann and J a m e s R e s t on ,
such a s
wh o c ou l d b e b roug t i n o n t h e
.
th eM e xp e r i e n c e
was u s eful ,
w i t h out e v e r b e in g t e mpt e d t o g iv e away s e c re t s .
Th e s e c r e t
most
s e r i ou s d i s c u s s i on s ,
e l e m e n t in th e s e t a lk s ,
t h e pub l i c d e b at e ,
wh e r e
in any
case ,
w e re
le ss
imp o r t ant
t h an
wh i ch he lp e Πmove m e n ' s m inds t ow ard our
o b j e c t ive -- throwing t h e we i gh t:; o f
.H.
m e r i c a n p o w e r int o t he
s t r u g g l e .�
i m p l i c i t t ru s t in Am e r i c an n e w sp ap e rm e n r e m a in e d u nbroken
T h at
f or 1"1 onn e t
worki ng s
t ! 1 r o u r-;h o u t h i s
of
r e f e rr e d
mmm r e p o r t e r s
the
f ac t
that
l if e .
Tt!��
A�
� w a s .(_l' ar t - and
in t h at p e r i o d t o
eve ry
-
p ar c e l
wh i ch
I h av e
of
the
n o rm al
a l r e �d y
conve r s at i , .n wa s au t om a t i c al l y p r i v at e
and " of f t h e r e c o rd " w i t h ou t e v e n h av i n C' t o e s t ab l i sh any ru l e s b e f o re
y ou s t art e d t o t al k .
D t� t tt.� �--tj
Y ou t h e n shared
r e ad e r s without ident i f y ing
a
y ou h ad l e arn e d w i t h y ou r
..
ilii!l!lli•
W
t- s o ur c e s
-tl
&
,
and y our b y - l i n e
\,..r a s
supp o s e d t o b e s u f f i c i e n t t o vou ch f o r t h e a c c u r a c y o f what y o u w e r e
r e p o r t in g
and t h e
fact
that
you
w e re n o t p r od u c i n g it o u t o f t h in a i r
and m aking i t a l l up .
F r an c o i s D u ch e n e ,
who
w a s Monn e t ' s p r e s s m an
of the G o al and S t e e l C o m � u n it y ,
i n the e a rl y d a y s
h a s re c a l l e d f o r m e :
An y p r e s s a c q u a i n t a n c e wh o c a l le d w a s s u r e o f a p r e t t y go od
we l c om e .
I t a l l h app e n e d s p o n t an e ou s l y .
o f I•'l o nn e t ' s p r e� ' j_- r e l a t i o n s .
human r e l a t ion sh ip s ,
and a l l
�hat wo s t h e h a l lmark
J.'h e y w l) r e n at u r e l and i nf ormel
the
more e f f e ct ive for t h a t .
G o o k ' s M onne t
7
--
rar e st
With the
c an n e t
j o urn a l i s t s .
He
ex c �pt i on s
of
l iked and t ru s t e d
- - he
p r e c i s e ly
--· wh i ch I
w ou ld not
f e l t - - but
as
was part
It
we l l .
to
o f h i s b a s i c m e ch nn i sm ,
t o p o s i t i ve
g o o d o r b ad ,
de v e l o p m e nt ,
Monnet
t h an h e
advi s , . r s
as h is
i n h i s d e a l i n g s w i th u s
w ;, s t ru e
that
opt i m i s t i c
s ou n d e d m o re
s o m e t ime s
own p r op a c; anda and
e . r; . ,
c ou ld b e l i e v e h i s
He
t ru th .
the
all
s ;-J y
invp- i ab l y
they
did n o t .
d e f init e ly
m o st
in h i s v i e w ,
wh o ,
i ndu s t r i a l i s t s ,
t h ought
as a��ainst
s t o o d s om e h o w a s p r o x i e s f o r t h e c i t i z en
-=r
e v en r e c al l
t u rn e v e ry
f o r h i s o wn e n d s .
a c c ount
1 n e v e r b e a rd h i m d � l ib e r a t e l y m i s l e ad a p re s sm an .·
B as i c a l l y ,
rq?;u l arly
C yru s L .
pnd
the
�mmmmmfu�m�m
fre q u e n t l y w e r e ,
Su l � be r g e r
in Pari s ;
for t h e
·tl a sh i n g t on P o s t ;
J o s eph
up
A l f r e d F r ie n d l y
wh e n h e
C ro sb y
in h i s
N�
19 4 5
name
and
to
also
Fe
t f·1onne t
He
and t h e n in B on n f r om
e ar l y
in
Europ e an Army p l an ,
\� a s h i n g t o n
S t ar ;
and m ag az ine wr i t in � ;
in W a s h in g t o n
s aw Ph i l ip
19 4 9
to
and f o l l o w e d
and Kay
Graham
il s
1 9 52 .
and t h e
'l:
h at
c o u r se
gove rn m e nt
in h i s d e s ire
th e C o al
the
the p a p e r ' E
i l l-fated
and S t e e l U ommu n i t y
t r ave l l e d re gu l ar l y
t h an w i t h any
�
I
e t h e r pub l i c
on a r o v i n r;
e ve r de alt
wh o
wr ot e
i s n ow gone
l ike
o f h i s f"l o n n e t
al way s
f i gu r e ,
with .
t o k n o w a l o n g w i th h i s re adine s s
•
a s s i gn e d t o
o u t o f P a r i s .'
o ff ic i al
'r e d d y Wh i t e ,
f ade d a vr
was
f or Monn e t m e e t in g the p r e s s w a s
m o re s o I be l ie ve
and al t h o u gh I•1onn e t 1 s
w a s t h e p e r i o d of
f ounding o f
I
19 5 2 ,
I d i d n o t a c tu a l l y m e e t h im
w it h h i m u n t i l I
i n Lux e m b o u r g wh e r e
Eu rope an a s s i gnm e n t
Of
the
c o r r e sponde
I w a s in t h e N e w Y o rk H e r ald f r i bu n e Londo n Bu r e au f r o m
up r e gu l ar c o n t a c t
b y Monne t
a � u r o p e an
as
and h i s v i s i t s t o W a s h i n g t on .
and act i v i t i e s w e r e w e l l kn o wn t o m e
P ar i s b u r e au
have
y e ars
in P a r i s d o ing d a i l y
on t h e i r v i s it s t o P a r i s
19 4 9 ,
take
e ar l ie r d ay s w i t h N e w swe ek
N oye s of
on t h e ir r e cu l ar v i s i t s t o �urope .
f o r my s e l f ,
s aw m o s t
t h o s e b ·- 1 s e d i n P ar i s :
in h i s
1/�'i).
was
8 n ù. B t e \vart A l s op wh o
re gu l a r l y
or
c ou rs e ,
B e n B r adl e e
Magsine
Wh i t e
of
j o u rn a l i s t s M o n n e t
and H ar o l d C al lendar o f T h e N e w Y ork T im e s ;
D av id S c h o e nbru n o f CES ;
Tb e od o r e II .
Am e r i c an
s o m any
He
to
affair 1
p o l i t i c al f igure ,
was
quite
i n s at i ab l e
in f o rm .
e th e r s
�xnerie n c P :
a t w o -w ay
of that
e ra wh o
I l e arn e d m u ch f r o m M o nn e t ' s q u e s t i on ing s .
t r ip
dry
I m ade
of
out
o f P ar i s
ob s e r v at ion s o
pr e s en�ing
an
an s w e r ;
wou ld
he
I w o u lù v i s i t
i mp ort ant
s n ap ,
in
I
ftl-j,m
f ro n t
remem ber
and
the
on c e
q u e s t ion ;
" D on ' t
of i' i c e s
M onn e t
to
was
p as s the
f or h i s p ar t
style
o r a n are n a wh i ch h e
t o m ake h e
d r op by
s o u ght
and
out
see
a m an
to
convi nced
h im ,
and
his
e n j oy e d .
carry
l ike L o n do n ,
are
my
f ir s t
I
base
judgment
I
l e a rn a d a v e r y
I
gave
�
v an t a e -p o in t s
C . B . S .'
and
p r op e r mmmm·
he
-- t h at
w an lJ e d . ·
to
come
was not
a p o int
he
to
his
w ou l d
t o dmm��
Un i t 2 d B t a t e s he
t o kno w
on
�hat
I
th
gr e a t
me
a lw ay s
and v a lu e . ·
it s
le a� � r s ,
of
the
chan g e s
was
the
re a l
a lVJ a y s
�
s ay
m ay
c e r t a in l y
w i sd o m
deal
the
as the
and
calls
f r om
of
to
t h a t EHXXHÎHBXi�
r e ason
wh e r e
b e e n w i tl:J m en
f or m y
be
c o l o re d b y
r e spe c t
it
c an n e t
l aw y e r s
and
i m a g in a t i o n ,
the i r
pr a c t i c a l m en
b i g de c i s i o n ·
wh o
i n du s t r i a l i s t s ,
• •
in f lu e n c e ;
1 o 'ffil"lffiMM •
in
is
i n r e t u rn
t ru e ;
the
but
but
• •
with f riands
world p anorama t h e y
N e w Y o rk T i m e s ,
one has
on w e l l -i n f o rm e d f r i e nd s . '
t a lk s
t h e m n eWs o f B u r o p e ,
sh a r e d w i th
get the
in t o p o l i t i c s
j ou rn :1 l i s t s f ri e n d s
-- b a nk e r s ,
ethers
or d o c t r in e .
w o r ld .
to
c h o s e p e op l e
the
whe n h e h ad
ide e
w it h
t alks h av e
amb i t i o n ,
my
s a i d H o n ne t .
e f f e ct s
the
t a lk i n g
c o ld. -b l o o d e d .
f or the p re s 3
to
\ve
s e e h o w y ou
e l o q u e nt
N e w Y o rk and W a sh i n gt on ,
m i s t ake s
What
s o rn e
f o rward .
In plRces
n e w s p ap e rm e n .
But
it s p e ople
a lw a y s be g an
m ake
the
or no .
wrote :
it
af f or d t o
to
to
o f �u r op e an u n it y ,
t h r ou gh
c o n f e re n c e s
b ad c o rn e
c e a s e l e s s ly
m ade ,
wan t
yes
sh o u <hd I p ou nd
wait
on h i s 00 t r av e l s
and f or m
wh i c h
abrup t ly
i d e a s m ar c h e d
get
and invi t e
g o b a c k r e F,u l a r l y
visit s ,
just
j ob w a s t o f i nd
s im p l y
T o unde r s t an d A m e ri c a ,
they
t ab l e
thnt
c al l p r e s s
n e w s p ap e r m e n wh o m h e
I n h i s M e m o ir s h e
an s w e r
" H i gh t , "
p r o p e r p r op o s a l s
w ou l d p h o n e
Ju s t
s e veral prob l e m s
on wh o s e
did not
He
of
an d w a s h i s m o s t
o v e r t h e p r ope r t a b l e s t o
was not
I
a p ar t i c u l a r d e c i s i o n .
h im .
l ike
about
§.i t e s -m oi ,
would suck m e
w a s b e t h warm -h e ar t e d and
r e a c h in g k e y p e op l e ;
them ,
Monnet
He
e a ch m a j o r
wou l d op e n y ou r m ou t h
exp l a i n .
l o ve d m ap s ,
m ap .
you
e it h e c way .
t A lk in �
of
Bu t
decision? "
only b y
a
of
ne e d
"Exac t e !
use
He
th :i. n g s up . "
and h e
H e b ad a n i rr i t a t in g h ab i t
b et h kn o w y o u r r e a s o n ing
add
hi:11 ,
Af t e r
the pre s s
enj oyed from
such
W a sh i n g t o n P o st ,
or
C o ok ' s Monne t
9
--
� r an c o i s D u ch e n e
p o in t
e laborat e s
H e did not
of
sec
vi ew .
2: o o d
He
sp e c i a l
for
Th e y
�u r o p e an s ,
He
Th e y
were
v a lu ab l e
to him
a
wh e r e h e
of
sell his
t hat
at
both ends
s ou r c e s
s aw
bu t t h e r e
the
c o u l d inf lu e n c e
Am e r i c an
o nm ip r e s e n t
to by
the
s t y le
not i o n
of
e s t ab l i sh m e n t
s i n c e h e b a d p at e n t ly
a m an d ar i n .
m i gh t
h ad t o
f i r st
not
was
s ay .
not
rl' he
le s s
t r iu mph e d
also
In
w i th
n ot
in
i nd i v idu e l s
- - we re
an
a
beHt
at
the
l ist ened
infe r i o r ,
French reporter
Arn e r i c an s
div ided
Monnet ' s
l ik e d
HXXmi e x a m s t o b e c o m e
th e
And t h e n most
m o re
d i s t or t e d b y
-- he was
a gre R t e r r i s k th at
� e n e r al ,
was
.Fr e n ch r e p o rt e r ,.;a s
re s p e c t
P re n c hm e n w e r e
d i s t an t .
a society ,
with
what h e b e a rd .
slant
l"'l o n n e t
at
T h e re
8 t at e .
key
Also he
he
a
the
i n f lu e n t i a l ,
wh at
wes
It
t h an
of Monnet ' s
r e l a t ion s h ip .
f av o r e d t h i s .
the
one
was
re a s o n s
society
and m o r e
p e r s o n a l r e l a t i on s .
Th e
sp e c i f i e
own
mat t er s by
int e l l i F, e n c e
t h ink t h e re
were
was
of
o wn
j o u r n a l i s t s b e f or e
I
their
informed
of
c o ndu i t s f o r h i s
ware s .
soc ie t y
thu s b e t t er
as
a l wa y s
b e t t e r r e sp e c t e d i n
sup p o r t
asset s .
s e t -up
to
just
a s v i t al
w i th A m e r i c an s ,
were
and
them
ide a s .
t h e p o lit i c o s
affinity
it .
for
t h i s M o n n e t p o in t - o f -v i e w :
j ou rn a l i s t s
re � ar d e à
an d s ounding b o ard s
appro a c h i n3
on
l ik e d wh a t
and t h e B r i t s
re l a t i on s
more
cool
and
w ith B r i t a i n ,
am b i v a l e n t
as
t han w i t h
Ame r i c a .
O f c o u r s e M on n e t u s e d th e p r e s s
m ov e
a wh o l e
u n it y .
e r a o f �u rop e an h i st o r y
�'/ h at
" u sed"
m ad e
t h i s p e rf e c t l y
- - wh e t h e r t h e y
f i n an c ie r s - - w a s t h e
h e ad l i n e s .
He
p o l i t i c i an .
a l i gh t
at
c o l l e c t i v e ly
on the
tiMMMfl.
was
end
by
is
"used"
" u ser"
of
b y î1o n n e t
on e m an ' s
or
a l on g
ne v e r - e n d i n g
goal
o f �u rop e an
to those
were
being
s e ll
He
to
o r p o l i t i c i an s
w a s n ot
t o m ak e
a
He
was
not
s o m e t h in g .
He
was
s imp l y
th e
or
out
of p ower .
t u nn e l o f h i s t o r y ,
p o int ihg
wh o
a ê ad e m i c s
o f Monn e t .
ambit iou s man
to
a s h e u s e d e v e ry b o dy t o
�
e m in g
l i gh t ing
t a � ing E u r o p e
l i gh t
and
s t ar t ing
it s
l e ad e r s
p at h .
im p o s s ib l e
a great
of
the
j ou rn a l i s t s
n o t t r y in g
t h e b an d ,
Journa l i s t s
it
an
on
a c c e p t ab le
selfle ssne s s
was n ot
He
the
were
j u st
are
b e ing
" u s ed"
f o r J 0 u rn a l i s t s
t he
was
int e r r> s t .
pre s s ,
not
It
and
t o be
was
to
m ore
not
so
to
and m o r e .
be
u s ed .
In t h e
J ohn � o s t e r Du l l e s
wn s H e n r y K i s s in g e r . ·
att ached
c, _ o
one
m an
u n de r s t and h i st o r y
t e le v i s i on age
'
s
and
But
am b 1
· t 1· o n ,
o
was
b e ing
or
se lfle s s
s e rve
e au s e .
-- 1 0
C o ok ' s Monn e t
/0
I r e c al l g o i n ,:-; t o
H i gh C o m m i s s i on
int o
s e e h im i n Lux e m b o u r g v e r y e a rly
o f t h e Europe an C o al a n d S t e e l C om m u n it y w a s
t ar i f f s
and f r e i gh t r a t e s .
A l r e ady
bu r e au c r [-l t i c and p o l i t i c a l d e ad l o c k -- t h a t wa s ne ·,,r s ,
c r o s s -e x am i ne B o nne t
b e r e s o l ve d .
a
f i n a l l y he
s a id :
" L o ok ,
closely
new pup i l ,
m y f ri e nd
b u t he
-- t h i s
a t ar i f f n e g o t i at i on .
are
abou b
at
the
b e g in 1 1 i n r; o f
will b e
pr o c e s s t h at
1e
got
i s a proce s s
a r c�
we
are
b e g in n in ,
is
in wh i ch
b u i ld i ne; a m arke t
back ,
i s n o o th e r w ay ,
As
t h o u ght b ac k t o t h at
N on n e t
" pr o c e s s "
Honne t
he
e m b ar a s s m e n t .
int o t h e
aro
invo l v e d ,
f o r a l l o f Eu rope . ·
y ou
ar e
�m� b e c a u s e
t a lking
th e
l a s t �u rop e an
e ar l y morn ing h ou r s a s
up
�xxxxxxix�x q u arre l ing ,
sp e nd i n g .
N ow ,
a
l a s t C o mmon M arke t
s t ory ,
my
Fo r t w e lve
b r e akinc up ,
endle s s l y .
sudde n ly ,
î ixx� e ar l y t a lk with Monne t .
On c e
" h e vJ a s in aud ib le m o s t
s t u m b le d o v e r h i s
I t wa s a
s am e t im e h e
c om in g
t h e y h ad an
s t o ry ,
I
a g a in t h e
HMMMM I n e v e r be ard h i m d e l i v e r a s p e e ch ,
text
of the
t ime ,
sounded l ike h i s
but
a very
Fran c o i s
and wh e n y o u cl id
so m u c h one d o u b l e d up w i th
1r10nder an y on e e v e r u n d.e r s t o od a w o r d .
alway s t a lk e d wi t h gre a t pre c i s i o n
e l aborat inc h i s i d e a s .
he
we
h ad t r i u mph e d o v e r the p r ob l e m • '
s a y s that
he ar h im ,
ir r i t a t i on and
s e l d om he ld p r e s s c on f e re nc e s and h e w a s A t EL llr n o t
g o o d spe ake r .
Ducbene
a t e a che r e x p l a i n ing
T h e p r o b l e m w a s t h e p r o v e rb i a l and p e rm an ent
argu in g ,
I wr app e d
was a
s t ar t e d t o
in Bru s s e l s c o ve ring my
I t dr a g g e d on
m c i r c l in g t h e p r o b l e m
agr e e m en t .
and I
and t h i s p r o b l e m
prob l e m of c u rb i n c the U o mrnon M ark e t ' s agr i c u l t u r a l
y e ar s t h e y had been
there
s o much gre a t e r t h an t h e p r o b l e m .·"
ye ars later I was
summ i t m e e t ing .
l ik e
l o ok o f p o l i t e
a
a proce s s ,
Eur ope an summ i t s o f t e n do .
the
g e t t in g
t h e p r o b l e m an d h o w i t w a s e;o i n g t o
so lved b e c au s e t h e r e
T h i r t y -f iv e
C ommu n i t y
ab o u t
H e r e s p ond e d p at i e nt l y a t f i r s t ,
al�ebra t o
\·J e
just
ÈHXXiH bu s in e s s , wre s t l in g w i t h t h o s e f ir s t p r o b le m s of e l i m i n a , ; i r m
or harmon i z a t i on of
not
o n wh e n t h e
Bu t
at
in exp ounding and
H e kn e w e x a c t l y wha t he v1an t e d t o
own r e c o rd -- f o r he
11
s ay ,
e v e n if
w a s t h e m o s t p e r s i s t e nt
of men .
� o o k ' s � a nne t
--
ll
S c o t t y He s t on r e c al l s a f am i ly lunch at Monne t ' s c o un t r y home
Hou j array wh e n they had b e en t o lk in g ,
of course ,
Aft e r a re spo n s e ,
a r e m ark w a s m ad e about grand c h i ldre n .
in t.; e r j e c t ed to b r inr; t h e t a lk back to .t:urop e .
mhltJ� we w e r e
a nd t he n
M onnet
H i s w i f e s a id ,
j u s t s t a r t i ng t o t a lk abou t grandch i ldren .
wan t t o t él lk a b o u t ..c,;urope . "
de ar ,
about Eur op e ,
" Oh ,
J e an ,
ilh y d o y ou alway s
"B
fJJ onn e t re pl i e d w i t h a t w inkle :
i t i s f o r our grandc h i l dren th nt we are bu i ld in g Eur op e . "
�he d e G au l le y e ar s ,
at
�i a ,
and t h e p e riod f o l l owing d e G au l l e ' s v e t o
o f B r i t i sh e n t r y int o t h e C ommon �1arket i n J anu ary o f 11181Glil 1 9 6 3 we re
c e rt a in l y the b le ak y e ar s ,
the d own y e ar s ,
�urop e .
There i s ,
ve t o wh ich
•
tt
e
in c i den � a l l y ,
fl1�
a !f o o t no t e
the f al l o w y e a r s f or Monnet ' s
t o h i s t ory i n th at de Gau l l e
imkmxmmmmmmmmmœmm i s n o t v e r y w id e l y kn o wn .
G e n e r a l d e G au l l e
pronounc e d h i s f am ou s v e t o at a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e o n J anuary 1 4 ,
1 9 6 3 , and s ix d a y s l at e r Ch an c e l lor Konrad Adenau e r arr i v e ù in P ar i s t o
s i gn t h e Fra n c o -G e rm an '.V re n t y of C o op era t i on .
Bu t Je an I"l onne t s l ip p e d
int o t he Cr i l lon H o t e l wh e r e Ad e n au e r w a s s t a y i ng t o p l e ad w i t h the
C h an c e l lo r to r e f u s e to s i gn the t r e a t y un le s s de G a u l le l i f t e d h i s
ve t o o f t he B ri t i sh and a l l o w e d the ne go t i a t i o n s f o r B r it i sh
lntry
Bru s s e l s to rn ov e f orward q u i ck ly to a su c c e s s f u l end .
Ade n au e r ,
h o w e ve r ,
and
r
w a s in n o rn o od t o do t h e r it i sh such a f avor ,
F r an c o -Ge r1:1an T r e :-1 t y w i t h d e G a u l l e ,
q u i t e r i �h tly ,
in
saw t h e
a s s orn e t h ing o f a
c l im ax t o l e ading t h e .F ed e ral Repub l i c b .., ck f ro m W o rld War I I . '
I
s aw I"lo n net mtp r e gu l a rly in t h o s e y e a r s ,
�wh at e v e r
Ptti'ù
the s l ow-
dawn i n Eu rop e h e a lw a y s l o ok e d to th� f u t u r e wh ich he knew f o r c e r t a in
wou ld c orne .
H i s A c t i o n C ornm i t t e e for t h e U n i t e d S t at e s of �uuope w a s o f
c o u r s e t h e " f orum o f i de a s " whe re h e w 8 s p r e p aring t h e ground .
t e le p hone t o su gge s t a t a lk a t h is c o nve ni e n c e ,
I w ou l d
and s o m e t irn e s t h e re wou l d
b e a l u u c he on i nv i t a t ion but u su a l l y I w o u l ù b e a ske d t o c o m e t o h i s
ap artm e n t -o f f i c e a t t h e f o o t of the Ave nue Foch around 5 o ' c l o c k i n t he
a f t e rn o on
•·
C o ok ' s
Monnet
sun
w o u ld
s e t t le
o f t e n f i l l i n r�
r i gh t ,
and h i s
u su al l y
wou ld
his
int e r j e c t
c ar e
this
A m e r i c nn s ,
of
t alks
an o th e r
that
l a n gu a g e
t ot ally
in
the
to u s e
was
joy
numbcr
of
he
the
t im e
of
one
ap t
a l l o c at i o n
of
:i_ n
a rd e r
h av i n g
to
M arke t
opera ted
ethe r s
to
j o i ned
into
on
the
unt il
f low,
o f t en
of
o f w o rd s .
th at
vi s i t s ,
is
wou ld
past
but
the
s it n p l y
'i1h e n t h e
w it l u i
� v P o l!: r-1
t h e E n r; l i sh
ci i n c e
he
re lat ive ly
s e a r ch
out
was
p r J ur
E n g l i sh
w o ul d d e l i �h t
a b alan c e d
and
in
w or d s
s u rp r i s e
at
the
t im e ,
for
the
w e r l�
d e m an d i n g
f u nd s
for
t h at
agr i c u l t u r al p r o g r am .
But
It
and
th i s
\-J a s
a c o n t inu i n g
re s o l v e d b y P r i m e
gene
and
c o ndu c t i n g
costs
bu dg e t ,
e x c e s s i ve
was
I f o und m y s e lf c au gh t
i n M o nn e t ' s WR�E� w a y o f
B r i t i sh .
finally
Gnulle
Harket ,
r e � i o n a l d e v e l op m e n t
m arke t ' s
the
af t e r de
G o rn m on
the
Br i t i sh ,
c o rnp e n s a t e
c o mp e n s at e
in c id e n L a l l y ,
1984 .
to
v i s iter .
au t om at i c � l l y
rn � o f m y
O o m m o n Mark e t
are as ,
p ay
'r h e
any
l an g u a g e
e x p re s s i on s
and u n e xp e c t e d l y
bu s i n e s s .
F r e n ch
from
tl art ,
liau lle
t app ing t h e
v an H e l m o n t
M onn e t ' s
u se
de
I
list ene�.
B r i t i sh h ad f in a l l y
�u r op e an
wou ld
l e arne d
l'•J o nn e t ' s
an d ch o i c e
the
I h ad
to
be gin
wou ld
or
first ,
a nd
f or
s l owly .
tl r i t i s h
at
t o his
v an H e l m o n t ,
op e n
eye s ,
on
t h o u c;h t s
c l ar it y .
s in c e
wo rd s ,
o r Bng l i sh
up p eriferally
in
and
m o ving .
indif f e r c n c e
and
in u n e x p e c t e d b u t
At
t h in g s
o f p re c i s i on
b i l i n gu a l ,
a n A m e ri c an
the
a
w ou ld
wou l d r e s p o n d b r i e f l y
c l o s inr.; h i s
s o f a t m��m
a
the
his
af t e rn o on
lat e
Jacque s
p r o b l e rn w i t h
ide a s
d i arn ond-h nrd b r i l l i an c e
y e ar s ,
arm ch a i r ,
a
tree s ,
current
collected h i s
c om m e n t s ,
o b s e rv a t lhion s ,
i t t le
c on v e r s a t i on
an y
not
the
ont o
�
The
somet ime s
t o ke ep
w8s
wh i ch he
with
or
com f o r t ab l e
o f m any
a s s i s t an t
arm c h a i r .
f inge r s ,
tllis
worn ,
I w o u l d b e m ot i o n e d t o
a n d I'l o n n e t
a r e m ark
that
a
room .
f a it h f u l
up
b r in�
or t h e
t ip s
t ook
the
in
open ing o u t
w indow
a french
to
b ac k
-- 12
Monne t
me ant
a f ar
l ar g e r
depre s s e d
B r it a i n w a s
t a kinB
the
-__; a m m o n
a w ay
arg u m e n t
M i n i n t e r H a r r.; a r e t
from
�
fvll
y e arJ
Th a t ch e r
0 o ok ' s M o n n e t
-
13
-
r e g ional
all ,
go
ou t
and b o rrow t h e
de v e l o pm e n t ,
and
t u rn
j u st
doen ' t
î1 arke t
they
d o n ' t h av e
C o m m o n rl arke t
And
t h in r, s
o u gh t
then
t h at
to
to
a
be
intere st
wa s
to?
c o u ld
th at
I
A l e x an d e r H a m i l t o n b a d
h ad b e e n
all o f
gr e at
the
u n i f y ing
"Is
to
de b t s
the
later
it
she
the s e
the
of
the
I
wh e r e
that
I b ad
p e rh ap s
H am i l t o n
a t ru e
Bu t
he
in
was
one
v i gn e t t e
of
for
the
op p o s e d by
M ad i s o n ,
d r oppe d
of
i n t r o du c e d i n t h e
l e gi s l at i o n �m
and
the
get
on
the
th e
detail
I
at
C on gr e s s ,
c o n s t i tu t i onal
b o r r owing
debt
and
re fe rrin3
I
s h o uld
W a sh in g t o n
t ake
une
o ve r
of
() O
g e t t i n () u p t o
a
m inu t e
of
the
the
o r t wo
�rench
" lt, in d
it ,
11
and r e a l i 5 e d t h a t
int o
f or c e .
We i l ,
th i s f o r h i m ?
that
volume
at
f e d e r a l p ro c e s s
o f t he
of
wns
t ab l e .
home
the
the
did know that
and
came
abo u t
a nd
Un i t e d S t at e s . ·
coffee
a h i st ory
at
would
the
h e lp .
Av e n u e
w o rk .
s aid
I
F o ch .
�arly
in
The
179 0 ,
t h e n m e e t i n g i n N e w Y o rk ,
to
t ake
argum e n t s
i n f lu e nt i a l V i rg in i an s ,
bi l l w a s d e f e a t e d .
one
idea
wh at
a s ke d ,
and dat e s ,
� e de r a l G o v e rnm e n t
e ar l ,y
the
s e c r e t ar y
the
Af t e r
i nv e r-; t o r . "
h ad b e c om e
of the
off
F i rs t
any
was
G o v e rn m e n t
U on s t i t u t i o n
more
B r i t i sh .
B ru s s e l s ,
�mm h e f t y v o lu m e
au t h o r s
the
f i 1 1 an c e
to
a f t e r Ge orge
and this
system
an Am e r i c an h i s t o r y
mornin� I
N e xt
deral
to
P ap e r s
G oQj m on
d a y s .i "
bu t
day s
a
b e f ore
I
e ar ly
s t at e s ,
a
by
det a i ls ,
spoke
He
e ar l y
said,
he
I'l o n ne t
F e d e r a l i st
c o u ld
8
in
Ll e b t
no t
11 ape r s ? "
l e a f e d t h r ou gh
s a id M o nn e t ,
H
f ederal
B e de r a l i s t
had b e e n writ t e n
is
the
o n h i s d e sk .
s a icl .
s t ory
thirt e e n
of
the
the
e n l e r e d a n a p l u nk e d a o wn
t r an s l a i:; i on
H on n e t
the
f or c e s
in
ph o n e
of
th i s ,
was
the
r i sk for
the
the
o f fh a n d e d r e m ark a b o u t
in the
t h �t
in
wh y
b on d s
to
anyway ,
piqu �d ,
my
recall
in s i s t e d
e le c t e d Pre s i d e nt
" And
by
Wh a t
not
c r e di t
s t at e s
but
ove r
anced budge t
g o od
in s t an t ly
fu th e B r i t i sh ,
s t at e s .
s a id
�
ba
see
s e ll
mon e y ,
pro c e e d s
pret t y
Am e L i c an
t h e *mRig Am e r i c a n
I
a
ope r a t e
unif ied the
t o h e lp
the
add e d o f f -h an d e d l y :
I
Monnet ' s
m on e y
" I don ' t
I r _, m arked t o J.'olo nn e t :
A s w e t a lke d ,
o v er
O 'I e r
Th o m a s
all
state
s t ate s '
J e f f e r s on
d e bt s . ·
r i {)h t s ,
a nd
J am e s
\J o ok ' s b o n n e t
H am i l t on ,
f ederal
a key
He
·n
da y s ,
h ad b e e n
a
m ov e t h e
Debt
c ou l d b e
d i s t r in t
th at he
it
t he
on
tho se
and V i rg i n i a
l o c at e d p e r m an e n t l y
c ap i t al
t h e P o t o m ac .
of
in
H am i l t o n p r op o s e d
to
used t o
s t re n � t h e n
su c c e s s f u l l y
is
t a lk w i t h Monne t ,
the
to
of
I
rn o n e y ,
for
and
t ri. ed
the
ab ou t
s m i led
and
t r ;; in r:;
the
an d
the
f e de �al
d e al
was
d on e .
s y s t em ,
and
the
l a L; e r I ' e rm ane nt
way
the
G o al
and
d i dn
wen t
mm�mmmm
1
bu dg e t
the
t
the
mills
and
of
f i �ht . ·
U o m rn o n 1·1 arke t
and S t e e l C om m u n i t y h ad
steel
to
U nd e r s e c r e t ary
on
s t ood
.- a g a i n - - wh y
m ocl e r n i z i n g
a l w ay s
c o a l m in e s , '
i t s b a l an c e d budge t .
s a i dJ!.
to
sell
" J e an i"l o n n e t
that
one .
be c au s e
the
U o rn m o n M a rke t
L o nd. o n m a rk e t ,
and
we
out s ide ,
i n B ru s s e l s
Br i t i sh p e rman e n t
a ske d h i m h o w t h i n G s
r a t i o n a l i ?: ; n p.;
w o r r ] i n�
w o rk
the
the
I was
wh o w a s the n
C om : n u n i t y
8o I
st i l l .
mo n e y
i t . won ' t
agreed
in Wa shingt o n .
o v e r .r.:u r o p e
a c ro s s
th e
w ant
But
as
w o u lu
fore iGn
f o r e i r� n
has been
f ar
s i mp l y
cu r ee n c y
e x ch an :·'; e s . "
on
as
the
we
t e l ep h o n e
a re
c o n c e rn e d
b a r r o w t he
c o m i n p;
All
I
m on e y
in t o B r it a in
c o u ld d o w a s
too.
N e v e rt h e l e s s ,
the
p r e l!ide n t
of
his
a c t ion s
f irst
o u t:;
b a nk s
s l av e s ,
black
get h i s
J e f i · e r s on
Palliser
m on e y
federal
to
MMMtlMM U n i on
the
200 , 000
so : e
the
in
V i r g i n i an s
debt s .
in s t e ad
smile ,
state
G o v e rn m e n t .
state
bo rrowe d
f r o rn
by
the
with
c ou r s e
over the
b a rr o w t h e
the
centra l Feder a l
of
i f J e f f e r s o n w o u ld d e l i v e r t h e V i r g i n i e v o t e s
D e ad l o cke d
all
p opu l o u s
wh i c h b o r r o w i n g w a s
of
s t rong
wi t h o u t
that
w o 1J l t t d e l i v e r t h e N e w Y ork v o t e s i n C o n p;re s s
F o r e i gn O f f i c e .
just
no
was
S i r � i ch a e l P a l l i s e r ,
the
s y s t em ,
c L: a r l y
s ou th
repre s e n t a t i v e
it
most
RS
A w e e k af t e r m y
see
p e r c e i v i n r.;
c ap i t o l
was
c ap i t o l
on
m on e t ary
f i gh t i n p; h ard t o h a · J e
J e f fe r son
t ak e
p e rsisted ,
s h r e wd p o l i t i c a l d e al
swo llen
a f e d ·: r a l
to
the
V i r g in i e w a s t h e
e a rl y
to
of
t h ere
e ilie m e n t ,
way .
in
h ow e v e r ,
c en t r a l
emb arked
l4
--
to
of
i ' in a n c e
the
wh e n .t: r i t ai n ' s n o y
C o ; n m on �larke t
WR S
t o pre s s
c om m u n i t y
C n , .• m u n i t y 1 s
J e nkin s ,
a
m an " ,
" Mo n n e t
1977,
U : m m i s s i o n i n Bru s s e l s i n
for
au t h o r i t y
d e v e l 0p m e n t
bu d e;e t .
It
from
p ro j e c t s ,
t o ok
g ov e rn m e nt s
n e arl
one
to
of
barrow
o f h nving to
i n s t e ad
Je nk i n s
be came
·
e i r.:h te e n
do
month s
-- 1 5
G o ok ' s B o n n e t
wou ld
pre v ail ,
hi s
Rich ard Mayne
" N o t h _i_ n {j
e ve r
On c e w e
t h r own
I
e
in h i s
�
p o li t ic al
occ�s ion
to
when
f in d h i rn
c l e an up .
do u e e x cept
get s
\·Je
the
l o ok e d i n t o
in
ide al
in pu n su i t
o u t l o ok
a c up b o ar d
of
the
seemed to
c o l l ap s e d
�oal
be .
in
his
8 nk l e -d e ep i n b o ok s and p ap e r s
h o nn e t
p; r i n n e d and
s a id :
d i s or d e r . "
d i �; c u s s i n ! � o n e o f t h e m an y i m p e cli m e nt s d e Gau l l e b ad
a lm o s t
s a id s o m e th i n g about
me
p at h o l o r; i c a l
11 n e go t i a t i n g "
di s d a i n
for
w ith
G au l l e .
de
" i n t e gr at i o n " ,
fvl o nn e t
and
s t op p e d
a rupt ly .
"He
is
up
an
s t ar t i n p;
f i l e -b ox e s ,
r e s ou r c e fu lne s s
JS
his
t h e l>u r op e cln
that
be l i e f
n sh o k e a b l o
o r d i s m al
recall s
o f f i c e and n o nn e t
+
i nf i n i t e
n o m at t e r h o w d ark
and
hi
op t i m i s m ,
u n q u e n ch ab l e
was
c h ar a c t e r i s t i c s
s a l i en t
Uonnet ' s
of
one
course
Of
" f·1y f r i e n d ,
does
not
a r r an g e
int o
This
n u mb e r
of
n e got i at e
in
wn s ,
n o t n e go t i a t e w i th G e n �� ra l de G au l l e , " h e s a id .
onc e
and
his
set
mind
up
does
of
not
c ou r s e ,
political
de aling with de
m ad e
�h e n he
a
h ar d
s i mp l e
pe op l e
"He
to
fl ch i e v e
l'·1 o n n e t
t we n t i e t h
t �u r;h t
a n d c'1 e
c entury
me
and h e ad s
s a id
that
G au l l e ,
to
G nu l l e
--
s imply
d i d n ot
Bu t
was de
G o u l le
1 9 45
to
e s t nb l i sh t h e
wh i c h p r a c t i c a l l y
c am e
and
· e nt
in
one
a p iv o t a l
a man
de
e; e t
it
be
very
th e
of
As
of
he
mu st
r e a l i st i c
t 1:1 o
t ake
and
G ; 1 u l le
that
any
u n h e s i t a t i ng l y
--
of
w r i t i n r;
s ai d
and
of
d e a l in f, w i th
wa s
F r · m ch m e n
the
not
e th e r
a
o f the
a man
ve r y
of p o we r .
l i k e ab le
adop t e d Mo n n e t ' s p r op o s a l
and p o w e r f u l
e c on o m y
s u d d e n i l l u m i n a t i on
r e p o r t in G ,
p; r t ; at e s t
who
a
done .
i n f lu en c e ,
� o u r t h uepu b l i c .
de
S c ot t y U e s t on
o f p e op l e "
G au l l e ,
f r e n ch
abou t
b e c am e
p o in t
th i n g s
a l l -e mb r ac i n g
ran the
the
to
we r e
l ike
who
c an
t h at
g ov e rn m e n t b ad t o l e ar n t h e
of
me ,
imp o r t an c e
s o m e t h i n l� ,
Monn e t
it
the
What y o u 1 n u s t d o
r e a l it i e s
t ru th
�xp l ai n i n g d e Gau l l e f or m e f r om t h e n o h .
f'1 o nn e t ,
up . M
n e g o t i at e . "
l e ad e r s
Wh e n M o nn e t
is
h a rd f a c t s ,
m ak in g d e c i s i o n s .
Bu t h e
h ard w a y .
ab o u t
do
c o n d i t io n s
a c c o u nt
f le x ib l e .
y ou
C o m m i s ar i at
�mmmtmmmmm m m wh i l e
m an .
in
du P l an
f, O ve rn m e nt s
�OOK ' S
� ann e �
Tb e r e
Monn e t -de
Apr i l
of
is
1969 ,
s t ory .
with
o f h i s n at i on a l
c o n s t i t u t i on
and d o
a w ay
t o t a lk
about
- - bu t
G au l l e
and u n e xp e c t e d r u n - o f f
p o l i t i c a l f i Gu r e
Senate ,
wat e r s
t o ld m e
and t h e
m an
�he
s e c o nd
a very
on
in
f or
how
so
it
line
Benate
was
e le c t ing
of
maj o�ity
and
o f it s
a
oft en
y e ar s h e
r o u nd
wa s
to
s t r ong
went m
I
at
l ast
e le ct ed
a
to
to
surpri s in g
the
of
Fre n c h
t h e Hepu b l i c
wh e n
abou t
l e ad e r ship
With
the
s o rn e
:_; e n a t e ,
h at e d e a c h
air
the
c o ·· . p l e t e l y
the
and i t
Senate
r e l au n ch t h e
h a cl b e e n d e ad
qu i e t ,
amu s e d
p re s i d e n t
i n s t it u t i o n of the
t ake n
in
the
sat i sf a c t i o n
of the
re m a i n e d a p r e t t y
H e n at e ,
of
ab l e
s t at e
a
to
c ap t u r e
was
G au l l e .
For
it.
lncluded
died .
l o a th i n g .
in the
own d o wnf a l l
t h e r e f e r e ndum ,
a
i n d e p e nd e n t -m i n d e d b o dy
as
a b o l i sh
that
sp e c i a l
a m i s t ake of h i s o wn
d e t e rm i n e d
8 nd f in a l ly h e li:Klll: i tihttit s i mp l y
t h e r e f or e
G a s t o n l'lonne rv i l l e ,
ne v e r
f o r G e n e ra l de
re ; arded
Fre n ch
B y n at u re
ove r .
abou t d e G au l le ' s
m o n t h s b e f ore
e lc c � e d .
of
G au l l i s t s w e r e
c om p l e te ly ,
other with public
t o be
it
to
G au l le .
on l y
ch a f f e d u nd e r w h a t h e
Me anwh i l e ,
an
af t e r
t h at P oh e r b a d b c c o m e
s en a t o r s ,
s e at s ,
of
c amp a i gn t o b e c o m e P r e s i d e n t
e l e c t o r al
su c c e e d d e
r e f e re n du m wh i c h b r o u g ht
n o w h av e
of
c h an �e
a p r a c t i c a l ly u nk n o wn
a s P r e s i de n t
i nt e r i m P r e s i d e n t
long .
� w ay w i t h t h e S en G t �
the
op e n i n � up
vot ing by
p o l i t i e n ! t ho r n - i n - t h e - s i de
Abo l i t i o n
of
B e n ., . t e ,
had b e e n f o r c e d i n t o
of
c o n s t it u t i o n f o r t h e F if t h H e p ub l i c ,
do
I!' r e n ch
a n o u t s p o ke n Eu r op e a n p l at f orm ,
t h e G au l l i s t s b ad n e ve r
s y st e m
unt i l he
m om e nt um w i t h F r e n c h
d e G au l l e
Monne t
ru n
o wn r ight
.t.:u r op e nn
r e f e r en d u m t o
in
s t e pp e d down .
P oh e r h ad
in h i s
not
iHtKxix
the
l&
of the
off ice
G e o r c e s Pom p i d ou h ad b e e n
n am e d A l ain P oh e r who ,
h ad b e c o m e
d e Gau l l e
v1 i t h
n e w p o s s ib i l i t i e s
i n Bu r op e .
f inale
r e s i gn e d f r o m
de f e a t
ah e a d a � a in
succ e ed de
Af t e r d e Gau l l e
to the
the
s e e Monnet
move
a r a th e r f a s c in a t i n g f o o t n o t e
G au l l e
the F r e n c h
to
lO
--
t he
Apr i l ,
to
1969
in s t e ad .
l o n g -t i m e p r e s id e n t
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Pre s i d e n t a n d t h e m a n t o s u c c e e d �mmmmm de G au l l e . ·
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REFLECT IONS ON THE I RAQ I C R I S I S
by
GEORGE W . BALL
October 8 , 1 9 9 0
1 01 8 1 9 0
I ll
I RAQ I . REFLECT IONS
REFLECT I ONS ON THE I RAQ I CR I S I S
When , a s deputy head o f the S t a te Dep a r tme n t t h r ee
decades ago ,
emb r o i lmen t ,
I w a s v a i n l y t r y i ng t o h a l t Ame r i c a ' s V i e tnam
l
s ug g e s ted to P r es i de n t Johnson t h a t we s h o u l d
d e v e l op a d o c t r i ne o f ext r i c a t i on .
Ame r i c an p r e s i de n t s have
long l i ke d d oc t r i n e s that c a n b e named a f te r t hem and ,
I
s u g g e s ted , a d oc t r i ne o f ex t r i c a t i on m i g h t p r ov i de a u s e f u l
g u i d e t o p r even t o u r f a l l i ng i n t o a n o t h e r b o t toml e s s swamp .
W i t h t h a t o b j e c t i ve i n m i nd we c o u l d cons t a n t l y t r y t o
i n c l u d e a f a c e - s a v i ng e s c ape h a t c h i n o u r po l i cy a s i t
e v o l ve d .
Unhapp i l y , we d i d not d o s o then , b u t i n s t e a d
d r i f te d a im l e s s l y i n t o a s i tu a t i o n o f p r o t r a c te d c a r n a g e and
u l t i m a t e s t a l ema te .
Today I f e a r we a r e l e t t i n g t ha t s a d
h i s to r y r ep e a t i t s e l f i n t h e c u r r en t I r a q i c r i s i s ,
thoug h t l es s ly d i g g i ng o u r se l v e s deeper and deeper i n t o a
s i tu a t i o n whe r e the c o s t s o f ext r i c a t i on w i l l be p a i n f u l and
exor b i t a n t .
At the s a me t ime we a r e d i s m i s s i ng the
a l te r n a t i v e o f d ip l omacy w i t h a g r i m f i n a l i ty .
Why d i d S a d d a m H u s s e i n choose t h i s momen t t o
a t t a c k Kuwa i t ?
F i r s t , o n e mu s t unde r s t and t ha t ,
though
s h r ewd , S a dd a m is a n a i f in geopo l i t i c s and knows l i t t l e
a b o u t t h e wo r l d ; he h a s ,
i n f a c t , been away f r om h i s count r y
o n l y f o r a b r i e f t r i p to �a r i s and occa s i ona l v i s i t s t o
Mo sc ow .
Ag a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r ound a h i g h l y r ep u t e d t h i nk t a nk
of Egyp t i a n expe r t s in C a i r o has spec u l a t i v e l y conc l u ded :
I RAQ I . REFLECT IONS
1.
/2/
1 0 / 8/ 9 0
T h a t S a d d a m d i d n o t r ecogn i z e the e x t e n t t o
w h i c h t h e e n d o f t he C o l d Wa r h a d c h a nged the c a l c u l u s .
He
s t i l l though t t h a t the Sov i e ts wo u l d con t i nu e to s u b s i d i z e
h i s a d vent u r e s ;
2.
T h a t he a s s umed the A r a b peop l e wou l d supp o r t
a p op u l a r movement " f r om t he G u l f t o the o c e a ns " , and t h a t
he c o u l d c ap i t a l i z e on the w i d e sp r e a d f e e l i n g s o f
hum i l i a t i on a n d f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t s t emmed f r om t h e l a c k o f
a n y s e r i ou s p r og r e s s i n r e s o l v ing t h e P a l es t i n i a n i s s u e ;
3.
T h a t he be l i eved t h a t the A r a b peop l e wo u l d
s h a r e h i s h a t r e d f o r t h e h a nd f u l o f a r r og a n t r i c h i n Kuwa i t
who ,
a s h e sees i t , h a ve s hown l i t t l e o r no c once r n f o r the
pove r ty o f the g r e a t mass o f A r a b s .
The s t udy conc l ud e s not o n l y t h a t the p r o b l em o f
the P a l e s t i n i an s i s a d e e p w o u n d to the p r i d e o f any s e l f ­
r espec t i ng Ar a b , b u t t h a t the r e a r e ,
i n a dd i t i on ,
a who l e
s e t o f s t r u c tu r a l p r o b l em s wh i c h n e e d p r omp t a t tent i on .
Adm i n i s t r a tion ' s Fo r mu l a t i on of Wa r A im s
A l though i n i t i a l ly P r e s i d ent B u s h l i s ted a s a mong
o u r e s sent i a l a im s the r emova l of S a d d a m H u s s e i n as l e a d e r
of I r a q ,
i t s o o n bec a me c l e a r tha t n o Secu r i ty Counc i l
r e s o l u t i on c o u l d b e f r a med i n those t e r ms .
T h u s r ecen t l y he
h a s mo r e r e a l i s t i c a l l y l i m i ted Ame r i c a ' s o b j e c t i ve to
s e c u r i ng comp l i ance w i t h a l l e i g h t Sec u r i ty Counc i l
r es o l u t i on s s o f a r a d op t ed .
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
/3/
10/8/90
B u t by r ed e f i n i ng o u r wa r a ims i n t h a t mo r e mod e s t
manne r , he h a s c r e a ted a nx i e t i e s i n t h e gove r nmen t s a n d
peop l e s o f s orne n e i g h b o r ing Ar a b s t a te s .
I r a q ' s n e i gh b o r s
a r e a c u t e l y sens i t i ve t o t h e r u t h l e s s n e s s a n d r e c k l e s s ness
o f Saddam H u s s e i n and fear that the wo r l d c anno t a f f o r d to
l e ave him i n p o s se s s i on both o f I r a q ' s huge a r my and I r a q ' s
r ep u t e d c a p a b i l i ty f o r chem i c a l and b i o l og i c a l wa r f a r e and
i t s c u r r en t p r o j e c t t o bu i l d nuc l e a r weapons .
These
conc e r n s mu s t b e d e a l t w i t h if any f i n a l s e t t l ement is to be
du r a b l e .
Ame r i c a ' s Emph a s i s o n the M i l i t a ry Aspe c t s o f t he P r ob lem
1
'
•
.
, .
Con f r onted w i t h the I r a q i nv a s i on o f Kuwa i t ,
the
Bush Admin i s t r a t i on r eg a r ded it f r om the o u t s e t as p r i ma r i l y
a m i l i t a r y p r o b l em , and , a s a consequence , o ve r lo o k e d
Ame r i c a ' s p o l i t i c a l o b j ec t i ve s and the d i p l oma t i e
p o s s i b i l i t i es open a s a r e s u l t o f the changed w o r l d scene .
S o i t m a y be u s e f u l to r ev i ew these cons i de r a t i on s b r i e f l y .
S o l ong a s the C o l d W a r d om i n a t e d f o r e i gn
r e l a t i o n s Ame r i c a c o u l d not e f f ec t i ve l y u s e the Un i te d
Na t i on s bec a u s e o f the i nev i t a b le S o v i e t v e t o i n the
Secu r i t y Counc i l .
Now ,
f o r the f i r s t t ime Ame r i c a can
env i s i o n the Un i te d N a t i ons a s a ma j o r i n s t r umen t f o r
a c h i ev i ng a n d ma i nt a i n i n g wo r l d peace .
T h u s the B u s h
Admi n i s t r a t i on a c ted w i s e l y when i t p r omp t l y t u r ned t o the
Un i te d N a t i ons to r eve r s e the b r u t a l I r a q i t a keover o f
/4/
I RAQ I . REFLECT ION S
10/8/90
Kuwa i t a n d p r o te c t S a u d i A r a b i a a n d e t h e r n a t i on s i n t he
a r ea .
I ts f i r s t a c t i on , on Aug u s t 2 , w a s t o secu r e f r om the
S e cu r i ty Counc i l a r e s o l u t i o n f in d i ng t h a t the I r a q i
i nv a s i on o f Kuwa i t h a d a mo u n t e d t o " a b r e a c h o f
i n t e r na t i on a l s e c u r i ty " - - a p r es c r i be d cond i t i on to i nvok i n g
t he m a nd a to r y e n f o r cement ma c h i n e r y o f C h a p t e r V I I o f t he
Un i te d N a t i on s C h a r t e r .
B u t k now i ng t h a t the I r a q i s h a d the c a p a b i l i ty to
cont i nu e on t he i r path o f conqu e s t t o S a ud i A r a b i a and
conv i nced b y at b e s t d u b i ou s i n te l l i gence that they we r e on
the v e r g e o f d o i ng s o ,
the Adm i n i s t r a t i on b r u s hed a s i de
conc e r n f o r long e r - t e r m P ? l i t i c a l impl i c a t i on s and d i r ec ted
the P e n t a g o n to a c t i va t e i ts imp r e s s i v e b u t cumb e r s ome
ma c h i n e r y of deploymen t .
B a s ing s uc h a c t i o n on the S a u d i
r eque s t f o r a s s i s t ance , the B u s h Adm i n i s t r a t i o n imp a t i en t l y
f i ne s s ed the c a r e f u l l y c a l i b r a te d p r og r am o f i ntens i fy i ng
e n f o r cement s e t f o r th in C h a p t e r V I I .
I t r e l i ed i n s t e a d on
A r t i c le 5 1 , w h i ch r e s e r ve s the r i g h t o f na t i ons t o t a k e
a c t i on s o f " in d i v i d u a l o r c o l l ec t i v e s e l f -d e fe n s e . . . u n t i l
the S e c u r i ty C o unc i l h a s t a ke0 me a s u r es nece s s a r y to
ma i n t a i n i n t e r na t i ona l peace and s e c u r i ty . "
I t h e l d t h a t pos i t i on o n l y b r i e f ly , s i nce i t
qu i c k l y f ound t h a t Ame r i � a cou l d secu r e the suppo r t o f e t h e r
n a t i ons o n l y by p u r s u i ng the s te p - by - s tep a r r a ngeme n t s
p r ov i de d by A r t i c l e s 3 9 t h r o u g h 4 2 o f t h e Cha r t e r - - a
s equence o f mea s u r e s d i r ec ted towa r d " co l l ec t i ve secu r i ty . "
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ON S
/5/
1 0 / 8/ 9 0
Thus , s h i f t i ng i ts p r ocedu r a l g r ound ,
i t p e r s u a de d the
S e cu r i ty Counc i l t o adopt r es o l u t i ons nu l l i fy i ng the
a nnex a t i o n o f Kuwa i t , r e qu i r ing the f r ee i ng o f f o r e i g n
n a t i on a l s , c a l l i ng f o r eçonom i c s a nc t i on s , and i f those
f a i l ed , even a u t ho r i z i ng the u s e o f m i l i t a r y f o r ce by
memb e r s o f the Un i ted N a t i ons .
B u t a t t h a t po i n t o u r gove r nment unhapp i ly t u r ne d
i ts b a c k on d ip lomacy and f a i l e d o r r e f u s ed t o p r e s s f o r t h e
a d op t i on o f Ar t i c l e 4 3 , wh i c h wou l d h a ve empowe r ed
the S e cu r i ty Counc i l t o c a l l on membe r na t i ons t o cont r i b u t e
un i ts to a t r ue Un i ted N a t i ons f o r c e under i n t e r n a t i ona l
d i r e c t i on f o r spec i f i e p u r p o s e s .
O u r a d d i c t i on to
un i l a t e r a l i sm ( the mode r n v e r s i on o f Ame r i c a ' s t r a d i t i ona l
i s o l a t i o n i sm ) once a g a i n b l ocked the l o g i c a l pu r s u i t o f a
c a r e f u l l y d e s i gned p r og r am .
We wou l d have a c h i eved s u b s t a n t i a l a d v a n t a g e s had
we con t i n u e d on c o u r s e and u t i l i z ed Ar t i c l e 4 3 .
By c r e a t i ng
a n a u then t i c Un i ted N a t i ons f o r c e contemp l a ted by t h a t
a r t i c l e , o u r c o u n t r y wo u l d have avo i ded the humi l i a t i ng
pos i t i o n o f begg i ng o ther n a t i ons to h e lp p r o v i de the
baggage t r a i n f o r wha t appe a r ed a s u n i qu e l y a n Ame r i c a n
i n i t i a t i ve .
E a c h memb e r n a t i on wou l d have been l e g a l ly
bound t o heed the S ec u r i ty Counc i l ' s c a l l to ma k e a v a i l a b l e
f i g h t i ng f o r ces and equ i pment wh i le the Counc i l wou l d have
a s s e s s ed expenses on a n a g r eed and equ i t a b l e f o r m u l a .
I n s t e a d o f o u r c o u n t r y h a v ing to p l a y the mend i c a n t to A r a b ,
I RAQ I . REFLECT IONS
/6/
1 0/ 8 / 9 0
E u r opean and Japanese memb e r s f o r m i l i t a r y and f i n a nc i a l
a s s i s t ance ,
the Un i te d N a t i ons S ec u r i ty Counc i l wou l d h a ve
d one t h a t wo r k f o r u s .
Even the Sov i e t Un i o n h a s now made
c l e a r that it wou l d b e p r ep a r ed to p r o v i de s orne m i l i t a r y
un i t s b u t o n l y t o a U N f o r ce a s a command r e sponse t o a
mand a to r y Secu r i ty Counc i l r e s o l u t i o n .
I n s t e a d we g a ve o u r m i l i t a r y a f r ee hand and they
d i d wh a t c ame n a t u r a l l y :
a s s emb l ing w i th spec t a c u l a r speed a
v a s t n a t i on a l f o r c e i n a d i s t a n t and d i f f i c u l t a r e a .
Me anwh i l e , t h r o u g h n a t i o n - b y -n a t i on s o l i c i t a t i on , we
p a i nf u l l y i mp r o v i sed a f r a g i l e co a l i t i o n .
Y e t t he f o r ce s
comp r i s ing t h a t coa l i t i on l a c k the me r e s t p r e tense o f a
cent r a l command .
The S a ud i a r my comma n d e r w i l l c oo r d i n a te ma neuve r s
among t h e A r a b f o r c e s i n t h e count r y , a n d t h e Un i te d S t a te s
commander w i l l cons u l t w i th h i s S a ud i coun t e r p a r t o v e r
" j o i n t t a c t i c a l dec i s ions " . T h e B r i t i s h a i r and l an d f o r ce s
w i l l come u n d e r t a c t i c a l US con t r o l , b u t the F r ench u n i t s
w i l l r ema i n i nd ependent .
E u r op e a n NATO and Fr ench n a v a l
u n i t s w i l l be con t r o l l e d by a coo r d i n a t i ng g r oup ope r a t i ng
t h r o u g h the We s t e r n E u r opean Un ion , wh i l e US un i t s w i l l
r e t a i n t he i r own c h a i n o f comma nd .
Though there i s an
e f f o r t t o b r ing a l l u n i t s under e f f ec t i ve US cont r o l , t h a t
i s s u e h a s not been c l e a r l y dec i d ed ;
i n f a c t the S a ud i s a r e
r e l u c t a n t to y i e l d o r even mod i f y i t s c l a i m t o u l t i m a t e
con t r o l over a l l l a n d - b a s e d m i l i t a r y ope r a t i ons l a unched
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
f r om i t s s o i l .
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We r e we to g e t i n t o a n a l l - o u t s ho o t i n g w a r ,
s u c h a d i f f u s i on o f command c o u l d p r oduce ma j o r ga f f e s .
'"-��
· · ·· -
B e c a u s e o f these devel opme n t s the wo r ld now t a k e s
i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t the d e fense o f S a ud i Ar a b i a i s b a s i c a l l y
a n Ame r i c a n p r o j ec t - - a n a t t i tu d e many p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t he
a r e a i n t e r p r e t a s mea n i ng t ha t ,
i f Ame r i c a s ho u l d h a v e i ts
way , the " new wo r l d o r de r " t o b e b u i l t i n the M i d d l e E a s t
wou l d s t r ong l y r es emb l e a n Ame r i c a n p r o te c to r a te .
I f we l a b e l the enter p r i se " ma d e i n Ame r i c a " why
s ho u l d we exp e c t h e lp f r om any o th e r n a t i on ?
To exer c i s e
l e a de r s h i p i n c r i se s , p a r t i c u l a r ly i n a n a r e a s u c h a s t h e
M i d d l e E a s t whe r e the Un i te d S t a te s i s a l r e a d y r eg a r ded w i th
s u sp i c i o n f o r i ts o b s e s s i on w i th I s r a e l , o u r coun t r y mu s t
s u b l i m a t e i t s n a t i on a l i dent i ty i n a genu i ne i n t e r n a t i on a l
f o r c e under a r econs t i t u t ed Un i te d N a t i on s M i l i t a r y
Comm i t tee .
The c omb i ned command s t a f f m i g h t cons i s t o f
gene r a l s f r om Ame r i c a ,
the S o v i e t Un i o n , Wes t e r n E u r ope a n d
f r om S a u d i Ar a b i a and Egyp t .
I n v i ew o f the s upe r i o r i ty o f
o u r n a t i on ' s r es o u r ce s we c o u l d a lmos t c e r t a i n l y a r r a nge f o r
a n Ame r i c a n gene r a l t o h a v e over a l l command j u s t a s Gene r a l
E i s enhower d i d i n Ope r a t ion Over l o r d , wh i l e l e a v ing spec i f i e
imp l emen t a t i ona l r espons i b i l i t i e s t o n a t i ona l comma nd e r s .
Obv i o u s ly b o t h the Pen t a g on and l a r g e e l ements o f
Cong r e s s wou l d i n s t i n c t i ve l y r e s i s t t h e who l e i d e a o f a t r ue
i n t e r n a t i on a l f o r c e .
They d o not seem to und e r s t a nd t h a t
the s uc ce s s f u l r es i s t ance to a c ommon d a nger r e qu i r e s a
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
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10/8/9 0
common p a r t i c i p a t i on , and t h a t the p o l i t i c a l a dv a n t a g e s o f a
Un i te d N a t i on s f o r c e m i g h t f a r o u twe i g h the inhe r e n t
a wkwa r dn e s s o f a mu l t i na t i on a l command .
The Co s t s o f Un i l a te r a l ]�
Wha t pen a l t i e s a r e we l i k e l y to p a y f o r o u r
i n s i s tence on a c t i ng un i l a te r a l ly ?
- -An i nc r e a s ing numbe r o f Ar a bs a r e beg i n n i n g to
s u spect t h a t Ame r i c a is p u r s u ing i ts own i mp e r i a l i s t i c
o b j e c t i v e s t o g a i n e f f ec t i ve d om i nance o f M i d d l e E a s t e n e r g y
r e s o u r ce s .
T hey see u s f i g h t i ng to d e f end a h a nd f u l o f
n a t i o n s l u c k y enough to be loca ted on v a s t o i l r i ches even
though t h o s e na t i ons l a r g e ly expend t he i r we a l th in
consp i cu o u s consump t i o n , h i d ing it i n S w i s s numb e r e d
a c c o u n t s o r i nv e s t ing a s m u c h a s $ 2 0 0 b i l l i o n o u t s i de t h e
M i d d l e E a s t - - i n the U n i ted S t a t e s , J a p a n and E u r op e - - wh i l e
ma k i ng l i t t l e ,
i f any , e f f o r t t o i mp r ov e t he l o t o f t he i r
p o o r Ar a b b r o t h e r s .
- -O u r n a t i on ' s c u r r en t beha v i o r a l s o l e a ve s many
A r a b s to s uspec t t h a t Ame r i c a is bent on b lo c k i ng po l i t i c a l
p r og r e s s i n t he a r e a .
Though t a l k i ng i nc e s s a n t l y o f
democ r acy , Ame r i c a concen t r a te s h u g e f o r ce s on d e fend i n g a
h a nd f u l o f o b s o l e te , a b s o l u t e mona r c h i e s , qu i t e o u t o f tune
w i t h t he p o l i t i c a l e t ho s o f t he Twe n t i e t h Cen t u r y .
No
won d e r Ame r i c a appe a r s to· many A r a b s as p l a y i ng the o l d
impe r i a l g ame o f s e t t i ng med i ev a l k i ng doms a g a i n s t the
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
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mod e r n " p r og r e s s ive " s t a te s i n o r d e r to d i sc o u r a g e p o l i t i c a l
deve l opme n t s t h a t m i g h t cha l lenge wha t they pe r c e i v e a s
Ame r i c a ' s amb i t i ons f o r i n f l uence o r l i m i ted heg emony .
Tod a y S a d d am H u s s e i n i s exp l o i t i ng s uch f e e l i n g s o f j e a l o u s y
and r e s en tment a t Ame r i c a by appe a l ing to the A r a b peop l e s
over the h e a d s o f the i r gove r nmen t s .
- -As a peop l e ha unted by t he i r own
c o l o r f u l h i s to r y , many A r a b s i n s t i nc t i v e l y v i ew o u r p r esent
p o l i c i e s as one m o r e ex amp l e o f a na t i on o f Chr i s t i a n and
Jew i s h i n f i de l s w a g i ng wa r a g a i n s t I s l a m .
I n sp i te o f h i s
own secu l a r b l em i s he s S a d d a m H u s s e i n i s t r y i ng t o s t i r
r e l i g i o u s pa s s i ons i nh e r e n t i n t h a t concep t i on - - and
p r e s uma b l y h a v i ng s orne s uc c e s p .
- -We c a n a l s o exp e c t t h a t i n a r e l a t i ve l y few
mon t h s p r ob l ems w i l l b e c r e a ted f o r many A r a b s by f r i c t i ons
i n c u l tu r e and c u s toms be tween the Ame r i c a n s o l d i e r s and the
S a ud i s .
- -F i na l l y - - a nd by f a r the mos t d amag ing
d i squa l i f i c a t i on o f the Un i ted S t a te s - - i s the hypoc r i s y
A r a b s p e r c e i v e i n Ame r i c a ' s c omp l a i s a n t a t t i t u d e towa r d
I s r a e l and i ts comp u l s i ve f a vo r i t i sm f o r tha t c o u n t r y over
o t he r M i d d l e E a s te r n s t a te s .
A r a b s n a t u r a l ly d r a w a c l o s e
pa r a l l e l b e tween Ame r i c a ' s denunc i a t i on o f the r ap e o f
Kuwa i t a n d i t s s uppo r t o f I s r a e l i n deny i ng t h e r i g h t o f
s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i on t o t h e Pa l e s t i n i a ns .
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
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A r a b s he a r Ame r i c a loud l y bewa i l ing a d a n g e r o u s
b a l ance o f p a ymen t s d e f i c i t t h a t comp e l s i t to p a s s t h e h a t
to f i n a nce i t s i nvo l vement i n the c u r r en t c r i s i s ;
a t the
s ame t ime they s ee the I s r a e l i lobby man ip u l a t i n g Cong r e s s
to b l ock s a l e s f o r h a r d c u r r epcy o f m i l i t a r y equ i pment t o
t h e S a ud i s , s o o u r coun t r y c a n p r o v i de s im i l a r equ i pment a s
a f r ee g i f t t o I s r a e l .
N o r a r e A r a b r e sentme n t s l i m i ted t o o u r b a d l y
s kewed m i l i t a r y s a l e s p o l i cy .
They a r e s k ep t i c a l when
Ame r i c a no i s i l y p r o c l a i m s i t s d e t e r m i n a t i on t o r eve r se
I r a q ' s t a keover o f Kuwa i t , yet h a s r epe a te d l y v e t oe d the
e n f o r cement o f S ec u r i ty Counc i l r es o l u t i o n s nu l l i fy i ng the
I s r a e l i annexa t i on o f E a s t Je r u s a l em and the Go l a n He i g h t s - ­
even a f t e r t he Un i ted S t a tes h a d voted f a v o r a b l y f o r the
s u b s t a n t i ve r es o l u t i ons tha t h a d condemned these a c t i ons .
S o long a s Ame r i c a pe r s i s t s i n p u r s u i ng i t s
unc r i t i c a l ly i n d u l gent po l i cy tow a r d I s r a e l many A r a b s w i l l
i nc r e a s i ng l y d o u b t o u r count r y ' s cons i s tency and hence i t s
s i nc e r i ty .
They w i l l mo r e and mo r e v i ew Ame r i c a ' s exp r e s sed
conc e r n for the r i g h t s o f . Ar a b coun t r i e s d i s p o s s e s s e d by
I r a q as a m e r e p r e text f o r c a r r y i ng out a n I s r a e l i d e s i r e
f o r the d e s t r u c t i on o f I r a q - -wh i c h I s r a e l r eg a r d s a s t h e one
Ar a b s t a t e c a p a b l e o f c h a l leng ing i t s own expa n s i o n i s t
po l i c i e s .
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
/ 1 1/
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A PROBABLE SCENAR I O FOR THE I RAQ CR I S IS
Desp i te a l l e f f o r t s to be op t i m i s t i c ,
I c a nn o t
he lp s us pe c t i ng t h a t the scena r i o l i ke l y to s hape o u r c o u r s e
w i l l a lmo s t c e r t a i n ly con s i s t o f the f o l l o w i ng d r e a r y
s equence .
l)
The B lo c k a d e
As a p r i v a te c i t i z e n I am , o f c o u r s e , no
l o n g e r p r i vy t o Ame r i c a n i n te l l i gence , yet I a m not f u l l y
r e a s s u r ed by the r epea ted a s s e r t i on o f o u r g ove r nment t h a t
the b l oc k a d e i s a l r ea d y s how ing s i g n i f i c a n t e f f ec t s .
Mo r eove r ,
I t h i n k i t u n l i k e ly tha t we c a n ma i n t a i n the
b l oc k a d e as b r o a d ly and for as long a t ime as many wou ld
l i ke .
O u r e f f o r t s to deny food impo r t s to I r a q and
Kuwa i t v i o l a te o u r r ep u t a t i on a s a c i v i l i z e d peop l e .
Our
a c t i o n s uncom f o r t a b ly r e c a l l the b a r b a r i e m i n d s e t o f a
f e ud a l b a r on b e s i eg i ng a c a s t l e by s t a r v i ng o u t i t s
d e fende r s·.
A l though P r e s i de n t B u s h h a s now made c l e a r i n
h i s O c t o b e r l speech to t h e U n i ted N a t i on s t h a t t h e Un i ted
S t a te s w i l l p e r m i t food s h ipmen t s s o long as t he i r
d i s t r i b u t i on i s a d equ a t e l y mon i t o r ed b y o r g a n i z a t i ons s u c h
a s the Red C r o s s , S a d d am H u s s e i n i s r epo r t e d l y r e f u s i ng to
a c co r d the Un i ted N a t i ons comm i t tee d e a l ing w i t h the
huma n i t a r i a n a spects o f the oper a t i o n the r i g h t to mon i to r .
I t s eems d o u b t f u l t h a t t h a t d e a d lock c a n b e b r o ken w i t h o u t
f o r c i ng s orne r eexa m i na t i o n o f o u r n a t i on ' s p o l i c y .
I RAQ I . REFLECT IONS
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T ha t , o f cou r s e ,
by a food b lo c k a d e .
10/8/90
i s n o t t h e o n l y p r ob lem p r e s en ted
I t s eems a lmos t c e r t a i n t ha t ,
i n sp i te
o f h i s r ecent a s s u r ances , S a d d am H u s s e i n w i l l impo s e mo r e
s t r i n g e n t r e s t r i c t i ons on the food a l lo t ted h i s f o r e i g n
.
h o s t a g e s t h a n on t h a t a l l o t te d t o h i s own p e op l e .
At the
s ame t ime b y b l oc k i ng a l l but m i n im a l r a t i ons t o t he
em i g r a n t wo r k e r s f r om T h i r d Wo r l d count r i e s and even
s h u t t i ng o f f the food s upp l i e s sent by those n a t i ons to
succor t he i r own c i t i z en s , S a dd am cou l d use our b l o c k a d e of
food i mp o r t s t o a g g r a v a t e those c o u n t r i e s '
shr i l l
a c cu s a t i ons o f inhuma n i t y .
I f and when S a d d am H u s s e i n s ho u l d d i sp l a y on
t e l ev i s i o n to the Ame r i c an peop l e a p i c t u r e of s t a r v i ng
Ame r i c a n hos t a g e s a b o u t t o d i e f r om hunger a s a r e s u l t o f
o u r b l o c k a d e , one c o u l d �xpe c t t w o con f l i c t ing r e a c t i on s .
A
we l l - o r g a n i z ed f a c t i on cons i s t i ng o f f r i en d s and r e l a t i ve s
o f the h o s t a g e s wo u l d no d o u b t demand a n i mmed i a te e n d o f
the war ; another
s t r ong e r )
( l a r g e r though n o t nece s s a r i ly p o l i t i c a l ly
f a c t i o n m i g h t t r ans l a t e t he i r f e e l i n g s o f g r i e f ,
f u r y and f r u s t r a t i o n i n t o a demand f o r p r omp t and b r u t a l
a t t a c k s o n I r a q , even though t h a t wou l d p u t the h o s t a g e s i n
g r e a t e r j eopa r dy .
The Reso r t to O f f ens ive M i l i t a ry Ac t i on
Wh a t a r e t he cha nces tha t t he emb a r g o w i l l f a i l
and wha t wou l d b e the c o n s equences o f t h a t f a i l u r e f o r the
i n t eg r i ty o f the coa l i t i on ?
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O f those two que s t i ons t h e f i r s t i s t h e h a r de r t o
answe r .
The wo r l d ' s r epea ted exp e r i ence w i t h econom i e
b l o c k a d e s h a s ena b l ed mod e r n econom i s ts to me a s u r e i n r o u g h
o r d e r s o f ma g n i t u d e h o w l ong i t may t a k e f o r a n a i r t i g h t
b l oc k a d e t o r educe t h e l eve l o f l i f e i n a n o f f end i ng
c o un t r y .
B u t no expe r t c a n even w i l d ly p r ed i c t how low a n
e conomy mu s t s i nk b e f o r e the r e s u l t a n t h a r d s h i p f o r c e s a
d e s i r ed po l i t i c a l d ec i s i on ;
t h e r e a r e f a r too many va r i a b l e s
a n d t o o many s u b j e c t i ve e l emen t s to cons i d e r .
Wha t now s eems c l e a r to me i s t h a t the e conom i e
b l o c k a d e w i l l p r oduce t h e d e s i r e d p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i ve o n l y
i f t h r o u g h d ip l omacy we p r ov i d e S a dd am H u s s e i n s orne me a n s o f
r eve r s i ng c o u r s e w i t h o u t c omp l e t e l y l o s ing f a c e .
T h u s one
m i g h t r u l e out the hope of g a i n i ng our o b j e c t i ve s t h r o u g h
e conom i e p r e s s u r e s a lone , y e t s t i l l hope t h a t s u c h p r e s s u r e s
m i g h t be e f f e c t i ve i f comb ined w i th i m a g i n a t i ve d ip lomacy .
Me a nwh i l e , we c a n exp e c t t h a t the b l oc k a d e w i l l
p r og r e s s i ve l y we a k en .
A s energy s o u r ce s g r ow i nc r ea s i n g l y
s c a r c e , m o r e a n d mo r e memb e r s o f o u r d i v e r s e c o a l i t i o n m a y
we l l m a k e p r i v a t e d e a l s w i t h I r a q f o r t h e p u r c h a s e o f o i l ,
whi le ,
i n the context o f M i d d l e E a s t t r a d i t i ons , c o r r up t i o n
c a n l e a d to t he i mp r ov i s a t i on o f expo r t c h a nne l s s o s e c r e t
and dev i o u s t h e y c annat be t r aced .
A l though the Admi n i s t r a t i on cons t a n t l y t h r e a tens
t h a t if the b l oc k a d e f a i l s to p r oduce the r e qu i r e d po l i t i c a l
r e s u l t o u r Ame r i c an f o r c es w i l l then l a unch o f f en s i ve
I RAQ I . REFLECT IONS
oper a t i o n s ,
to I r aq .
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t h a t c o u l d d o mo r e d amage t o the co a l i t i on t h a n
Mo s t n a t i o n s t h a t have supp l i e d t r oops i n t h i s
cong e r i e s o f o d d c o u p l e s have made i t qu i t e c l e a r t ha t ,
wh i l e they wo u l d s uppo r t the b l o c k a d e they wou l d be
r e l u c t a n t to p a r t i c ip a te i n a n a c t u a l m i l i ta r y con f l i c t .
How qu i c k l y the c o a l i t i o n m i g h t unr a v e l wou l d
d epend t o a l a r ge extent on whe ther o u r c o a l i t i o n pa r tn e r s
b e l i eved t h a t I r a q i conduct h a d p r o v i de d a f u l l y a d equ a te
p r ovoc a t i on f o r a m i l i t a r y a t t a c k o r i n s t e a d t h a t Ame r i c a ,
o u t o f i mp a t i ence , h a d dev i se d a cont r i ved and f ac t i t i o u s
j us t i f ic a t ion .
Let u s exam ine the mo t i va t i ons f i r s t o f the A r a b
a n d t h e E u r opean n a t i on memb e r s o f t h e co a l i t i on .
S a u d i Ar a b i a
S a u d i Ar a b i a ' s mot ives a r e obv i o u s ;
the mona r c hy
wa s s e r i o u s l y f r i g htened t h a t I r aq m i g h t s e i z e o r d e s t r oy
i ts o i l we l l s and o t her we a l th and ove r t h r ow i t s mona r c h i a l
r u le .
The G u l f em i r a te s and s u l t a na te a lmo s t a u toma t i c a l ly
f o l l owed S a u d i l e a d e r s h ip .
Egypt
Egypt ' s mot i va t i ons a r e d i f f e r en t .
Egyp t wou l d
l i k e t o r e g a i n i t s t r a d i t i on a l l e a de r s h i p o f t h e A r a b wor ld ,
and Mu b a r e k s e e s S a d d a m H u s s e i n a s a r i v a l .
Added to t h a t
i s the f a c t tha t S a d d a m deep l y emb a r r a s s e d Mu b a r e k b y
p u b l i c l y a s s u r ing h i m tha t I r a q wo u l d n o t i nvade Kuwa i t ,
then b r a z e n l y d o i ng s o the next d a y .
F i n a l ly Egypt i s i n
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despe r a te econom i e cond i t i on a n d S a d d am h a s j u s t depr ived i t
o f a f l ow o f i ncome f r om Egyp t i a n n a t i on a l s wo r k i n g i n the
o i l f i e l d s o f I r a q and Kuwa i t .
T u r key
T u r key ' s mot i va t i on s a r e mo r e comp l i c a ted .
P r es i de n t O z a l i s e a g e r f o r T u r key to g a i n we s te r n
r ecogn i t i on , s i nce h e d e a r ly hop e s t h a t i t w i l l b e accepted
into the E u r op e a n Commun i ty .
He s t i l l l i ke s t o t h i nk o f h i s
c o u n t r y a s the b r i dg e b e tween t he We s t and the M i d d l e E a s t .
Thus the c o s t s t o T u r key o f a b l oc k a d e have s eemed a
r e a s o n a b l e p r i e e to p a y f o r a i d i ng t h a t amb i t i on ,
p a r t i c u l a r ly s i nce T u r key i s coun t i ng on be ing r e imbu r s ed
for i t s l o s s e s by the A r a b o i l -p r od u ce r s .
Syr ia
Syr i a ' s pos i t ion ref lects h ighly personal
cons i d e r a t i ons .
H a f i z As s a d h a t e s S a d d a m H u s s e i n , whom he
v i ews as h i s p r i n c i p a l r i v a l f o r A r a b l e a d e r s h ip .
Syr i a
s upp o r t e d I r a n i n i ts w a r a g a ins t I r a q and p u r s u e s a long­
s t and i ng qu a i i - theo l o g i c a l qua r r e l w i t h t he I r a q i s over
B a ' a th i s t d o c t r i n e .
Obv i o u s l y As s a d wou l d b e s o r e l y
a t t r a c ted b y a cha nce to he lp b r ing d own S a d d a m H u s s e i n .
Y e t , no l o n g e r r e c e i v ing ma s s ive amo u n t s o f Sov i e t a rms , he
s eems u n l i k e l y to comm i t h i s fu l l a rmed f o r c e s to a n a l l - o u t
wa r .
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
/16/
1 0/ 8/ 9 0
Jo r d a n
O f a l l t h e Ar a b coun t r i e s o ther t h a n Kuwa i t t h a t
S a dd a m H u s s e i n ' s a gg r es s i o n h a s a f f e c t e d , Jo r d an h a s been
mo s t b a d ly i n j u r ed and unf a i r l y t r e a t e d .
Ame r i c a n s h a ve
l ong and p r ope r l y r eg a r ded K i ng H u s s e i n b o t h a s a f r i end and
a mode r a t i ng i n f l u ence i n the M i d d l e E a s t , b u t - - to t he i r
g r e a t s h a me - - few Ame r i c a n s have s hown s ymp a thy f o r , even the
s l i g h t e s t unde r s t a nd i ng of h i s s u f foca t i ng
p r o b l ems .
No t
o n l y i s J o r d a n ' s p r i nc i p a l t r a d ing p a r tner I r a q , b u t i t i s
t he v i c t im o f a t r a g i c geogr aph i c a l loca t i on .
b e tween o n e enemy ,
I t l ies
I s r a e l , on t h e We s t and I r a q o n the e a s t ,
w i th S y r i a cons t a n t l y t h r e a t e n i n g i t f r om the no r th .
Egyp t and many F a r E a s te r n c o u n t r i e s ,
L i ke
i t has for yea r s
d epended f o r s u r v i v a l o n s ub s i d i e s f r om the o i l -p r odu c i ng
s t a te s a s we l l a s a f l ow o f r em i t t a nc e s f r om i t s c i t i z ens
wo r k i ng i n the I r a q and Kuwa i t o i l f i e l d s .
Now the S a ud i s
have s topped even s upp l y i n g i t w i t h o i l and i n s t e a d o f a
f l ow o f r em i t t a nces a huge m a s s o f T h i r d Wor ld r e f ug e e s f r om
the Kuwa i t and I r a q i o i l f i e l d s a r e c r owd ing i n t o Jo r da n ,
impos i ng s t a g g e r ing c o s t s and s e r i o u s d i s r up t i ons o f
Jor d a n i a n l i fe .
I f t he r e we r e ever a c a s e whe r e the r i cher
count r i e s should exp r e s s t he i r symp a thy and unde r s t a nd i n g by
t a ng i b le he lp , J o r d a n is c l e a r l y t h a t c a s e .
*
*
*
*
I RAQ I . REFLEC T I ONS
/ 1 7/
1 0/ 8 / 9 0
I conc l ud e f r om t h i s r ec i t a l t h a t s orne Ar a b
n a t i on s t h a t a r e memb e r s o f o u r j e r r y - b u i l t c o a l i t i o n wou l d
f i nd a n excuse to op t o u t w e r e Ame r i c a t o i n i t i a te a
m i l i t a r y o f f en s i ve a g a i n s t I r a q ,
r e s e n t f u l ly v i ew i ng o u r
a c t i o n a s w h a t t h e y deemed to b e Wes te r n imper i a l i sm .
Re a c t i o n o f E u r ope a n Co a l i t i o n a n d �apa n to a S h oo t i ng Wa r
The d e f ec t i ng A r a b n a t i on s wo u l d qu i te p r o b a b l y be
j o i ne d by s eve r a l E u r op e a n n a t i on s a n d Japan on the g r ound
t h a t they too d i d not w i s h t o b e emb r o i l ed i n a ma j o r
m i l i t a r y c o nf l i c t , p a r t i c u l a r ly i f they f e l t t h a t o f f en s i ve
a c t i on s h a d been i n i t i a ted b e f o r e the poten t i a l o f d i p l oma cy
had been f u l l y exha u s ted .
Gr e a t B r i t a in
P r ime M i n i s te r Tha tcher h a s gone f a r t o s uppo r t
Ame r i c a ' s i n i t i a t i ve , pa r t l y i n g r a t i t u d e f o r o u r he lp i n
the Fa l k l a nd s i n c i de n t .
B u t s he d o e s n o t h a ve a c l e a r
mand a te f o r o f f en s i ve a c t i o n f r om h e r L a b o r opp o s i t i o n .
F r a nc e
P r e s i d e n t Mi t te r and m a d e a h a r d d e c i s i o n when he
j o i ned Ame r i c a i n the b l oc k a d e , a g a i n s t the b a c k g r ound o f
Fr a nc e ' s f i e r c e l y i ndependent m i l i t a r y pos t u r e a n d i t s
s u sp i c i on o f Ame r i c a .
Up to the momen t F r a n c e h a s c omm i t ted
1 4 , 0 0 0 t r o op s to the a r e a , wh i c h is i ts l a r g e s t d e p l oymen t
s i nce the A l g e r i a n Wa r .
Yet Mi t t e r and h a s s ug g e s ted f i r s t ,
t h a t he b e l i eves Ame r i c a shou l d f u l l y exha u s t the p o t e n t i a l
f o r d ip loma c y - - wh i c h , he be l i eves - -we a r e n o t y e t d o i ng .
IRAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
/18/
1 0/ 8 / 9 0
I t a ly
Acco r d i n g to p r e s s a c c o u n t s the I t a l i an gove r nment
s eems sp l i t on the i s s u e o f a p o s s i b l e o f f en s i ve m i l i t a r y
a c t i on .
P r i me M i n i s te r And r eo t t i f a v o r s a d i p loma t i e
s o l u t i on t h a t wou l d p e r m i t S a d d am t o s a ve s orne f a c e ; Fo r e i gn
M i n i s te r De M i c he l i s appa r e n t l y r eg a r d s wa r a s a p r a c t i c a l
nece s s i ty .
Ge r many
G e r ma ny ' s hes i t a t i ons a r e d e r ived n o t me r e l y f r om
i t s r es t r i ct i ve cons t i t u t i on ( wh i ch the a l l i e s i mp o s e d a f t e r
the Second Wo r l d Wa r ) b u t a l s o f r om the opp r e s s i ve b u r den i t
i s now c a r r y i ng i n a s s i m i l a t i ng E a s t Germany .
Up to now i ts
p a r t i c i p a t i on h a s been l im i ted to a con t r i bu t i on o f $ 2 . 1
b i l l i on .
Whe t h e r tha t may l a t e r b e a ugmen ted by a un i t o f
a r med f o r c e s i nvo lves t h e po l i t i c a l l y b i t t e r cons t i t u t i on a l
que s t i on whether i t cou l d send t r oops ove r s e a s w i t h o u t a
cons t i t u t i on a l amendmen t .
J apan
H e r e a g a i n J a p a n ' s p o s t - w a r r es t r i c t i v e
cons t i tu t i on r a i s e s e v e n mo r e s e r i o u s p r ob l ems t h a n i n
G e r many .
F o r J a p a n to d ep l oy f o r c e s i n the M i d d l e E a s t
wo u l d t h r e a ten t o c r e a t e a v i c i o u s sp l i t i n dome s t i c
po l i t i c s a s we l l to s t i mu l a t e ves t i g i a l f e a r s among the
o t her South E a s t A s i a n na t i ons , which r emember a l l too
v i v i d l y J a p a n ' s b r u t a l beha v i o r a ha l f cen t u r y a g o .
I RAQ I . REFLEC T I ONS
/ 1 9/
1 0/ 8 / 9 0
M i l i t a ry Ac t i on
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F r om th i s b r i e f r ev Lew I conc l u d e t h a t any s h i f t
f r om the econom i e p r e s s u r e s o f a b l o c k a d e t o a m i l i t a r y
o f f en s i v e wou l d r un the r i s k o f d r i v i n g away a s u b s t a n t i a l
p a r t o f o u r tenuous c o a l i t i on .
Thus , n o t o n l y s h o u l d we
make r enewed e f f o r t s to exh a u s t d i p l oma t i e p o s s i b i l i t i e s b u t
we s h o u l d a l s o d i s i l l u s i on o u r c o a l i t i o n p a r tne r s r eg a r d i ng
the r e a l i t i e s o f a m i l i t a r y conf l i c t ; we s hou l d s te r n l y wa r n
t hem n o t t o i n d u l g e t h e comf o r t i ng a s s ump t i o n t h a t w e c o u l d
a c h i eve t h e p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e we s e e k me r e l y by qu i c k a i r
s t r i k e s on sens i t ive t a r g e t s .
L i m i ted C apa b i l i t i e s o f a n A i r O f f en s i v e
O n e o f the m a ny l e s s on s I l e a r ne d a s a d i r ec t o r o f
the Un i te d S t a te s S t r a teg i e Bomb i ng S u r vey i n E u r ope d u r i n g
a n d a f t e r Wo r ld Wa r I I i s t h a t t he r e i s no s u c h t h ing a s a
" s u r g i c a l s t r i ke " .
Indeed ,
i f the med i c a l p r o f e s s i o n
adopted the s t and a r d s o f t h e A i r Fo r ce ,
any pa t i en t s ee k i ng
a n appendectomy m i g h t we l l have h i s hea r t and b r a i n r emoved ,
wh i l e h i s a ppend i x r ema i ne d i n t a c t .
Ano t h e r r e s t r a i n t on o u r a b i l i ty to r e s o lve t he
s i t u a t i on by a i r s t r i ke s i s S a d d a m ' s v a u n t e d i n t en t i on to
u s e f o r e i g n h o s t a g e s as " humap s h i e l d s " .
I r ema i n
unconv i nced b y the Adm i n i s t r a t i on ' s se l f - r i g h t e o u s po s t u r i ng
tha t i t w i l l n o t p e r m i t the f a te o f the h o s t a g e s t o
i n f l u ence i ts t a c t i c a l dec i s i ons .
Though i t may m a k e s u c h
a
IRAQ I . REFLECT I ONS
/20/
10/8/90
s t a t ement b r a v e l y a t t h i s e a r ly po i n t , even a s i n g l e
exp e r i ence w i th bomb ing c o u l d send a s hu d d e r o f anger
t h r ou g h o u t Ame r i c a and i t s f r iends .
B a t h we and o u r c o a l i t i on memb e r s shou l d a l so be
awa r e t h a t the I r a q i s h a ve w i d e l y d i spe r se d t he i r mo s t
c r i t i c a l f ac i l i t i e s f o r the bu i l d ing o f nuc l e a r weapons .
Thus t he r e c o u l d b e no e a s y r epe t i t i o n o f the I s r a e l i s '
1981
s uc c e s s i n t a k ing o u t the Os i r a k r e a c to r .
N o r s h o u l d one b e d e l uded by the b l and a s s ump t i on
of m a ny of o u r e f f e r ve s cent a i r f o r c e h i e r a r chy t h a t we
s ho u l d s eve r e l y d i s c o u n t the b o a s ted e f f e c t i vene s s of I r a q ' s
Sov i e t a i r c r a f t and a n t i a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e d e f en s e s .
e t her t h i ng s ,
Among
they ove r l oo k the f a c t t h a t i n s e i z i ng Kuwa i t
I r a q a l s o a cqu i r ed a s upp l y o f Un i t ed S t a te s Hawk m i s s i l e s
and o v e r 2 0 0 S t i n g e r m i s s i l e s w h i c h c o u l d p r ove a v e r y
e f f ec t i ve d e f e n s e a g a i n s t low- f ly i ng Ame r i c a n a i r c r a f t i n
c omb a t s uppo r t ope r a t i ons .
S orne memb e r s o f Cong r e s s r e t u r n i ng f r om v i s i t s to
the f r on t s p e a k of an Ame r i c a n o f fens ive a g a i n s t I r a q a s
t h o u g h i t wou l d b e a t u r key s h oo t , b u t even a t t a c k i ng a
r e l a t i v e l y b a c kwa r d I r a q wou l d not be e a sy g o i ng f o r o u r a i r
force .
Gr ound Of fens ive
A s ec ond lesson l e a rned by the Bomb i ng S u r vey in
s tu d y i ng the A l l i e s '
s t r a t e g i e o f fens ive a g a i n s t G e r many was
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ON S
/ 2 1/
t h a t wa r s c a nnat be won b y bomb i ng a 1 one .
10/8/90
Exp e r i ence i n the
S econd Wo r 1 d Wa r s howed th a t , desp i te overwhe 1m i ng A 1 l i e d
a i r s upe r i o r i ty f r om 1 9 4 3 on ,
the G e r m a n s we r e a b le to h o 1 d
o u t unt i 1 t h e s umme r o f 1 9 4 5 .
Qu i te l i ke ly t h e p r i n c i p a l
u t i l i ty o f o u r s t r a te g i e bomb i ng o f f ens i v e w a s to f o r c e the
German A i r Force into the a i r whe r e our p l a nes c o u l d s ho o t
t he i r s down ,
t h u s a s s u r ing to the A l l i e s command o f t he a i r
over the i nv a s i o n r o u t e .
F i n a l ly , no one s h o u l d t a k e i t f o r g r anted t h a t
a i r a t t a c k s neces s a r i l y e r od e p u b l i c mo r a l e ;
on the cont r a r y
o u r exp e r i ence i n Germany r epe a t e d l y s howed t h a t bomb i ng a n
enemy m a y i n c r e a s e the peop l e s '
d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o con t i nue a
wa r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i g h 1 y con t r o 1 1 ed and d i s c i p l i ne d
countr ies .
I f we c a nnat w i n o u r o b j e c t i ve s s o l e l y by b omb ing
what wou l d b e the r e s u l t o f u s i ng o u r g r o und f o r c e s to d r i ve
I r a q ' s a rmy o u t o f Kuwa i t ?
T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t s uc h a n
e n t e r p r i s e wou l d r e s u l t i n a t h o r o u g h l y b l oo d y a f f a i r , wh i 1 e
qu i te p o s s i b ly l e a v i ng o u r f o r ce s i nd e f i n i te l y b o g g ed d own
in a s h a t t e r ed and d emo r a l i z ed M i d d l e E a s t - - a n expe r i ence
t h a t wou l d evoke the s ame anger and f r u s t r a t i o n as d i d o u r
a dven t u r e i n V i e tnam .
One m i g h t a s s ume , a s a consequence o f S a d d a m
H u s s e i n ' s s u sp i c i on o f o t he r I r a q i gener a l s
has seen as wou 1 d - b e r i va l s ) ,
( a l l o f whom he
tha t the I r a q i a r my wou 1 d 1 a c k
much i n i t i a t i ve o r f l ex i b i l i ty f o r o f fens i ve ope r a t i ons .
It
I RAQ I . REFLECT ION S
/ 2 2/
cou l d , howeve r , p r ove f o r m i d a b l e i n d e f e ns e .
1 0 /8 / 9 0
The R us s i an s
( who h a v e t h r ou g h o u t h i s to r y d e s i gned t he i r o w n s t r a te g i e
p l an s l a r g e l y f o r d e f e n s e ) , h a v e p a t i e n t l y t r a i ned I r aq i
eng i ne e r s i n e r ec t i ng f o r t i f i c a t i ons and b a r r i e r s .
Add to
that the e s t a b l i s he d m i l i t a r y p r inc i p l e t h a t to b e e f f ec t i ve
the o f f e n s e mu s t pos s e s s a two - to - one p e r sonnel a dv a n t a g e
over the d e f en s e , and i t s eems c le a r t h a t Ame r i c a n f o r ce s
cou l d s u f f e r c a t a s t r op h i c c a s u a l t i e s , b o t h i n t he i r f i r s t
comb a t w i th the s econd - r a te f o r m a t i ons o f the I r a q i a r my ,
and then w i th the e l i t e forma t i on s h e l d b a c k f o r
counte r a t t a c k s a n d o th e r eme r genc i es .
One c a n s e e l i t t l e c h a nce t h a t the a r mo r ed and
i n f a n t r y f o r c e s o f the Un i ted S t a te s c o u l d a vo i d c l o se
comb a t w i t h the I r a qi s , and s eve r a l m i l i t a r y expe r t s have
exp r e s s e d d o u b t that the forces we have sent t o t h e Gulf a r e
we l l con f i g u r ed f o r t he k i nd o f wa r f a r e wh i c h open
ho s t i l i t i e s i n the d e s e r t wou l d nece s s a r i l y r equ i r e .
I r a q i f o r c e s a r e huge i n n umber
c l e a r ly a n ove r s t a temen t )
qua l i ty ,
The
( a l t hough one m i l l i on men i s
and , wh i l e they a r e o f uneven
a l a r g e numb e r of them have unqu e s t i on a b l y h a d
e i g h t yea r s o f a c tu a l comb a t expe r i ence i n d e s e r t wa r f a r e ,
under p r o f es s i on a l Sov i e t t u t e l a g e .
O u r gene r a l s a r e , o f co u r s e , e a g e r t o t e s t the i r
e s o t e r i c new m i l i t a r y g a d g e t s not o n l y f o r t he i r own
i n f o rma t i on b u t to i mp r e s s Cong r es s i o n a l a pp r op r i a t i ons
comm i t tees ; yet no one r e a l l y knows whe ther the g a d g e t s w i l l
wo r k a s a dve r t i s ed under d e s e r t comb a t cond i t i ons .
I RAQ I . REFLECT IONS
/23/
1 0/8/90
F r om a l l t h i s s omb r e r ev i ew i t s eems d o u b t f u l tha t
we c o u l d n o t a c h i eve even the m i n i ma l o b j ec t i ve s c a l l e d f o r
i n the e i g h t U N r e s o l u t i ons w i t hout a n e n o r m o u s l o s s o f
Ame r i c a n l i ves and the d eg r a d i ng o f the M i d d l e E a s t i n t o a
B e i r u t wr i t l a r g e .
An _A l t e r na t i ve Cou r s e
T h e l o g i c o f t h a t conc l u s i on c a l l s f o r a r enewed
and v i go r ou s u s e of d ip l omacy , w h i c h , up t o t h i s po i n t ,
P r e s i dent has o n l y m i l d l y endor s e d .
the
I ndeed the Un i ted
N a t i ons C h a r t e r i mp l i es t h a t the e n f o r cement p r oced u r e s of
C h a p t e r V I I , wh i c h p r o v i d e s for l im i ted f o r c e , s h o u l d be
i nvokèd only a f te r a gg r i eved n a t i ons have f u l ly exha u s ted
the p o s s i b i l i t i es o f Chapter VI
( wh i c h p r o v i d e s ma c h i n e r y
f o r d i p lomacy ) .
K i ng Hu s s e i n o f Jo r d a n and r e p r e s en t a t i ve s o f the
Sov i e t Un i o n a r e exp l o r ing the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a pe a c e f u l
s e t t l ement .
P r e s i dent M i t te r and h a s p u t f o r w a r d s orne
schema t i c i d e a s f o r a s e t t l ement in wh i ch S a d d am h a s a l r e a dy
s hawn s orne s l i g h t i n t e r e s t , and , f r om the Ame r i c a n po i n t of
v i ew ,
t h e r e wou l d be l i t t l e d a nge r t h a t a d i p l oma t i e e f f o r t
wou l d e n t a i l muc h r i s k , s i nce Ame r i c a n a n d o t her t r oops
wou l d r ema i n in the a r e a unt i l a n accep t a b l e r e s u l t w e r e
r e a c hed .
S o l e t u s f o r the momen t f a c e s orne o f the
r e a l i t i e s o f o u r c u r r en t p r e d i c ament a nd sc r u t i n i z e the
chances o f a peac e f u l s o l u t i on .
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Pos s i b l e Res u l t s o f Nego t i a t i ons
1
•
"·*
I n exp l o i t i ng eve r y p o s s i b i l i ty o f a nego t i a ted
s e t t l ernen t , we s ho u l d , arnong o t her t h i ng s ,
use the rn a c h i n e r y
o f the Un i te d N a t i on s t o t r y t o b u i l d a b r i d g e t h a t a
we a kened I r aq i gove r nrnent c o u l d u s e t o r e t i r e f r om i t s
e n t r enched p o s i t i o n wh i le s a v i n g a t l e a s t a s ernb l ance o f
face .
Any s e t t l ernent s hou l d be s o d e s i g ned and p r e sen ted a s
t o rn i n i rn i z e the i mp r e s s i on t h a t S a d d a rn H u s s e i n h a d g a i ne d
a dv a n t a g e f r om h i s a g g r es s i on .
T he r e i s s orne s u g g e s t i on t ha t S a d d a rn H u s s e i n may
have such a po s s i b i l i ty in rn i nd .
He s eerns t o be
sys t erna t i c a l ly l oo t i ng Kuwa i t not rner e l y o f f un d s a c c e s s i b l e
i n t h e n a t i on a l b an k b u t a l so app r opr i a t i ng a v a s t a r r a y o f
v a l u a b l e a n d u s e f u l goods r ang i ng f r om cornp u t e r s to t r a f f i c
l i gh t s and I s l arn i c wo r k s o f a r t .
Thus ,
i t i s r ep o r ted , s orne
S a u d i s now spec u l a te t h a t he may h a ve dec i d e d t h a t he c a nnot
f o r ev e r hold o u t a g a i n s t cons o l i d a ted wo r l d op i n i o n , and i s
p l a nn i ng t o g i v e b a c k K uwa i t w h i l e r e t a i n i ng a t l e a s t one o f
the two l o ng - d i s p u t e d i s l � n d s t h a t wou l d p r o v i de I r aq w i t h
a c c e s s t o the Gu l f .
B o t h I r a q and Kuwa i t ho l d , a s i s we l l known ,
cornpe t i n g h i s to r i c a l c l a irns to b i t s and p i ec e s o f t e r r i t o r y ,
and one c o u r s e wo r th cons i d e r ing wo u l d be to a r r an g e f o r
reque s t i ng t h e Wo r l d Cou r t a t t h e H a g u e to f o r rna l l y s u r vey
and r e d r a w a n o f f i c i a l bound a r y be tween the two c o u n t r i e s .
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A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h a t t a s k · m i g ht be ent r us t e d to a spec i a l
imp a r t i a l comm i s s i o n e s t a b l i shed b y the Secu r i ty Counc i l , a s
w a s done o n Janu a r y 2 0 ,
1 9 4 8 , t o d r aw a c e a s e - f i r e l i ne
b e tween P a k i s t a n and I nd i a , wh i c h i n t ime became the
p e r ma ne n t bound a r y .
Even w i t h o u t wa i t i ng f o r the r e s u l ts o f a Wo r l d
Cou r t d ec i s i on , a n a g r eement m i g ht be nego t i a ted e i t h e r f o r
g r an t i n g o r l e a s ing o n e o r b o t h o f the Kuwa i t i o f f s h o r e
i s l an d s to p r ov i d e I r a q w i t h a l i m i ted s e a co a s t s o t h a t
s h ipp ing c o u l d h a ve a c c e s s t o I r a q i o i l .
Cla r ifyi ng O u r Wa r �ims
The B u s h Adm i n i s t r a t i on h a s ,
in i ts pub l ic
s t a t ement s , men t i oned t w o o b j e c t i ve s f o r con t a i n in g the
I r a q i d r i ve ; one is to p r e s e r v e the i n t eg r i ty o f the Un i ted
N a t i ons C ha r te r wh i c h f o r b i d s the f o r c i b l e a c qu i s i t i on of
the t e r r i to r i e s o f one n a t i on by a no t he r ;
the s econd is the
d a n g e r t h a t I r a q m i g h t o b t a i n a s t r ang leho ld on wo r ld o i l
p r o d u c t i on and u s e i t i n a manner t h a t wou l d up s e t the
econom i e s of consum i ng s t a t e s .
Bec a u s e the f i r s t o f these p r op o s i t i ons i s a
ma t t e r o f i n t e r na t i on a l p r inc i p l e wh i l e the s ec ond p r i ma r i l y
conce r n s the c o s t and i nconven i ence o f the Ame r i c a n peop l e
i n and t h o s e i n o th e r consuming na t i ons ,
the Adm i n i s t r a t i on
h a s s o u g h t t o u s e the f i r s t o b j e c t i ve to j u s t i f y
i n t e r na t i on a l a c t i on , wh i l e r e s e r v i ng the second p r i ma r i l y
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to mo l l i f y Ame r i c a n p u b l i c op i n i on b y s ho w i ng how t h e l i ves
o f Ame r i c a n i nd i v i d u a l s cou l d be d i r ec t l y a f fec t e d .
We have noted e a r l i e r t h a t P r e s i dent B u s h b e g a n
Ame r i c a ' s m i l i t a r y p r e p a r � t i ons w i t h the s t a te d o b j ec t i ve o f
r emov ing S a d d a m f r om powe r ,
then l im i ted a r ev i s e d h i s
o b j e c t i v e t o the e n f o r cement o f the e i g h t S e c u r i t y Counc i l
r e s o l u t i on s .
Yet ,
Michael Dugan ,
i f one c a n b e l i eve the wo r d s o f Gene r a l
the A i r Force C h i e f o f S t a f f whom the Defense
Sec r e t a r y r ec e n t l y d i s m i s s e d f o r i n d i s c r ee t t a l k ing , o u r a i r
f o r c e i s s t i l l o b s e s se d w i t h the i d e a i mp l i c i t i n a l i t e r a l
r e a d i n g o f P r e s i d ent B u s h ' s o r i g i n a l o b j ec t i ve .
t o l d the p r e s s t h a t the a i r f o r c e p l a n s wo u l d ,
The Gene r a l
i f u n l e a shed ,
f o l low the a d v i ce o f I s r a e l i o f f i c i a l s t h a t " the bes t way to
h u r t S a d d a m " is " to t a r ge t h i s f am i l y , h i s pe r so n a l g u a r d
a n d h i s m i s t r e s s ; " bec a u s e h e i s " a one-ma n s how " he " o u g h t
t o b e a t the f oc u s o f o u r e f f o r t s . "
I hope t h a t f o r once we t u r n o u r b a c k on I s r a e l ' s
g a n g s te r i s h a d v i c e .
Un l i k e I s r a e l Ame r i c a i s not a sma l l
i nsecu r e n a t i on s u r r o und�d b y enem i es whe r e the lex t a l o n i s
i s s t i l l a b r oo d ing r em i nde r .
A succe s s ion o f Un i ted S t a te s
p r e s i de n t s h a s qu i te p r ope r l y dec l a r e d tha t a s s a s s i n a t i on o f
a n enemy h e a d o f s t a t e i s i l l eg a l a n d who l l y i n a pp r op r i a t e
f o r a g r e a t and p r o f e s s e d l y mo r a l n a t ion t h a t a s p i r e s to
wo r l d l e a d e r s h i p .
Many Ame r i c a ns s h a r ed my own sense of
s h ame when o u r coun t r y t r i ed , though unsucces s f u l l y , to use
o u r a i r a t t a c k on L i by a to k i l l Colonel K h a d d a f i .
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One c a nn o t i mp r ove the m o r a l i ty o f a s o r d i d
m i l i ta r y a c t b y u s i ng euphem i sm s t o g i ve i t a s o un d o f
i nnocence .
We d o not m a k e the d e s t r uc t i o n o f I r aq ' s
capa b i l i ty f o r unconvent i on a l weapons mo r e a t t r a c t i ve by
r e f e r r i ng t o it a s " de f ang i ng " o r by u s i ng the t e r m
" de c ap i t a t i on " t o d e sc r i be d r opp i ng bombs t o k i l l a h e a d o f
s t a te .
I n any event , who c a n a s s u r e u s t h a t the d e a th o r
r emov a l o f S a d d a m H u s s e i n wou l d n e u t r a l i z e t h e mena c e o f a n
a g g r e s s i ve I r a q ?
I s i t n o t l i k e l y t h a t he wou l d b e
s ucceeded by a l e a d e r w i th m a n y o f the s ame p o i sonous
qu a l i t i e s ?
Wa r A i ms Re s t a te d
Bec a u s e many i n the M i d d l e E a s t wo u l d f e e l
app r ehen s i ve i f S a d d a m we r e to w i thd r aw h i s f o r ce s f r om
K uwa i t b u t s t i l l r e t a i n c on t r o l o f I r a q , s orne p r ov i s i o n mu s t
b e m a d e t o a l l ay t h o s e f e a r s .
A f t e r - - b u t o n l y a f te r - - I r a q
h a s a c tu a l ly w i t h d r awn i ts f o r ce s f r om Kuwa i t , w e m i g h t
a r r a nge f o r a Un i ted N a t i on s f o r c e to be i n s t a l led i n
Kuwa i t .
T h a t f o r ce s ho u l d cons i s t o f m i l i t a r y e l emen t s f r om
count r i e s ne u t r a l i n the p r esent conf l i c t .
H a d we c hanne l e d - - o r w e r e we even now to c h a nne l - ­
o u r a r med i n t e r vent i on t h r o u g h a t r ue Un i t ed N a t i ons f o r c e
o u r m i l i t a r y m i g h t h a ve been f a ced w i t h s orne i r k s ome
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cons t r a i n t s , b u t Ame r i c a wou l d not ( a s 1 s now the c a s e )
bear
t h e f u l l r e spons i b i l i ty i n the wor l d ' s eyes f o r wha t i s
l i k e l y to p r ove a h i gh l y unpop u l a r w a r .
Need f or a Compre hens i ve �e t tlement
e
'·
Even t h o u g h we a r e s t i l l p r eoccup i ed w i th the
p r e s e n t c r i s i s we s h o u l d beg i n t o take a c c o u n t o f the f a c t
t h a t h a l t ing I r a q ' s ove r r unn i ng o f Kuwa i t i s o n l y o n e o f a
number o f s i t u a t ions o f a c t u a l o r potent i a l conf l i c t b e tween
n a t i on s and peop l e s in the M i d d l e E a s t .
I f we a r e ever to
secu r e l a s t i ng peace i n the a r e a , we s ho u l d u s e the
t e r m i n a t i on o f the I r a q i a f f a i r as the oc c a s i o n to b u i l d a
new po l i t i c a l and m i l i t a r y o r d e r i n t h a t c r i t i c a l r eg i on .
T h a t wou l d nece s s a r i ly i nc l u de the s e t t l ement o f long - h e l d
f e u d s and r i v a l r i e s and the c o r r e c t i on o f long - s t an d i ng
i n j u s t i ce s .
Y e t the p u r s u i t o f a t r anqu i l M i d d l e E a s t r a i s es a
number o f ques t i on s .
The f i r s t i s whe ther Ame r i c a s ho u l d a vo i d v i s i b l e
i nvo l veme n t i n t h a t e f f o r t b u t leave the p r ob l em f o r the
A r a b s t hems e lves .
Y e t it seems c l e a r that w i thou t sorne
s t imu l u s f r om o u t s i de , t he Ar a b n a t i ons w i l l s imp l y try to
p r es e r v e the s t a t u s quo .
Tha t i s a l e s son expe r i ence h a s
t a u g h t o v e r the centu r i es .
A second ques t i on i s how we c o u l d r e t a i n a l ow
p o l i t i c a l pos t u r e yet s t i l l g i ve i mpetus and d i r ec t i on to
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Unh app i ly , Ame r i c an s a r e n o t s k i l led a t
s uc h a s u b t l e exe r c i se , a n d w e c a nn o t i g n o r e t h e f a c t t h a t
o u r n o t o r i o u s a d d i c t i on to I s r a e l impa i r s the con f i dence o f
t h e Ar a b n a t i on s i n o u r j udgmen t a n d cons i s t ency .
A t h i r d qu e s t i on i s how we c o u l d u s e the Un i ted
N a t i on s m a c h i n e r y t o p e r m i t u s to p l a y a r o l e w i t h o u t
appe a r ing a s a We s te r n i n t r ud e r .
I b e g a n these r e f l ec t i ons w i t h t he s ug g e s t i on t h a t
t h e Un i te d S t a te s s ho u l d t r y to dev i se s orne i nexpen s i ve
mecha n i sm f o r ext r i c a t i on , b u t t he v a r i o u s i s s u e s i n t he
M i d d le E a s t a r e s o i nter twi ned t h a t f o r t he Un i te d S t a te s to
try to w i t hd r aw f r om the peace p r oc e s s wou l d only i nv i te
f u r ther t u r mo i l .
P r ecedent o f the Congr e s s o f V i enna
In o r d e r to avo i d any consp i c u o u s l i n k a g e we
s ho u l d not i n c l u d e it i n a l a r g e r context .
But we c o u l d
s t i l l g a i n s orne nego t i a t ing a dv a n t a g e by comm i t t i n g
o u r s e l v e s t o a n a l l - i n c l u s ive r econs i de r a t i o n o f M i d d l e E a s t
p r o b l ems ,
i n c l u d i ng t h e P a l e s t i n i a n i s s u e , once t h e G u l f
c r i s i s we r e d i sposed o f .
Tha t m i g h t we l l be a u s e f u l p l oy
in p e r s u a d ing S a d d a m t o w i th d r aw as the Secu r i ty Counc i l
r e s o l u t i ons d i r ec ted , w i t h o u t pe r m i t t i ng h i m t o c l a i m tha t
h i s a g g r e s s ive a c t s h a d p r o c u r e d the s e t t l ement o f t h a t
i ssue .
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Though cong r a t u l a t ing o u r s e lves
t h a t the wo r ld
h a s j u s t comp l e ted the epoch o f the C o l d Wa r , few o f u s no t e
t h a t f r eque n t l y i n h i s to r y t h e t e rm i n a t i on o f m a j o r epochs
bas been f o l l owed by comp r ehen s i ve d i p loma t i e mee t i ng s to
r e a r r ange the p o l i t i c a l f u r n i tu r e .
S u c h a c ho r e w a s
und e r t a ken i n Ver s a i l l es a t t h e e n d o f the F i r s t Wo r l d Wa r ,
b u t t he s t a tesmen p r es en t l a c k e d the v i s i on t o p u t a s i de
p r i m i t i ve f ee l i ng s o f vengeance and t r a d i t i o n a l r i v a l r i e s .
A f a r b e t t e r examp le i s the Cong r es s o f V i enna i n
1 8 1 5 t h a t w a s c a l led to r e s t r u c t u r e E u r ope f o l l ow i ng the
Napo leon i c E r a .
I t s s u c c e s s w a s he a v i l y a s s u r e d by the
p r e s ence of such cons umma te s t a te smen as C a s t le r e a g h ,
T a l l e y r and and Me t te r n i c h .
They s a w to i t t ha t ,
t h o u g h the
p r i me o b j e c t i ve of the Cong r es s w a s to p r o te c t E u r op e f r om a
r es u r gence o f Fr ench m i l i t a r y amb i t i o n ,
number o f o t h e r i s s u e s ,
i t a l so dea l t w i t h a
such a s the a b o l i t i on o f the s l ave
t r a f f i c and the r e d r a w i ng . o f d i sp u t e d n a t i on a l b o u nd a r i e s .
T o d a y the long a gon i z ing epoch o f the C o l d Wa r i s
r ap i d ly p a s s i n g and w e s h a l l soon a l s o exp e r i ence the
t e r m i na t i on both o f the centu r y and the m i l l enn i um .
I t is
c l e a r l y t ime t o t a k e s t ock o f the wo r l d ' s mo r e u r g ent
p r o b l ems and to tackle a s a who le the f e s t e r i ng cond i t i ons
i n the M i d d l e Ea s t t h a t c o u l d keep t h a t r eg i on i n r ec u r r e n t
t u r mo i l and the wo r l d nea r t h e edge o f a n e s c a l a t ing
conf l i c t .
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T h u s I sugg e s t t h a t we s e e k to a r r ange a new
Cong r e s s r o u g h l y app r ox i ma t ing the V i enna p a t te r n ,
th i s t ime
concer ned spec i f i c a l ly w i t h the p r ob l ems o f the M i d d l e E a s t .
T h a t c o n f e r ence s h o u l d be c a l l e d by the S e c u r i ty Counc i l and
s h o u l d have a two f o l d o b j e c t i ve :
b o t h t o b r i ng peace and
a s s u r e s ec u r i ty .
Someone w i l l i nev i t a b ly po i n t o u t t h a t the
Cong r e s s o f V i enna p r ecedent i s i nappropr i a te .
That s e r i e s
o f mee t i ng s we r e composed o n l y o f thoae n a t i on s t h a t h a d
a c t i v e l y b e e n f i g h t i ng o n e a n o t h e r .
P a r t i c ip a n t s i n a
s ug g e s t e d M i d d l e E a s t confer ence wo u ld i n c l u d e We s te r n
powe r s t h a t a r e c u l t u r a l ly a n d h i s t o r i c a l ly r e s en ted by the
i n ha b i t a n t s o f the M i d d l e E a s t .
To b e s u r e , t he con f e r ence wo u l d p r e s uma b l y b e
d om i na t e d by the p e r manent memb e r s o f t h e Secu r i ty Counc i l ,
wh i ch h a d c onvened i t , b u t i t wou l d a l s o con t a i n
r ep r e s en t a t i ve s f r om a l l the ma j o r i n t e r e s ted M i d d l e E a s te r n
count r i e s and i n t e r e s t s .
It wou l d b e a d d r e s s ed to two s u b j e c t s :
p e a c e and
s e c u r i ty .
Peace
T o d a y the M i d d l e E a s t i s made i n s e c u r e by
c h a l lenged bor d e r s - - b e tween ,
f o r examp l e , Ma u r i ta n i a and
Mo r occo , Mo r occo and A l g e r i a , L i bya and Egyp t , S a u d i Ar a b i a
and Yemen , Oma n and t he Uni ted A r a b Em i r a te s and w i t h i n the
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I n a dd i t i on the r e i s the we l l - f o unded
demand o f the P a l e s t i n i a ns f o r the w i t hd r aw a l o f I s r a e l i
t r oops f r om the s o - c a l l e d occup i e d a r e a s and a g u a r a n t e e o f
the r i g h t o f P a l e s t i n i a n s to bu i l d a n a t i o n o f t he i r o w n to
wh i c h ,
as I s ee i t ,
they a r e unques t i on a b l y e n t i t l ed .
A
ma j o r conf e r ence i s e s s en t i a l to r e s o lve these s t r uc t u r a l
a r g umen t s .
Und e r the r u b r i c o f peace the c o n f e r ence wou l d
d i sc u s s a l l t h e c u r r en t d i sputed i s s u e s now pend i ng i n the
a r e a and t r y to f i nd comp r om i s e s o l u t i o n s .
numbe r of those i s s u e s is s u b s t a n t i a l ,
Al though the
the con f e r ence wou l d
p r e s um a b l y c oncen t r a te o n
- - the r e t u r n o f t h e We s t B a n k a nd Ga z a to s orne
new l y e l e c t e d P a l es t i n i an gove r nment t h a t r e s u l t s f r om an
a c t of P a l es t i n i a n s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i on ,
as we l l as the r e t u r n
o f a d e m i l i t a r i z e d Go l a n He i g h t s to Sy r i a ;
- - the w i t hd r a w a l o f Syr i an f o r c e s and I s r a e l ' s
s u r r og a te f o r c e f r om Leb anon .
- - the s e t t l ement o f a l l o t h e r M i d d l e E a s t b o r d e r
i ssues .
' .
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Sec u r i ty
Unde r the r u b r i c o f " S ec u r i ty " the c o n f e r ence
wo u l d und e r t a ke to r educe ex i s t ing a r maments i n the a r e a to
r a t i on a l leve l s and e l i m i n a te a l l unconve n t i o n a l weapons and
the f a c i l i t i e s for p r oduc ing them ,
as we l l a s c on t r o l t he
f l ow o f b o t h conven t i on a l and unconve n t i o n a l a r ms i n to the
Middle East .
T h a t i s a ma j o r r e a s on why the c o n f e r ence m u s t
cont a i n We s te r n powe r s t h a t a r e the p r inc i p a l a r ms
producer s .
N o e f f ec t i v e cont r o l s c a n be p l a c ed on the
r us h ing r i v e r of a r ms i n t o the Middle E a s t w i t h o u t the
a g r eement and a c t i ve coope r a t ion o f the p r od u c i ng n a t i ons .
I n a d d i t i on to convent i on a l a r ms cont r o l , t he
conf e r ence s h o u l d endeavor to r i d the M i d d le E a s t o f
b a l l i s t i c m i s s i le s a n d o f a l l unconvent i on a l weapons a n d the
f a c i l i t i e s for p r od u c ing , t hem .
That me a n s both e l im i n a t i ng
I r a q ' s p o tent i a l nuc l e a r a rm s p r o d uc t i on , and a l s o I s r a e l ' s
ex i s t i ng p r o d uc t i on f a c i l i t i e s and i t s nuc l e a r a r sena l .
It
me a n s a l s o e l i m i n a t ing I r a q ' s and I s r ae l ' s b i o lo g i c a l and
chem i c a l p r od u c t i on f ac i l i t i e s as we l l as those o f L i bya and
o ther A r a b count r i e s .
The a g r eeme n t s r e a c he d on these
me a s u r e s wo u l d have t o be me t i c u l ou s l y mon i to r ed by Un i ted
N a t i ons agenc i e s , and the con f e r ence s ho u l d p r ov i d e f o r
s te r n a n d e f f ec t i ve me a s u r e s t o p r event v i o l a t i o n s .
The u r g e n t need f o r t h i s a c t i on s h o u l d b e r ea d i l y
appa r en t .
Ame r i c a ' s po l i c i e s have s t i mu l a t e d the exce s s i ve
and d an g e r o u s f l ow o f convent i on a l a rm s i n t o t he M i d d l e E a s t
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ON S
/ 3 4/
10/8/90
t o t h e po i n t whe r e t h e magn i tu d e o f t h e a r se n a l s o f t h e two
s i d e s app r o aches the t o t a l i ty of the a r ms a s s i gned by a l l
membe r n a t i ons t o NATO .
The momen tum o f s u c h e s c a l a t i o n w a s
p e r m a ne n t l y a s s u r ed w h e n the Johnson Adm i n i s t r a t i on
reck l e s s ly p r om i s e d I s r a e l t h a t i t wou l d at a l l t imes
p r ov i d e I s r ae l enough arms to g i ve i t not me r e l y a
qu a l i t a t i ve b u t a qua n t i t a t i ve edge on i t s A r a b n e i g h bo r s .
E a c h s ucceed i n g Ame r i c a n a dm i n i s t r a t i on h a s
p r ov i ded I s r a e l w i th i n c r e a s i ng ly l e th a l weapons , a n d t ha t ,
i n t u r n , h a s i nsp i r e d the A r a b s to a c qu i r e mo r e a rms i n a n
i n f e r n a l p r oc e s s o f a c t i on and r e a c t i on .
An a r t i c l e i n a n
I s r a e l i p u b l i c a t i on i n 1 9 9 0 exp l a i n s t h e p r oces s :
" T h i s i s the way i t wo r k s :
The Un i ted
S t a te s . . . s upp l i e s a r ms t o I s r a e l . . . . A f t e r w a r d to
c r e a te ' ba l ance , ' the Ame r i c a n s r u s h off to su pp ly
we apons to Egypt too .
The a r m i ng o f I s r a e l s c a r es
S y r i a , and the s upp l y i ng o f Egypt f r i g h tens L i bya ,
and b o t h d a s h o f f to a r m t hemse l v e s w i t h S ov i e t
Sov i e t weapons i n S y r i a s c a r e T u r key and
weapon s .
Jo r da n , and they w a s t e no t i me i n o b t a i n i ng
We s te r n a rms ; they a l s o f r i g h ten I r a q , who buys
f r om b o t h Wes t and E a s t . "
One who ques t i ons whether a p e a c e and sec u r i ty
c o n f e r ence i s neces s a r y c a n b e t t e r unde r s t a nd the a r g ument
for neces s i ty by cons i d e r i ng the n a t u r e o f t h o s e l i ke l y to
oppose the who l e i d e a .
These i nc l u de p r i nc i p a l l y e x t r em i s t
e l emen t s b o t h i n I s r a e l and among the P a l e s t i n i e n s - - the mo s t
r a d i c a l A r a b s t a te s who s t i l l hope f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
I s r a e l and i n I s r a e l t h e L i ku d B l oc , wh i c h not only w i s he s
to r e t a i n t he occup i e d a r e a s b u t u l t i ma t e l y ex tend I s r a e l ' s
expa n s i on i s t d r ive to L e b a non a nd Jo r d a n .
/ 3 5/
I RAQ I . REFLECT I ON S
*
k
*
1 0/ 8 / 9 0
*
Obv i o u s l y I h a v e n o t inc l uded a l l o f the p r o b l ems
t h a t wou l d b e cons i d e r e d b y a confer ence i n the p a t te r n of
the Cong r e s s o f V i enna .
The c o n f e r ence wo u l d no d o u b t
exp a n d i ts own a genda a s i t s p r oceed i n g s g o t u n d e r w a y - ­
p a r t i cu l a r ly a s t he y b e g a n to s how p r om i se o f s u c c es s .
1
Jean Monnet. Poster Dulles. lke and the Uniting ofEurope:
Friendshivs and A ssociations
On July 3 ,
The Monnet/Eisen hower Connection
1 95 1 ,
General Eisen hower made a strong plea for European
economie and political integration before the English Speaking U nion in the great
bal l room of Grosvenor Place, Park Lane; nearly one thousand din ner guests were
present, among them, Churchill . The newly appointed Supreme All ied Commander,
Europe (SACEUR) had recently spoken with Jean Monnet. The Frenchman could not
but feel sorne satisfaction in recognizing echoes of his conversation with Eisenhower in
the lan guage and substance of his speech. Going as far as advocating the establishment
of a European federation , Eisenhower defended the merits of European unity on the
grounds that it would allow for a more efficient division of labor and resources and
ease the flow of trade between Western European nations. The benefits to NATO
would be incalculable: a united Europe would have the political and psychological
self-confidence, the economie health and hence the resources to assist the United States
in furthering the objectives of the Atlantic Pact, no longer as a recipient of American aïd
but as a partner. l
Already as Chief of S taff of the United S tates Arrny, then as President of
Columbia University during the postwar years, Eisenhower had been preoccupied witl1
the prospects for a un ited Europe. As SACEUR, the Genera] came to believe that a
United States of Europe was a sine qua non for finding a satisfactory solution to the
problem of European security . The united Europe he envisaged encompassed ali of
those countries which were part of NATO at the time plus Gerrnany, with Sweden,
Spain, Greece and Yugoslavia as strong potential candidates for joining a united
"
Europe; the U nited Kingdom could be omitted "if necessary. A divided Europe, he
fel t , stood to lose much from shortages of manpower in sorne coun tries, excess
productive capacity in others, and most of ali from Franco-German dissensions, ali of
which posed problems for the viabi lity of the organization of an effective defense
mechanism for the West. A single government for Europe, on the other hand, would
have the advantage of rationalizing European efforts towards Western defense, while at
the same rime allowing for a reduction of American help to European defense "both in
amount and duration."2
Yet Eisenhower did not go so far as to support the European Arrny concept put
forward by the French in the Fall of
1 950,
mainly as a coun terproposal to German
rearrnament within NATO. Initially, similarly to President Truman, Dean Acheson and
George M arsh all, the General shirked from being associated with the project which
seemed "almost inherently, to include every kind of obstacle, difficulty, and fan tastic
2
notion th at misguided humans could put together in one package. " To Eisenhower, the
plan would most likely encourage division rather than u nity i n Western Europe, and
was militarily unsound and ineffective. Above ali, Eisenhower strongly suspected the
French to h ave put forward the proposai for a European army on the assumption that
the plan would never be adopted, and that German rearmament if contingent upon the
realization of a European Army, would topple down with it, or at the very least be
1 95 1 a n d became o n e o f its
con siderabl y delayed . 3 Despite these i n i tial misgivings, E i senhower shifted h i s
position o n the European Army during t h e summer of
staunchest proponents in its successive avatars, frrst as a European Defense Force, then
as the ill-fatted European Defense Community.
21,
1 95 1 , at the H otel Astoria i n Paris was apparently determinant for this change of
A lunch appointment with Jean Monnet at twelve thirty on Thursday, June
heart.4The meeting had been instigated thanks to the adroit efforts of the United States
High Commissioner for Germany John McCloy, and Ambassador to France D avid
Bruce, both long-time friends of Jean Monnet. Earlier in June5McCloy had written to
Eisenhower to urge him to talk with Jean Monnet, whom he presented as one of the
individuals most susceptible to influence the French position on the European Army.
For if McCioy was a fervent advocate of European i n tegration, he held strong
reservations for the scheme of a European Army as it then stood on the French agenda.
In its current form, he told Monnet, the plan seemed to be nothing but a deviee to delay
or avoid a German contribution
to
NATO. In addition the European Arrny did not make
much sense from a military point of view. Could the French perhaps drop off "such
excrescencies as non-divisional units"?6 He would be glad to support the European
Arrny scheme, he later wrote Eisenhower, but only if the plan were militarily effective.
Eisenhower thought much along the same lines, but doubted that the scheme could be
made viable from a military viewpoint. During his meeting with Eisenhower and sorne
of his collaborators7 at the Hotel Astoria where the SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters
Allied Powers, Europe) planning group had its headquarters - Monnet convinced
Eisenhower that the crux of the matter was not so much military effectiveness as rather
political soundness. Essential were not the size of the divisions or other technicalities,
but the creation of a common European outlook, a " solidarity of destiny." Eisenhower
understood the point weil : what Monnet proposed to him was to have "the Germans
and the French serve under the same uniforrn" ; the real issue was to organize relations
between men , thu s the problem was " more of a human problem than a military
p ro b l e m . " 8 Reassured as to the motiv ations of the European Army scheme,
Eisenhower decided to support it. But the Eisenhower/Monnet cooperation was a two
way street.
3
If Monnet succeeded in con · · ·
Army should
be viewed within the };
·ing Eisenhower that the plan for a European
�cr framework of European integration, without
which no viable solution could be found to the German problem, Eisenhower and his
collaborators i n turn put pressure on the French strictly to integrate the European Arrny
withi n NATO, so that there would in fact be no autonomous European command. I n
other words: the United States would support the creation o f a European Army, only i f
it were organized within the safe compounds o f the Atlantic Community. This would
have the advantage of deflecting the fears of the French and other E uropean nations as
to the potential domination of one of the members of the European Army over the
others, particularly Germany. It would also provide the United S tates with a means of
controlling the evolution of the European Army. In addition, top-echelon American
policy-makers, including Acheson, insisted that there should be no second-class status
for the Germans. The European Arrny would be forrned on the basis of a full equality
of rights for ali member nations, or it would not see the day. Such was the
"constructive and vigorous leadership" which Eisenhower felt the United States must
1 95 1 , about one month after the Eisenhower 1 Monnet meeting at the Astoria,
exert to bri ng about an acceptable version of the European Arrny. By the end of July
President
Truman approved a policy of support for German rearmament within the context of the
European Defense Force. S u pport for the European Army concept, al though
considerably watered down to the taste of sorne, had now become American policy.
Ei senhower's shift of position in favor of the European Army proved to be decisive in
overcoming Acheson's and Truman's strong initial reservations on the matter.
In the fall of
1 95 1 ,
Monnet's association with Eisenhower resumed when the
Frenchman was asked to be one of the "Three Wise Men" charged with carrying out
most of the task of the newly created Temporary Council Committee (TCC). The task
of the three-man Executive Bureau mainly consisted in matching NATO military needs
with the economie capacities of the member nations. Chairrnan of the "wise men" was
Averell Harriman, President's Truman Special Adviser on Foreign A ffairs, with Hugh
Gaitskell, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Jean Monnet acti n g as vice­
chairrnen.9
On the moming of November 24,
1 95 1 ,
Monnet came to see Eisenhower. He
could not go to the Rome meeting where the North A tlantic Council (NAC) was
holding its eight session and would consider preliminary reports of the TCC. Would
Eisenhower please stress "the need for European amalgamation - political as well as the
earlier steps involved i n the Schuman Plan and the European Army" ? Eisenhower
obliged. That same day Eisenhower wrote in his diary that he would do so since he
believed "implicitly i n the idea . . . even if sorne of the politicos present" resented his
"intrusion i nto their field . " Unless
"Denmark, Roll and, B elgium, Luxembourg,
4
France, Italy and western Germany" fonned "one Federated State", wrote the General,
the millions the U nited S tates had spent on the Economie Cooperation Administration
(ECA) would go to sheer waste. On the other hand the United S tates could "afford to
spend a lot", to encourage the development of a uni fied Europe because they would
"get
somethi n g successful, strong, sturdy . " 1 0Duri n g his presidency, Eisenhower
would repeatedly emphasize the distinct link he perceived between American fiscal
responsibility and economie viability on the one hand , and national security on the
other. His support for European integration stemmed in part from his belief that i t
would increase the economie strength o f Western European nations, which would then
26, the General addressed members of the
combine their resources to foot most of the bill to insure their own security, thereby
freeing American resources. On November
NAC in terms that showed him to be a faithful porte parole of Jean Monnet. Not only
did he emphasize the advantages of Western European unification - economie, military
and political -, but he also unequivocally voiced his support for the creation of a
European Defense Force. S uch a force, he said, would i ncorporate German strength
without having it pose a threat to the Alliance. "German help," said Eisenhower, "will
be tremendously important as is freely given; and it can be so given, I believe, through
a European Defense Force. It would stand alongside the Schuman Plan - which must be
successful - and the two would constitute great steps toward the goal of complete
European unity! " 1 1 In mid-December the General testified be fore Harriman and the
TCC. Commending the results of the work of the TCC, to which Monnet had largely
contributed , l 2Eisenhower also took this opportu nity to reaffirm his strong support for
the European Army concept. 1 3
Monnet's method o f developing an idea and then seeking the man who had the
power to apply it, was successfuJ. l 4 Not only did Ei senhower agree to be Monnet's
porte parole when he was still serving as SACEUR, but the General later continued to
be a staunch supporter of European integration i n its various guises, wh en serving i n
the high office o f President o f the United States. Jean Monnet t hus i nvested h i s idea
capital where he could expect the most return on it : SACEUR and, opportunely, the
presidential office. He much benefited of course from the advice of his friend John
McCloy who identified for him the man in whose hands the power to gather official
American support for the European Army lay . 1 5 But while Monnet's influence was key
in Eisenhower's decision eventually to support the EDC, Monnet's exchange of views
with Eisenhower and other American leaders in turn prompted Jean Monnet and Hervé
Alphand to transform the European Army i nto a European Defense Community. The
new EDC heeded American concerns for German participation on the basis of equality
and strictly integrated the European Defense Community within NATO.
5
By the end of 1 95 1 , Ei senhower and Monnet, who u n til then did
not know
each other weil, were on a friendship basis. Shortly after Chri stmas, Eisenhower sent
Monnet a letter in which he thanked him for his New Year's present, most likely sorne
botties of the delectable Monnet Cognac which Jean used to send to his best friends and
associates once a year. The letter showed Eisenhower's esteem and friendship for Jean
Monnet. "Touched by [his] kindly thoughtfulness", Eisenhower wrote: " Although the
assignment to this post brought to my wife and to me many disappointments due to the
severance of ties that seem to grow more valuable as the years pass, yet we have been
compen sated by the opportunity of forming new friendships among people that we
admire and esteem. Among these we are bold enough, and most certainly exceedingly
proud, to n umber you. " 1 6 When Eisenhower was elected President of the United
S tates one year l ater, Monnet sent him the following message: "May I offer you Mr
Eisenhower my most sincere con gratulations on your election for the great office of
President of the United States. I would add my very best wishes for the attainment in
these years which can prove decisive for the unity of Europe, the prosperity of our
countries and for peace of the momentous objectives which we have ali set before us
and which 1 know are so close to your heart. " l 7 Eisenhower's answer was short and to
the point: "Thank you for your message and look forward to continuing coop[eration]
for the great goals ahead. " 1 8
E i s e n h ower
knew
Monnet
from
the
war
years,
although
the
Monnet/Eisenhower connection was not close at the time. In 1 943, General Eisenhower
was in Algiers to prepare a peripheral attack on the Axis, and organize French Africa
both politically and militarily to make it a safe basis for subsequent operations. On
February 23 Jean Monnet left Washington where he had been active since August 1 940
in mobilizing American production for the war effort, and arrived i n Alger four days
later. Harry Hopkins, with the approval of President Roosevelt, had sent him to Alger
to supervise the equipment of French forces in North Africa. Through this assignment,
Monnet was in contact with Eisenhower, in whom he could already perceive " the
might very well have exchanged views on the future of Europe. On December 3 1
1943,
qualities which make a great political man: integrity and humanity." 1 9 The two men
now back in Washington, Monnet sent the General his best wishes for the New Year
and " the Great enterprise he [was] going to lead." A lways the practical man , he took
this opportunity to arrange to meet with him "on the first day in Paris soon."20
During his time in Algiers Monnet was not only active in reconciling General
Giraud and General de Gaulle, the two " prima donne," but also gave considerable
thought to the organ ization of post-war Europe. Monnet reflected " there would be no
peace in Europe if the States were recon stituted on the basis of n ational sovereignty
with its corollaries of political prestige and economie protectionism. " European
6
coun tries needed larger markets to i n sure prosperity for their people, b u t such
prosperity was beyond reach unless "European S tates formed a Federation or a
'European entity' which transformed them into a common economie unity."21 In a
conversation with General de Gaulle, i n October 1 943, Monnet told his interlocutor that
he could envisage a political division of German y only if each German state were part
of a European whole, and shared the same advantages as the non-German elements of
this European entity. Monnet also advocated the creation of "a European industrial land
notably encompassing the Ruhr, the S aar, the Rhineland, Luxembourg, and in which
the iron and steel industries would be exploited to the benefit of Europe as a whole by
European nations themselves. "22 In doing this, Monnet hoped to excise Germany of its
main war making industries: coal and steel, and to channel German energies towards
the larger goal of European economie unification. In other words, Monnet was already
thinking of an ancestor to the Coat and Steel Community.
The Monnet/Dulles Connection
John Poster Dulles was thinking along rouch the same lines as Jean Monnet,
with whom he often discussed his own ideas for European unification. During the war
Monnet headed the British mi ssion for the supply of American equipment i n
Washington where Dulles held the position o f legal counsel; this facilitated frequent
contacts between the two men, whose association dated back to the 1 920s.23 In the
i mmediate years following the First World War, a young Dulles then serving as adviser
to President Wilson at the Versailles Peace Conference bad fought hard to prevent the
war victors from forcing buge reparation payments on Germany that would undermine
its economy and lead ber to resort once again to warfare, with dismal consequences for
the prosperity of Europe. In the 1 920s Dulles expressed deep concem for European
economie viability and political stability, upon which rouch of American prosperity
depended, and emphasized the need for the removal of trade barriers and the dilution of
sovereignty in Europe and in the world at large.24Dulles later pursued and refined this
line of thought, and spoke of a European federation. As early as September 1 94 1 he
claimed that the solution to the war-breeding political divisions of the old continent lay
in "the political reorganization of continental Europe as a federated commonwealth. "25
In January 1 942 Du lles, now
President of the Foreign A ffairs Commission of the
Federal Council of Churches of Christ, wrote in Fortune that the United S tates would
serve its own interests by fosterin g the federation of Europe in the post-war years.26
Dulles lunched with Jean Monnet about two years later and agreed with his friend that
"if Europe remains as twenty five or twenty eight separate states with two great Powers
7
(U. S . and Russia, with Britain as a possible third power) they will be merely tom apart
by rival jealousies and maneuverings. "27
What preoccupied Dulles most was to find a viable solution to the German
problem; a European federation seemed to be part of the answer. " Germany ought to be
integrated into a unified Europe,"28 he wrote in 1 942. During the summer and fall of
1 946, more and more convi nced of the need for European economie and political unity,
Dulles doubted it would ever see the day if " a central German govemment ha[d]
exclusive control of the resources which constitute[d] the economie heart of Europe
[particularly the Ruhr and Rhine areas . ] "29 Addressing
the National Publishers
Association on January 1 7 , 1 947 he then advised the war victors to think of Western
Europe as a single economie unit of which the "basin of the Rhine, with its coal and
industrious man power" constituted " the natural economie heart." "From th at are a",
said Dulles, "ought to flow vitality not merely for Germans but for Germany's western
neighbors. If that happens Western Europe , at least, with its 200 million people, could
develop into a more prosperous and stable land." To him the German problem c alled
"for sorne appl ication of the federal solution" to Europe much after the pattern of the
United S tates.30 In March 1 947 Dulles, now a member of the American team at the
Moscow conference, proposed the creation of a Ruhr Commi ssion to his American
colleagues, who did not, however, respond with the enthusiasm he had anticipated and
merely chose to make a vague proposai to develop sorne international control of the
Ruhr. The Commi ssion Dulles proposed would have possessed
allocate "coal and other heavy products (to be defi ned)"
the authority to
and would have been
responsible for the"equitable distribution as between domestic use and export to one or
another place."3 1 Members of this Commission were to be France, the Netherlands,
Belgium, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark and Italy; which gave it an
essentially European character. One year later, during a meetin g of the Council on
Foreign Relations in New York, in which his brother Allen held a prominent position,
Poster again emphasized that solving the problem of the Ruhr was key to building the
new Europe.32
By a curious coïncidence, a few weeks later, in February 1 948, Lewis Douglas,
William Clayton's assistant, with whom Monnet frequently met at the time, made the
suggestion to create a European authority that would control the Ruhr as weil as other
European regions and be one of the milestones on the road towards European economie
integration.33 This was nothing less than the Schuman Plan in its infancy. Had he and
Monnet discussed this proposai? Whatever the case may be it did not arouse any great
enthusiasm in French quarters, while the American administration did not think it viable
in the current international situation. On the whole it is safe to say that the idea of the
necessity of the internationalization or perhaps of the Europeanization of the Ruhr was
8
very rouch part of the thinking of Dulles as weil as other Arnerican policy-rnak:ers at the
tirne. Yet while Dulles advocated the integration of Gerrnany and the Ruhr area within
a unified Europe, he did not clearly propose to subrnit other European regions than
German regions to the authority of the Ruhr Commission he envisaged as did sorne of
his colleagues and Jean Monnet, who had already outlined such a solution as early as
1 943. Monnet and Dul les wen:: united in their deep commitment
European unity as an essential element of peace, although thi s
to
the goal of
did not mean an
agreement on the means to reach this common goal.
John Poster Dulles had met Jean Monnet at the Versailles Peace Conference of
1 9 1 9, where he was acting as legal counsel to Bernhard Baruch , the United States
Representative on the Reparations Commission. John Maynard Keynes and Jean
Monnet were servi ng on the British and French delegation s, respectively.34 Poster
Dulles and Jean Monnet were of the same vintage year of 1 8 88 and35 soon became
close friends,36 as too did Jean Monnet and
Allen Dulles. Following the Peace
Conference, after a short passage as Deputy Secretary to the League of Nations in
Geneva, and spending sorne time in Cognac to reorganize the family business in order
to save it from ruin, Monnet became the Vice-President of the Société française Blair
and Co. Foreign Corp, which he and Elisha Walker, the Director General of Blair, had
just created in Paris in August of 1 926.37From that time on Monnet was in touch with
Wall Street lawyers of high caliber. John McCloy, Donald Swatland and Foster Dulles,
to name only a few, soon numbered among his friends. In early 1 927 Jean Monnet left
for Warsaw, where he and his young collaborator, René Pleven, endeavored to save
the Zloty. In this instance, as in many others, Monnet enlisted the services of Poster
Dulles, whom he respected as an associate and valued as a friend.38 In the wak:e of the
chaos that followed the suicide of Ivar Kreuger, the Swedish "Match King" in March
1 952, Poster Dulles, then acting as legal counsel to a committee of bankers holding
several millions in debentures of Kreuger and Toll, in turn rnanaged to have his friend
appointed as the foreign liquidator of the Kreuger and Toll dissolution . Later on,
Dulles, then head of S ullivan and Cromwell, convinced his titular superior William
Nelson Cromwell, to support a partnership between George Mumane, one of his old
friends and business associates, and Jean Monnet. The two of them proposed to
organize a New York ftrrn that would help various enterprises get a fresh stan by acting
as their ftnancial agent. Dulles' recommendation to Cromwell indicated he had ful l
confidence in Monnet's and Muman .e's business talents : " 1 have long felt that they
would make an ideal combination, and the fact that they are apparently corning together
is largely due to my efforts in the belief that if they did so they would be exceedingly
successful in becorning engaged in enterprises which in tum would produce a large
amou nt of legal business. " Dulles showed he was prepared to back his words with a
9
material contribution when he proposed that Sullivan and Cromwell put up
$50,000 in
support of the plan , half of which he would supply himself.39 During those years,
Jean Monnet frequently visited him in his New York home, and a deep friendship
ensued between their two wives: Janet Dulles and Silvia Monnet . Many years later,
when Poster lay on his hospital bed, dying of cancer, Monnet wrote to him fondly
rememberin g the
years before he joined the United S tates Government, their
friendship, and Poster' s "kindness to [him] in New York."40
A l though Dulles' demanding and time-consuming job as Secretary of S tate
later gave the appearance of him neglecting his friendship with Monnet, the two men
remained friends and
frequently cooperated for what they con sidered one of the
greatest tasks before them: the building of a new Europe. Jean Monnet's portrait of
Poster Dulles in his memoirs bears testimony to his lasting admiration and affection for
him:
I had met him at the Peace Conference and 1 had become his friend. 1 appreciated his
great competence which was useful to us in Warsaw and under other c ircumstances. But, above
ali, 1 admired his great strength of charactcr and this moral authority which already reached out
essential to civilization. 1 always fou nd hi rn determined and inflexible in his decision, conform i ri g
beyond his professional circle ... a very religious man, deeply convinced thal freedom is
to the way
h istory remembers him, and at the same time generous, bon- vivant, a warm
friend. Sorne day, the world would discover, next to Eisenhower, his powerful stature, symbol
of a w illpower thal would crystalize contrary passions. This abstraction was nol the real
Foster Dulles. The man I knew and loved was like many others, but much greater and honest
than most.4 1
Poster Dulles, the friend, and the associate who believed i n European integration as
one of the key elements of post-war peace, was a rather sympathetic and courageous
character, yet Poster Dulles, the public figure, or the "abstraction", to quote Monnet,
was rather clumsy in his public statements and was the object of much criticism and
dislike both at home and abroad. Townsend Hoopes has noted that "in the bosom of his
family or with c lose and trusted associates, he could be warm , sentimen tal,
occasion ally jocul ar, exhibiting a hearty, even bubbly Victorian hu mor. " This
description cornes close to the warm and generous character Monnet remembered. On
the other hand " in ail other groups he was notable for a flat hardness and a striking
insensitivity to people at large. " Much of this attitude was the result of his upbringing
which had "denied him a normal young manhood. "42 Dulles' friendship with Monnet
and his dedication to the cause of European i ntegration do not of course excuse
clumsiness and insensitivity i n presenting his ideas, which showed noth ing but bad
statesmanship, but they do uncover another perspective on the man, which will perhaps
help rehabilitate him somewhat to his critics.
1
I n 1 949 Dewey appointed Fos ter Dulles to fill an unexpired Senate term. Yet
Foster's term as Senator was short-lived. After his defeat when he ran for a full-term
mandate i n 1 9 50, Dulles served as special consultan t and adviser for the S tate
Department and negotiated the Japanese Peace Treaty from the spring of 1 950 into
1 9 5 1 . Although Dulles spent most of his time educati ng himself about the Eastern
situation and negotiating the treaty, he still found time to correspond with Monnet, and
occasionally to see him. When Dulles' book War or Peace was published in 1 950,
Foster sent an advance copy of it to Monnet.4 3 Monnet, who then served as
Commissaire Général of the French Modernization and Equipment Plan, immediately
wrote him back on April 4 thanking him for the book. That same day Monnet read in
the papers that the administration might offer his friend " to enter again actively in the
direction of foreign policy." Monnet quickly added a handwritten note to the typed letter
he had already prepared : " 1 do hope that if this really happens you will not hesi tate.
Now is the rime where clear views expressed with courage will determine our destinies.
I wish that I may read soon that y ou have accepted to be 'harnessed' again. "44 Later on
that month Dulles received another letter from 1 8, rue de Martignac. It was a letter of
introduction for a young friend of Monnet, Mr. Servan Schreiber, whom Monnet said
was "the frrst Frenchman to receive a S tate Department grant for travel and study in the
United States under the Smith-Mundt bill. " Monnet hoped Dulles would see him and
advise him so that he could through his talks with Dulles "bring back with him a
complete picture of the conditions in your country , and thus be more able to inform
French public opinion."45 It was indeed part of the Monnet method not only to identify
sources of power, but also to bring in contact with these sources associates or friends
whom he esteemed and could serve the cause of European integration. The journalistic
skills of a young man with a promising future like Servan Schreiber were of course not
to be neglected . In this case as in many, Monnet demonstrated one of his greatest
talents: networking.46
On May 23, 1 9 50, a few weeks after the announcement of the Schuman Plan,
Foster Dulles, who was about to leave for Japan in a few days, wrote Monnet a long
letter. Foster Dulles was not part of the co-conspirors who evolved the Schuman plan,
and Jean Monnet does not seem to have put him in the confidence, but the plan
espoused much of his own preoccupations. D u lles had long been convinced that
integrating Germany within Western Europe and the West , and encouraging a French­
German rapprochement were key to any lasting European Peace seulement. He had
also thought of Europeanizing German coal and S teel production, so that it would
benefit not only Germany but other European nations. In his book War or Peace
Dulles wrote that it was the "enlightened self-interest " of the United S tates to encourage
European unity;
this, he felt, would not happen without the U nited S tates exerting
0
1 1
"strong pressure" on the Europeans.47 Monnet and Dulles differed on thi s point: there
was a substantial difference between Arnerican strong pressure, if not outright threats
and Arnerican encouragement and support, which Monnet viewed as essential for the
success of European u nification. In the case of the Schuman Plan initiative, strong
pressure from the United S tates was not needed for it was, without doubt, a European
initiative. The Schuman Plan offered a chance to put an end to the age-old Franco­
German conflict, i n tegrate Germany with i n the West and u se the Coal and S teel
Cornrnunity as a stepping stone towards more far-reaching steps on the road towards
European federation. Dulles was quick to see the political implications which seerned to
hi rn "even more important than the economie. " "A genuine union of interest between
Gerrnany and France is an enormous i nsurance for a peaceful future," he wrote
Monnet. "The proposai bri ngs a new spirit into a western world which has so far not
been able to imagine anything better than going down the rather dreary road which in
the past has usually led to war. "48
Dulles' enthusiasrn did not match the initial reaction of Dean Acheson who first
saw the Schuman plan as the worst cartel ever. Fears were also ex pressed i n various
quarters in the United S tates that the Plan was nothing more than a new and l arger
governrnental cartel. The rnernory of the European S teel Cartel was still alive in many
rninds, and the danger that the Schuman Plan would irnpede free trade and encourage
the recrudescence of n ational and international cartels appeared real . Monnet quickly
rnoved to reassure Acheson that the Schuman Plan was anything but a cartei.49 He was
rnuch aided in his efforts by John McCloy and David Bruce, who had been a close
collaborator of his since the Marsh all Plan days, and was now serving in the capacity of
Arnbassador to France.50 Bruce immediately realized the importance of the Schuman
proposai, even though he held sorne doubts about the complex motives of the French
govern ment. Overrul i n g the views of sorne of h i s subordinates at the Embassy,
including his Economie Counselor, Robert Terrill, Bruce stressed the importance of the
plan in a cable to the State Department, which included many skeptics, and flew over to
London where he met with Acheson and managed to convince hirn that it was essential
that the United S tates react positively to the Schuman Plan .5 1 A little more than one
week after the Schuman declaration , President Truman hailed the Plan as a token of
"French leadership in the solution of European problems. " Yet this did not end the
debate within the administration.
If sorne American officiais were worried about the danger.of cartelization, they
were also preoccupied by the possible emergence of a " th ird force" Europe.52 The
Schuman Plan was open to " ail countries that wanted to participate in it," did this mean
that a united Europe would adopt a neutral attitude towards the U nited S tates? The fear
of an independent Europe, aloof from the United S tates was sufficiently real for Dulles
1 2
to suggest that
Monnet c larify this particular point :" As 1 understand it," wrote
Dulles," there is no desire to be 'neutral' except in the sense of not wanting a war, and
we all want to be neutral in that sense. If building up new strength in Europe by ending
the age-old rivalries between France and Germany will contribute a new strength
against war and end the temptations of sorne to maneuver the Germans against the
French, and vice versa, that is surely a good th ing for peace."53 Dulles al so gave
Monn et sorne advice on how to get the Schuman proposai through. The plan had
originally "gained momentum because it was not first haggled over by all sorts of
committees," if Monnet kept up the momentum by continuing to stay away from
committees Dulles felt "quite confident that no serious roadblocks" would be "thrown
in" by the U nited States.54
Y et Dulles was far removed from the immediate Washington circles th at might
have had sorne impact on the fortunes of the Schuman Plan at the time. In January 1 9 5 1
then again in December 1 95 1 , Dulles thanked his friend for the two botties of special
gift brandy which Jean Monnet had sent him and regretted he had not been able to
follow "as closely as heretofore the European situation. "55 Had his assignment been in
the West rather than in the East, the two of them " might have worked together."56
Dulles nevertheless contin ued to correspond with Monnet, occasionally sending him
press clippings and copies of his speeches.57 On M arch 2 1 , Dulles congratulated his
friend for "initialing the Schuman Plan . "58 About one month later, just the day after the
Paris Treaty had in fact been signed, Monnet thanked Dulles for his congratulations,
and always thinking ahead, wrote him he was anxious to see him on his next trip to the
United States. When that would be he did not know for much depended on whether
elections would be held in France in June.59 Dulles later wrote him that he might
himself be in Europe in June and hoped their trips wou1d not conflict.60 The two
friends did in fact meet in June, twice at the Résidence, and once at Monnet's country
home at Houjarray.6 1 This was about ten days before Monnet' s meetin g with
Eisenhower, which was decisive in convincing the General to go along with the EDC.
Dulles and Monnet most likely discussed the EDC and the Schuman Plan on this
occasion, although the details of their conversations are not known.
By March of 1 952, the American Senate had ratified the Japanese Peace Treaty
and the Pacifie S ec urity Treaties. Poster D ulles' association with the Truman
administration was thus finished. Without any apparent bittemess Dulles wrote Monnet
th at he now expected "primarily to resume private li fe. " "The separation from the
Administration " was "entirely normal and as contemplated on both sides", and as far as
he could tell "in every respect friendly" despite sorne efforts of the American Press "to
play it up as a 'break."'62 Monnet's well-publicized trip to the U nited States in April
and May unfortunately found Dulles away. The trip was a major publicity success for
1 3
"the father of Europe" and his brainchild the European Coal and S teel Community.
Upon his arrivai in the United States, Monnet was hailed in the New York Times as
"one of the main architects of a new and unified Europe. "63
Meanwhile Monnet kept in touch with Eisenhower whom he hoped he would
see in Europe before the General left France for the United States. Thanking him for his
contribution to the solution of European problems,64 Monnet tried to keep the General
informed of his own thinking, thereby perhaps hoping to consolidate Eisenhower's
support for European integration and future contributions to this cause in the future. In
a letter to him on May 1 3 , Monnet enclosed a copy of a speech he had made in
Washington D.C. before the National Press Club. This major address saluted the
Schuman and Pleven Plans as "the beginning of a revolution in Europe's political,
military, economie, and institutional life. " That revolution, Monnet said, would "do
away with the causes of the conflicts of Europe, the greatest of which ha[d] been the
age-old opposition between Germany and France" and "must now be carried forward
towards complete unification. " In a flight of oratory Monnet suggested that the
unification of Europe was "the most important political and economie undertaking of
our time." "Because Americans understand this", he continued, "you have consistent! y
supported and encouraged our efforts to make a united Europe.
1
believe this is the frrst
time in history that a country with such a preponderance of power as the United States
is giving active and vital support to different peoples in their efforts to unite in a strong
and free community." Monnet also dealt with the European Army and the German
question. In doing so he directly launched a counter attack against the recent Soviet
proposais which proposed the reconstituting of a German state and a German national
army. Such a proposai, said Monnet, posed the threat of re-opening old wounds, it
would revive nationalism in Germany and reawake "nationalistic feelings of Frenchman
and other Europeans against the Germans." German unity, insisted Monnet, could only
find place within a United Europe, only then would the errors of the past which had
brought disaster to Europe and the world not be repeated. Al ways the optimist, Monnet
adroitly cast his speech in an essentially positive mode. Rather than describing ali the
difficulties on the way towards European integration, he chose instead to describe to his
audience the main rnilestones on the road to unification and presented his topic in terms
of goals and achievements.
The Monnet method of setting a goal, then moving towards that goal without
presupposing that it rnight not be successful, had the advantage of captivating audiences
and securing the undying support of friends and associates who had the impression of
participating in "something exciting." Yet it also had its drawbacks. As in the case of
the failure of the EDC, it posed the threat of having no fall-back positions because of a
rather blind optimism. In the particular instance of Monnet's visit to the United States, it
1 4
had the misfortune of being too successful. Enthused by Monnet's pronouncements,
the American public as weil as American officiais found it hard to reconcile Monnet's
optimism with the Jack of concrete progress in Europe on the road to European
unification. Although the EDC Treaty was signed in Paris on May 27 1 952, it was far
from being ratified. As for the Schuman Plan, ali of the signatories, including Ital y, had
ratified it by mid-June, yet concrete manifestations of its promises were lacking.
Meanwhile Monnet maintained contact with his old friend Dulles, whom he sent
a specially printed replica of the Schuman Plan Treaty in late A pril.65 When
Eisenhower appointed Dulles as his Secretary of State, an obviously elated Jean Monnet
telegraphed him:
My dear Foster the news of your nomination has moved me very deeply. It is a
source of joy for me as your devoted friend but it is also a source of hope for ali of us and for
me particularly who know you well. The burden is heavy but the task ahead is great and the
reward full of promise if peace can be not only kepl but developed. To allain this goal 1
believe thal the prompt creation of a United States of Europe is essenlial and 1 know how
much you sharc thcsc convictions. Good luck and God blcss you. Jcan" 66
Dulles immediately cabled back:" Greatly appreciate your cable and look forward
eagerly to our continuing association. I share your conviction that it is of the utmost
importance promptly to create greater unity politically, economically and militarily in
Europe. This, as you know, has been my conviction for many years." 67 S hortly
before the announcement of the Schuman Plan, Monnet had written Dulles he felt
"very sorry that the circumstances" had taken him "momentarily out of the active
direction of foreign policy." Especially at a moment when "ali contributions specially as
[he could] make,[were] vitally needed."68 The President of the High Authority now
could count on the cooperation of a friend in one of the highest offices of the United
States govemment. If Monnet enjoyed being close to the sources of power, his friend
Dulles was now right at the source. Seein g mostly eye to eye on the necessity to
promptly create a united Europe for the peace of the world, the two men would
frequent! y function as "associates" during the years of the Eisenhower presidency.
The Eisenhower Administration
The Eisenhower administration had barely taken office when Foster Dulles and
Mutual Security Agency Director Harold S tassen flew to Luxembourg to see for
themselves the first concrete steps of European integration, and push for the EDC.
Obviously pleased by the news of the impending visit, Monnet immediately wrote
Dulles, underscoring its special significance for the United States, since the visit
coincided with the opening of the European Market for Coal on February 1 0, " a great
1 5
date in European history." Dulles answered it "would be a pleasure to pay our respects
to this functioning community which in so important an area replaces the costly rivalries
of the past. " 69 Monnet's welcoming address to his guests on a very cold winter day,
forty eight hours before the opening of the first Common Market, echoed Dulles'
words. "The European Coal and Steel Community, said Monnet," is the beginning of
this union of the peoples of Europe who, renouncing at last their age-old divisions, will
soon unite in a strong, prosperous and peaceful community to the benefit of their
populations, free peoples and civilization as a whole. "70
Net w o rking
Even though Dulles left that same day for the United States, Monnet had
enough time to suggest the appointment of an Ambassador at Large or a Special United
States Representative, whose main task it would be to push for European unification.
He was deeply convinced that the European venture would not succeed if it did not
benefit from the strong backing of the United States. Renee the importance of
appointing an American representative ranking above regular American representatives
in Europe to underscore the significance the United States govemment attached to
European i ntegration. Earlier in Bonn that winter Monnet had discussed a sirnilar
proposai with Adenauer , who had been thinking much along the same lines.7 1 Alfred
Gruenther, Eisenhower's former Chief of Staff at SHAPE, and a close friend of
Monnet, had also been toying with the thought and had written his former boss in early
January suggesting the name of David Bruce. Eisenhower had shown himself favorable
to the idea of a roving Ambassador who would "visit with ali the appointed
ambassadors in their own region and attempt to promote common understanding and
viewpoint", yet he did not see how he could cali on a prominent Democrat such as
David Bruce at the very start of a Republican adrninistration.72
During his conversations with Monnet in Luxembourg, Dulles voiced his own
objections to Monnet' s proposai. To begin with there were already too many
Ambassadors, and he felt adding another Ambassador at large would be a great
mistake. He did, however, sound more positive on the possibility of appointing a
Special Representative. Would Lewis Douglas be a11 right? Monnet was noncommittal
and boldly suggested that David Bruce might be more acceptable.73 Dulles hesitated at
first: David Bruce was close to Acheson. Appointing a liberal Democrat like Bruce
could mean anathema at a time when McCarthyism reigned supreme.74 Yet Bruce was
a close friend of Foster's brother Allen and had been associated with Foster during the
negotiations for the Japanese Peace Treaty. He was also a friend of Monnet's from the
Marshall Plan days, and Monnet held him in great esteem. Monnet's advice eventually
prevailed, and Dulles decided to go along with his scheme. Yet Jean Monnet did not put
1 6
ali of his eggs in one basket. Unsure at first whether Dulles would accept his proposai,
Monnet telephoned his old friend Alfred Gruenther the day after Dulles had boarded his
Douglas MacArthur II so he would try to expedite Bruce's appointment ? In doing this
Flying Fortress to return to the United States. Would Gruen ther please telephone
Monnet hoped to directly secure the agreement of the President, and put pressure on
Dulles. Douglas MacArthur II enjoyed the confidence of Eisenhower as his former chief
adviser in international affairs, while the general was SACEUR. He was now serving
as counselor in the Department of State,75 being one of the selected few whom Dulles
really trusted and relied upon for advice in foreign affairs. Gruenther agreed to write to
MacArthur, emphasizing that Eisenhower felt highly about Bruce's qualifications,
although he would most likely object to his being a Democrat. There was no need for
MacArthur's good offices, though. Already in the plane, Dulles and his assistants had
had a thorough discussion on the matter.7 6 Two days later, on February 1 0, after
clearing with Eisenhower, the State Department got in touch with Bruce who was
shooting turkeys in the South. Bruce agreed to take on the job; he did not ask for any
speci fie title. Dul les eventually recommcnded to the President that Bruce be designatcd
not only as United States Observer to the European Defense Community Interim
Committee but also as United States Representative to the ECSC. By doing this, he felt,
the United States would be sending a clear signal that it was interested in the EDC "as
part of a broader six-country development and not solely as a necessary arrangement for
our mutual defense. "77 Both the spirit and the letter of Monnet's proposai had th us
been respected. Ten days after Monnet had shared his plans with Dulles, President
Eisenhower announced that David Bruce would soon leave for Europe to serve in the
two capacities Dulles had suggested, with the additional responsibility of observing the
progress made towards the creation of a European Political Community.7 8 The next
day Dulles telegraphed Monnet, telling him the good news. "This appointment," he
underscored,"is of course indicative of the great importance which the President and the
US Govemment attach to the movements in Europe to develop a unified six nations
Communi ty. "79
Soon Bruce presen ted his credentials to Jean Monnet, and rejoined his young
co-worker from the Marshall Plan days, William Tomlinson ("Tommy"), who headed
the Paris United States Embassy group charged with supervising activity relating to the
six members of the Common Market prior to Bruce's arrivai. "Tommy" was a very
close friend of Jean Monnet, whom he met extremely frequenùy during the Eisenhower
years until his death in 1 955. 80 Monnet's lobbying efforts were thus successful in
establishing privileged American channels in Europe through which he could
cornrnunicate his views to Washington, knowing fully well that they had a good chance
of reachin g top-level decision-makers, not least the Secretary of State and the
1 7
President. Owing to his networking skills, the communication channels Monnet could
use to reach the main foreign policy decision centers in Washington were many. First of
ali, there was a direct link with both the President and his Secretary of State. There
were also privileged channels through Bruce and Tomlinson in Europe, with Alfred
Gruenther and others playing on the sidelines. In private circles, McCloy, the ex-High
Commissionner for Germany, now Chairman of the Chase National B ank in New
York, and particularly George Bali, to name only a few, were frequently helpful to
Monnet. In addition, Monnet adroitly used appointees in the immediate entourage of
Dulles and Eisenhower such as Douglas McArthur II to lobby for his views.
Monnet's friends and sympathizers with a privileged hearing in the King's
court and that of Secretary of State were many in an administration that counted many
Europeanists. Familiars of the President and his Secretary of State included Robert
Murphy, who had met Monnet in 1 937-38 in Paris and then again in 1 943 in Alger,
and was now given the job of Undersecretary of State for United Nations affairs. S l
Livingston Merchant, who had been Dulles' Deputy during the negotiations for the
Japanese Treaty, and recently held the position of deputy to the Special Representative
in Europe, William Draper, was now appointed Assistant Secretary for European
Affairs. 82 As for Robert Bowie, the new head of the Policy Planning Staff in the State
Department, he had first met Monnet in Paris shortly after the Schuman declaration.
Bowie was then managing on behalf of McCloy the implementation of Law 27 which
had been adopted by the Allied High Commission to deconcentrate the coal and steel
industry in Germany. He was later asked to coordinate that law with the negotiations
for the Schuman Plan. He soon became very closely involved with Monnet i n the
preparation of the articles of the Schuman Plan Treaty itself. 8 3 Another old friend of
Monnet, Walter Bedell Smith, with close ties to his former boss Eisenhower, whom he
had served as chief of staff during World War II, was appointed to the prize post of
UnderSecretary of State. An ex-Director of the CIA, and a former Director of the
American Committee on United Europe, Smith now held the major responsibility for
administering the State Department while Dulles busied himself with travelling and
formulating American foreign policy. For "purely persona! reasons" Bedell resigned
from his post in August 1 954, but continued to do temporary work for the government
as an unofficial adviser. 84
Lobbying for a Loan to the ECSC; the EDC
Monnet's American connections were put to good use during his lobbying
efforts for a loan by the American government to the ECSC. An in-depth analysis of
Monnet's role in these negotiations will serve to illustrate the mechanics of his
association with Eisenhower and Dulles, and, also, his networkin g and negotiating
1 8
skills. The common market for steel opened on May first, following shortly after the
beginnings of the common market for coal in February. Impressed by these concrete
achievements, American public opinion was largely favorable to Monnet, whom
eulogi stic profiles in key newspapers around the United S tates featured as "Mr.
E u rope. " 8 5 Ali the ECSC needed now was the official reaffirmation of the
administration's support, which Monnet thought essential for the ultimate success of the
ECSC and the advancement of European unity.The Bruce/Dulles connection played a
key role here. In late A pril David Bruce informed Foster Dulles that Jean Monnet
would be coming to New York in the first week of June to receive an honorary degree
from Columbia University. Why not invite Monnet to Washington as an official guest,
suggested Bruce? Dulles readily acquiesced and wrote Eisenhower that he found
Bruce's idea excellent. On May
the White House issued a press release announcing
1 2,
the official visit of Monnet and explaining his role as one of the outstanding leaders of
the movement for European unification.86 On Dulles' suggestion a meeting with the
President was arranged on June 3, while Dulles himself met with Monnet severa} times
during his visit to the United States.
Shortly after their arrivai in the United States in late May, Monnet and Vice­
President of the ECSC Franz Etzel set out to enlighten American Steel industrialists on
the merits of the ECS C. Through a masterful presentation of the facts, they succeeded
in neutralizing the skepticism, if not the outright opposition of sorne key industrialists
like Clarence Randall, the Chairman of the Board of the Inland Steel Corporation, who
had previously written a series of articles criticizing the ECSC as a giant cartel and an
encouragement to dirigisme. This was no small achievement, given the great influence
those industrialists could exert on the Republican Party and hence on the current
government. Progressively zeroing on his objective, Monnet also met with General
Donovan, the Chairman of the American Committee on United Europe, and had dinner
on May
28
with Thomas Dewey, Govemor of the State of New York and a key figure
in the Republican Party with close ties to Dulles, whom he had appointed to fill an
unexpired Senate term in
1 949.
Also present at the Brooks Club that night were
important personalities of financial circles, sorne of whom were Monnet's friends.
George Bail and Robert Bowie had been invited along with Monnet's dedicated friend,
Justice Felix Frankfurter. Having thus insured his rearguard both in the political and
economie spheres, Monnet proceeded to head for the State Department and the White
Hou se.
Ten thousand guests were present to watch Monnet receive his honorary degree
from Columbia University on June
2.
The next day Mon net met with President
Eisenhower at nine o'clock in the moming. Their meeting lasted for about half an hour.
Faithful to his own thinking, Eisenhower reaffirmed his support for European unity and
1 9
was quite sympathetic to the efforts of Monnet and his peers to implement the Schuman
Plan Treaty. The publication of a communiqué right after the meeting, a rare
occurrence, gave sorne measure of the President's sympathy. Later that day Monnet
and the two Vice-presidents of the ECSC met with Dulles and a group of high ranking
policy-mak:ers from the administration. Monnet then proceeded to convince Capitol Hill
that the European movement was making great strides. In doing so Monnet perhaps
painted too optimistic a picture of the situation.
On June 5, "Mr. Europe" told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that the
ratification of the EDC Treaty was a "foregone conclusion. "87 This was defini tel y
overstating the facts, and showing more optimism than Monnet really felt on the
chances of the EDC. Monnet was quite aware of growing opposition to the EDC in
France, not least by de Gaulle. True, Monnet had devoted considerable time and effort
in convincing key members of the American administration to support the EDC at the
beginning of the project, but he now focused the bulk of his energy on mak:ing the
ECSC a success. This was not so much a choice as a necessity: the new President of
the ECSC had enough on his hands with the infant ECSC, and little time to devote to
anything else. Despite over-optimistic public statements, it does seem that Jean Monnet,
and the two Vice-presidents that accompanied him made "vigorous efforts"88 during
their visit to Washington to convince their American interlocutors that the ratification of
the EDC treaty was not the only decisive factor for the advancement of European
unification, even though it remained an important factor.
The Monnet visit to the United States in May/June was vastly successful in
gathering support for the Schuman Plan both on the Hill and in the administration. After
testifyin g on the Hill on June 4 and 5, and meetin g with Senator Fulbright, Monnet
wrote a "persona! and confidential" letter to Dulles in which he recommended that he
and the President write a letter to Senator Wiley, the Chairman of the Committee on
Foreign Relations, to obtain support for a loan to the ECSC. The moment to mak:e a
public announcement of the decision of the United States govemment to mak:e a loan to
the ECSC was "exceptionally favorable", wrote Monnet. President Eisenhower was
ready to support it, so too was the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Better still,
the ECSC Assembly met on the 1 5th of June in its annual session. "It would make a
profound impression on the Assembly, and indeed in Europe generally" if Monnet,
Etzel and Spierenburg could show the United S tates intended to participate in the
development program of the ECSC. The fact that the American participation would be
on a loan rather than a grant basis would "mark a break with the form in which most
American aïd to Europe ha[d] been furnished in the past few years, and would show the
American people th at, after such aid has served its purpose, the relations of the United
States with Europe [ would] be tak:ing a new form. It would confirm the self-confidence
20
and self-respect of the people of Europe by showing that the United S tates ha[d]
confidence in them." A consummate sal esman, Monnet enclosed a short memorandum
outlining "points that may be useful in any communication that �ight be decided
upon. " 89 A draft letter, mainly the work of Robert Bowie and Thruston B. Morton, the
Assistant Secretary of S tate for Congressional Relations, then circulated in various
Bureaus in the State Department for revisions. The final output i ncorporated sorne of
Monnet's suggestions. On June 1 5 Eisenhower sent a letter to both Senator Wiley, and
another Representative Robert B . Chiperfield, Chairman of the House Committee on
Foreign Affairs, in which he confirmed his commitment to European integration and
strongly recommended that the United States govemment or one of its agencies provide
part of the financing of the development program of the ECSC as a "tangible and useful
way" of fostering European unity. Heeding Monnet's advice, Eisenhower suggested
June 1 5 might be an appropriate occasion to express the approval of both the House and
the Senate Committees for the progress made so far and their "keen interes� i n the
success of this and future steps towards European integration." The following day the
President received very favorable replies by Wiley and Chiperfield . Eisenhower then
made the exchange of letters public in a White House press release the following day.90
A fter much lobbying Monnet had obtained part of what he wanted: official
expressions of support by the President and Congress for the ECSC. As planned,
Monnet proudly reported on the exchange of letters to the Common Assembly on June
1 9, and thanked Dulles, Eisenhower and the Congress for their support.9 1 Yet, despite
auspicious beginnings, still more lobbying was needed to secure a definite commitment
to the loan from the American govemment, and an agreement on its terms. If made in a
timely fashion, this commitment, calculated Monnet, would i ndirectly enhance the
chances of the EDC by emphasizing American support to European unity.92
In part due to Monnet's efforts, the Eisenhower administration was clearly on
record as strongly favoring the EDC. At the very beginning of his presidency,
Eisenhower bad reiterated not only his support for European unity but also for the
EDC.93Dulles exhortations further amplified the administration's commitment. Where
he and Monnet differed was on the way to express that commitrnent. Monnet advocated
encouragement of the EDC along with other manifestations of European unity, and
thought of indirect ways of showing American support to the EDC one of which would
be a loan to the ECSC. By contrast, Dulles exhorted and threatened, perhaps
endangering rather than helping the chances of the EDC.94 Upon his return from his
mission to various European capitals in February, Dulles publicly deplored the
slowness of the ratification of the EDC treaty.95 In late October, he threatened a
thorough revision of American foreign policy if the EDC did not succeed.96 The
Secretary of State also unhappily linked the realization of the objectives of NATO to the
2 1
success of the EDC and eventually culminated in a crescendo with his only too well­
known "agonizing reappraisal" speech at the NATO ministerial conference on December
1 4, 1 953.97 Livingston Merchant, Robert Bowie and Poster Dulles himself had all
been involved in its preparation and the President endorsed it completely.9 8 Of those
who favored the EDC, many members of the administration including the President,
Dillon, Merchant, Bowie, MacArthur II and, above all, David Bruce, who by that time
was a very close friend of Adenauer, encouraged Dulles' inclination to "get tough"
with the French to get the EDC treaty through : the French, they reasoned, would
ultimately comply for fear of being isolated from their allies. The results of these tactics
were disappointing. Dulles' statement only succeeded in irritating the French President
and his Foreign Minister and in identifying the EDC as an American diktat, even though
it was a French initiative.
Meanwhile, in mid-December, Monnet had several conversations in Paris with
Dulles, Secretary of the Treasury Humphrey, Foreign Operations Administrator Stassen
and their advisers on the proposed loan to the ECSC. Monnet suggested a public
announcement by the United States Govemment asking Congress to approve a loan to
the ECSC "of a certain amount, with terms and conditions to be determined by
subsequent negotiations"; this would help the EDC by reaffirming US support of the
European Community. United States support would in tum incite the British to make
quick progress in their plans for association with the Community, which could mean a
difference of at least 20 votes in favor of the EDC in the French Parliament. Chancellor
Adenauer fully supported Monnet's plan. The intention was for the announcement of
the approval of the loan by the United States to be made before the Common Assembly
meeting convened on January 1 4 , 1 954.99 In the meantime Dulles reaffirmed his
support for the EDC, this time also underscoring the achievements of the ECSC. About
a week after his agon izing reappraisal speech, Dulles made another statement dealing
primarily with NATO and the EDC before the National Press Club and had two copies
of it forwarded to Monnet through Bruce. l OO While the address to the NATO ministers
had made no mention of the ECSC, Dulles now emphasized that "much progress" had
already been made towards economie, political unity and did speak of the ECSC, thus
heeding Monnet's advice. A press release from the White House on December 23
similarly underscored the achievements of the ECSC and reaffirmed Eisenhower's hope
that a loan might soon be negotiated with the ECSC, without however officially asking
Congress to approve the $500 mil lion loan to the ECSC which Monnet had requested.
By January 1 3, 1 954, after numerous memoranda and telephone conversations in
Washington, the administration submitted a proposai to Monnet. Yet Monnet found it
unacceptable and had accordingly little to show the Common Assembly of the ECSC in
mid-January. l O l
22
Even though Foster Dulles pleaded Monnet's case with his colleagues, and
particularly the Secretary of the Treasury and the Director of the Foreign Operations
,.;,lj,'orJ
Administration, they persisted in their conviction that a $ 1 00 loan to the ECSC would
11
be amply sufficient to demon strate American support for European unification. Dulles
insisted such a small amount could hardly "capture European imagination" and provide
the political impetus needed to get the EDC through, yet he eventually had to concede to
his colleagues. Commenting on the American proposai, Monnet not only objected to the
amount of the loan, but also to the suggestion that the United States government might
conduct a project-by-project review of the loan funds. Such a proposai, argued Monnet,
would jeopardize the independence of the High Authority and "might be the cause of
considerable misunderstanding and th us be detrimental to relations between the United
States and the Community." l 02
During the next few months Monnet again and again pressed his friend Dulles
to begin negotiations on a loan shortly. When Dulles was in Berlin in early February to
attend the meetings of the Berlin Conference, Monnet arranged to meet with him three
ti mes. Persona} d i plomacy proved e ffect ive
once
again.
While Dulles tried to
i mpress
on his colleagues the urgency of starting negotiations on the loan, he and Monnet
worked on a communiqué in which the US government would announced its agreement
to open negotiations in Washington ; the communiqué was subsequently released on
February 20. About one month later David Bruce sent a formal letter to Monnet inviting
him to send a delegation to Washington to start negotiations concerning the loan.
Monnet immediately wrote Dulles underscoring the special i mportance of his
forthcoming visit to the United States at a time when European integration needed
money, but even more so the"evidence of support of European integration by the
United States. " 1 0 3 The ratification process of the EDC was indeed entering a crucial
stage in France and the ECSC itself was having a hard time weathering the attacks of
the EDC's critics.
Monnet arrived in the United States on April
6
and met with Dulles and Ben
Moore, the Director of the Office of European Regional Affairs that same afternoon.
The next day Monnet called on Bowie in the State Department and had a cocktail with
Merchant at Blair House. The stage was set for another series of Monnet's brilliantly
persuasive performances. The first meeting on the Coal and Steel loan negotiations
took place at the State Department on Thursday June 8. Dulles tried to give the key note
of the meeting by reminding his colleagues from the Treasury, the Foreign Operations
Administration, and State of its "historical significance since it was the first time the
United States ... had the opportunity to deal with a sovereign Community representing
more th an national states." U sing as al ways a positive approach, Monnet poin ted out
that the ECSC was only the beginning of a united Europe and then proceeded to outline
23
its main achievernents so far, while at the sarne tirne defusing potential critiques,
notably as to the insufficient efforts of the ECSC to elirninate cartels.
Yet
his was not
an easy task. Secretary of the Treasury Humphrey was adarnant that the loan should not
exceed $ 1 00 million. The United States, he told Monnet, had not succeeded in
balancing its budget and the Arnerican coal and steel industries were facing grave
problerns, which in turn made them reluctant to condone a loan to the ECSC. Monnet
encountered many other obstacles during subsequent meetings with representatives of
State, Treasury, the Foreign Operations Administration and the Export-Irnport Bank.
Persona! diplornacy carne in handy to overcorne them. With Foster Dulles, Monnet
discussed the necessity for low interest rates. Dulles then arranged a meeting between
Monnet and the President, who gave hirn his blessing for the loan. Monnet's old friend
Bedell Smith sirnilarly assured Monnet he would help hirn get the loan through no
matter what difficulties his colleagues threw in his path. During the last stage of the
negotiations, Monnet then had dinner with his lawyer Donald Swatland and Samuel
Waugh who agreed to launch a joint attack on Humphrey so he would stop insisting on
a "closed rnortgage" which precluded the Cornrnunity from getting further loans in
Europe. This they did three days later and thus rernoved one of the main sturnbling
blocks to the loan. After more battles on the interest rate, the terms of payrnent and the
wording of the communiqué, an agreement was finally reached on a $ 1 00 million loan
to the ECSC for 25 years to be disbursed by the Treasury and USAID. The agreement
was signed on April 23, 1 954. 1 04 This was too late to change the declining fortunes of
the EDC.
Post EDC
On August 30, 1 954, the French Assernbly rejected the EDC by 3 1 9 against
264 votes with 43 abstention s. Th is was a trernendous blow to Monnet, but
disappointrnent did not rnake hirn inactive. Monnet soon informed Dulles through
Bruce that he viewed the British suggestion of transforming the Brussels Treaty "as a
camouflage and dangerous decoy because it would give [the] impression that European
unity can be achieved without transferring powers of decision to cornrnon institutions."
What was needed was a European solution, and a European initiative. Monnet also told
Bruce on a confidential basis that if no such solution were found and the situation
should lead to a retum of nationalisrn and dissensions in Europe, he would announce
his intention not to seek a renewal of his mandate as President of the High Authority
"in order to be able to act freely. " 1 05This he did on Novernber 1 0 by sending a letter to
each Foreign Minister of the six CSC rnernber states, and issuing a communiqué the
following day in Luxembourg. On Novernber 30, in a speech before the Parliarnentary
Assernbly of the ECSC, Monnet recognized that "the decision to transfer new powers to
24
European institutions depended on parliaments and govemments. The stimulus would
th us have to come from outside." He nee his decision to work with forces on the
outside, mainly political parties and unions, to further the cau se of European
integration. Monnet's unexpected announcement caused sorne turmoil in Europe. On
December
1,
the French Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution that encouraged
Monnet to reconsider his decision, but Monnet persisted. In the United States, the
Secretary of State later expressed "deepest regret" at Monnet's decision for he believed
that the "Community in this formative stage " would have benefited from Monnet's
"wise leadership . " 1 06 Monnet left his post on June 1 0, 1 955. The replacement of
Monnet by René Mayer as head of the ECSC was generally interpreted in the United
States as another set-back for the future of European unity.
Meanwhile Monnet was pained by Bruce's decision in the faU to terminate his
current assignment, and attempted to convince Dulles to keep Tomlinson in his post. He
also urged Dulles to maintain the American representation to the High Authority
separate from the other European intergovemmental organizations such as NATO or the
OEEC, as a confirmation of the American commitment to supranationality, as opposed
to the intergovernmental approach. Unfortunately, in thi s specifie instance, Poster
Dulles did not oblige his friend : the administration , he wrote Monnet in December, had
not yet reached a decision on whether to keep the American representation to the
Community separate from that to other intergovernmental organizations. 1 07 David
Bruce resigned in January 1 955, and was not replaced until 1 956 when Walton
Butterworth succeeded him as U nited States Representative to the ECSC, with the rank
of Ambassador. The departure of David Bruce, without his being replaced, signalled a
temporary discouragement with the cause of European unity. Dulles' hesitations on
whether to keep a separate American Mission to the Community pointed to the problem
of what was meant by "European integration", and what form of European integration
was best suited to European interests.
S upranational<>l1r tergovernmen tal
Despite Dulles' initial noncommittal reaction to Monnet's plea for a clear
recognition of the supranational approach, the Secretary of State soon decided to once
again side with Monnet, as too did many of his colleagues, and the President himself.
Just prior to the Messina Conference in early June 1 955, the State Department and
United States representatives abroad reached a consensus on a definition of European
i n tegrati o n :
by
i n tegration
was
mean t
" supran ational
a uthori ty
and
responsibility . . . arrangements less binding were merely cooperative. " It was decided
that the ECS C approach "pav[ed] the way for the truly integrated association,
politically, economically and otherwise, of member countries, and especially Germany
25
and France, upon which [the] long term welfare, strength, and security of [the] Atlantic
Community may weil depend." The Western European Union did not "appear to [the]
Department to offer promise of accelerating integration in this sense." As for the OEEC,
it was an "institution designed [to] maximize effective cooperative arrangements, and
only over [a] very extended period of time, if ever, [was] it apt to become [the]
framework for arrangements involving waivers of sovereignty in favor of [an] authority
such as now existed for [the] CSC." l 08 Once again Monnet's arguments h ad found a
receptive ear with Poster Dulles and the State Department. The administration's decision
to sanction the six nations' approach as the true way to real European integration later
was a decisive factor in American
reactions towards subsequent
British
"intergovemmental " proposais.
When Eden had proposed to integrate the institutions of the Schuman Plan and
the European Army with the existing organs of the Council of Europe in March of
1952, Monnet had found the proposai unacceptable. To him the Coal and S teel
Assembly had effective powers, while the Assembly of the Council of Europe was
entirely consultative. In one case there was a real delegation of sovereignty, in the other
participating countries retained their complete sovereignty. Clearly to differentiate the
two approaches, Monnet thought the European Community must have an independent
admi n i strative organization of i t s own. 1 09 Monnet later tried to convince Dulles to
oppose the Western European Union on the grounds that it was not sufficiently
supranational.
By
the summer of 1 955, the U ni ted S t ates administration clearly favored the
six-nations approach. After the British declined to joi n the six in building either
Euratom or the Common Market in November 1 955, the British govemment suggested
to the United States that it might be better to cooperate in the field of atomic energy
within the framework
of the OEEC. The answer came from the Secretary of State the
following month in a letter to Macmillan , clear to the point of bluntness: the United
States did not see any inherent conflicts between the cooperative and the supranational
approaches towards European integration, but, he, Dulles, and the President, had
decided
to
give their fu ll su pport
to the six-nation approach because it offered the
greatest hope for European prosperity, security and influence in world affairs. "It may
weil be," Dulles wrote Foreign Secretary Macmillan, "that a a six-nation community
will evolve protectionist tendencies. It may weil be that it will show a trend toward
greater independence. In the long-run, however,
1
cannot but feel that the resultant
increased unity would bring in its wake greater responsibility and devotion to the
common welfare of Western Europe. " l lO Monnet later had a conversation with Dulles
in Paris at the time of the NATO Conference. Monnet wamed him of British efforts to
torpedo the Common Market and Euratom, and expressed the hope that Dulles would
26
speak to them at the time of Eden's visit. Dulles immediately cabled the President
"Eyes only", faithfully transmitting Monnet's message and recommending a serious
discussion with Eden and Macmillan in January. 1 1 1
The American adrninistration's reactions to the British proposai for an industriai
free trade area including the Six as a single unit and those OEEC countries that agreed to
join, were similarly colored by a preference for the supranational approach. Eisenhower
initi ally appeared to endorse both the Common Market and the Free Trade Area
proposais, but this was on the condition that the common market would be created frrst
and the free trade area "thereafter", " gradually, over a period of years." When
Macmillan introduced a set of proposais in December 1 956 that called for the grouping
of European regional organizations into one single assembly assisted by specialized
commissions notably in the military, cultural and economie fields, Dulles and the State
Department immediately saw a threat in the "tendency [to] blur [the] vital distinction
between merely cooperative arrangements (OEEC) and genuine integration (CSC)." The
prospect of the simplification proposed by the British indeed appeared to threaten the
e speci a l l y since it i ncluded the economie dimension. The main concern was that the
very institutions of the Coal
and Steel Commun ity,
Euratom and the Common Market,
British proposai would dilute the movement of the Messina countries towards "genuine
integration" , thereby preventing them from acting as "a unit withi n Atlantic
organizations." l 1 2 A nother concern was the prospect of the Free Trade Area coming
into being and the Common Market never following. These fears were very much those
of Monnet. Fortunately, the Common Market and Euratom Treaties were signed in
March of 1 957. Yet Monnet's concem for maintaining the integrity of the Community
continued during the Maudling negotiations.
In October 1 958, Monnet's Action Committee for the United S tates of Europe,
while insisting that the Community of the Six was open to those European countries
that were ready to delegate part of their sovereignty to common institutions, noted that
the reality of the Community "must be respected in the ongoing negotiations for a Free
Trade A rea." If it was "essential to reach the goal of associa tin g En gland and other
countries" with the Community, it was "equally essential that this association respect
the unity of the Community itself." 1 1 3 After the failure of the Maud ling negotiations,
the primacy of the Six in American policy continued as the British Govemment initiated
new negotiations which were to lead to the creation of EFTA in January
1 960.
Despite
growing fears in sorne quarters that the Common Market would discriminate against
American exports and the declining economie fortunes of the United States from 1 957
on, the cause of the six favorites continued to be championed by the Eisenhower
administration, then under Kennedy. Monnet's friends in high places, including Dulles
and the President, played no small role in this development.
27
Yet the misfortunes of the EDC taught "Europeanists" in the State Department to
adopt more discrete tactics than in the past. Support and encouragement for European
unification did not mean pressure. Both Monnet and Spaak were adamant that the
mistakes of the EDC not be repeated and were "most emphatic" in convincing their
American colleagues to "remain entirely in the background" especially before the treaties
were signed and ratified. Dulles also seemed to have leamed his lesson, and to agree
with Monnet. While the United States "could not exert pressure, it could use its
influence", he told Brentano, who asked that the United S tates publicly indicate its
support for the six nations approach and its clear opposition to other programs . 1 1 4
The ACUE, Euratom and the Common Market
Meanwhile Monnet's negotiating skills and persuasive power succeeded in
convincing Ambassador Douglas Dillon, then Foster Dulles and the President of the
importance of his Action Committee for a United States of Europe, of which he proudly
announced the creation on October 1 3, 1 955. Earlier in June, in the wake of the
Messina Conference and Monnet's replacement by René Mayer at the head of the
ECSC, the Secretary of S tate had "expressed regret that his friend Monnet was not
longer in the position to help in the field." 1 15 Dulles soon resumed his association with
Monnet, however, even though his friend did not any longer occupy an official
position. On October 25, shortly after the Action Committee became a reality, Dulles
met with Monnet in Paris at his request, then again in December. Monnet explained his
efforts and that of his associates in establishing a European pool for the peaceful use of
atomic energy, and informed Dulles of his Committee's intention to adopt a resolution
on a European Atomic Commission after the pattern of the Coal and Steel Community
in January 1 956. Monnet asked for the American administration's backing of his
initiative, notably in deal ing with the British, but also with the Germans. He was
indeed much preoccupied with the possibility that the Germans might never sign or
ratify the Euratom treaty if the United States agreed to sign bilateral treaties with
Germany. Would Dulles please try to delay the bilaterals? Dulles assured him of the
cooperation of the United States. 1 1 6
During the next few months American top-level officiais, mostly in the State
Department, largely u sed diplomatie channels to convey to their German counterparts
th at they could expect more cooperation from the United States by dealing on a
multilateral basis. l 17 In late January Monnet sent his friend a letter enclosing a copy of
his committee's resolution and underlying that it had every chance of being adopted by
each Parliament because it already had the support of the political leaders of all non­
communist parties and was backed as well by labor leaders. He also suggested that
there would "have to be an agreement between the U.S.A. and the Community. In late
28
November, in the wake of the Suez crisis, Monnet further suggested that a "broad scale
and generous program of US support for Euratom, both in the supply of materials and
in technical cooperation," might do much to repair Atlantic solidarity which was in need
of sorne patching up. l 1 8 Monnet's connection with Dulles played no small role in
making the United States Agreement with Euratom a reality. Dulles' sympathies for
Monnet's proposai were decisive in overcoming the strong reservations of the Atomic
Energy Commission, and its Chairman Lewis Strauss. The Secretary of State not oniy
attempted to convince Strauss to delay the bilaterals with Germany, but also tried to
impress on him that Euratom was not socialistic, that it wouid not destroy free
enterpri se and that such a large and responsible organization would provide adequate
controls and prevent the prol iferation of "uncon trolled n ational atomic
developments. " 1 1 9 In March 1 957, three days before the Six signed the Euratom and
Common Market treaties, the Secretary of State sent a letter to Foreign Minister Spaak
stating the Department of State and the Atomic Energy Commission saw "nothing
which would appear to preclude the subsequent negotiation of a fruitful cooperative
arrangement between the United States and Euratom." 1 20 In August 1 958, after much
debate, Congress gave its approval to an assistance prograrn to Euratom. In the spring,
as the agreement seemed to run into sorne difficulties, Monnet had written Dulles
emphasizing that Euratom was strictly limited to the peaceful uses of atomic energy and
that the US-Euratom joint program for the development of atomic reactors would
accordingly also be "solely for peaceful purposes. " In mid-Juiy Monnet h ad again
written his friend hoping that he would use his "influence and energy" to insure that the
agreement passed Congress before the holidays, thereby maintaining the momentum,
and strengthening Euratom and the whole European integration movement. 1 21
Dulles did indeed use both his influence and energy on the side of Euratom, so
too did many of Monnet's friends in the State Department. Monnet's influence appears
to have been decisive also in initially skewing the administration's interest towards
Euratom rather than the Common Market. With European integration on the move again
after the unfortunate EDC saga, Monnet showed his preference for Euratom, over the
vaguest, albeit more ambitious proposai of creating a Common Market. Whereas
Euratom could "identify the Community with the power of the future and capture public
imagination", he felt the Common Market would remain " a pretty nebulous project" 1 22
for the Six, and especially for the French, with a slim chance of being ratified. Priorities
within the American administration paralleled this tendency. A clear substantiation of
the prevalence of Euratom in high-echelon American policy-making was not only the
lack of in-depth discussions of the potential effects of a European Common Market on
the United S tates, prior to the signing of the Rome Treaties, but also repeated
29
statements by John Fos ter Dulles, who insisted that the approval of Euratom should not
be delayed by Common Market negotiations. l 23
Monnet's association with Eisenhower and Dulles thus played a key role in
shaping American policy towards European integration during the Eisenhower years.
Monnet's persona! diplomacy encouraged the appointment of American Europeanists
such as David Bruce to key positions in Europe. His influence was also decisive in
obtaining American backing for key European endeavors such as the ECSC, the EDC
and Euratom not only through public statements and back-channels diplomacy, but also
through concrete financial and technical contributions. It was similarly crucial in
encouraging the American administration to favor supranational initiatives as opposed
to British intergovemmental schemes. Monnet's initial inclination to give priority to
functional or sectoral progress towards European integration as opposed to overall
integration similarly found sorne echoes in the State Department, and particularly with
Dulles. Although Monnet did not always agree with Dulles, Eisenhower and other
Europeanists on the best method of advancing European integration, they all were
united in their commitment to the goal of European unity, which they viewed as an
essential element of peace and stability in the post-war world.
Yet
the nature of their
relationship was not only that of an association of men with a common vision, but also
a friendship.
In November 1 956, Monnet wrote his friend Dulles that he planned to go to the
United States "on a strictly private visit", to breathe "sorne other air than 'European' "
and talk "to sorne of [his] old friends." Eisenhower and Dulles figured high up on his
list, as evidenced by his frequent tokens of affection to both of them. After Jean Monnet
retired as President of the High Authority of the ECSC, he asked his friend Samuel
Waugh to deliver to Eisenhower a copy of his book
commencé.
Les Etats- Unis d'Europe ont
Waugh later wrote the President that Monnet had "expressed his deepest
admiration and affection" for him in autographing the booklet. Eisenhower soon
thanked him for his "expressions of friendship" and assured him that these sentiments
were "fully reciprocated." More delectable than books were the botties of cognac
Monnet regularly sent Eisenhower and Dulles for Christmas, and which both of them
much appreciated.
Monnet also occasionally remembered birthdays, but
was
particularly thoughtful in case of distress. When Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in
September of 1 955, Monnet telegraphed wishing him a speedy recovery. l 24 Y et of
Eisenhower and Dulles, Dulles remained his closest friend . Jean Monnet frequently
wrote and telegraphed him while he was fighting cancer at Walter Reed Hospital,
sending him words of prayer, encouragement and support. In the spring of 1 959, as
Dulles was deathly ill, Monnet wrote him a long and beautiful letter, in which he told
him that his decision to transfer his responsibilities to others had been " a great shock"
30
to him and "a subject of deep sorrow and worry." Monnet then looked back on Dulles
achievements throughout his life, praising him for his wisdom, thereby revealing his
own:
It is very rare, if ever il happens, that one can in li fe accomplish an effort lhat his conclusive.
In fact, conclusion is static and contrary to life which is made of constant adjustments and
changes. The real accomplishment is in the contribution that one can bring to the
development of affairs of the world, and in the change in the psychology of men - and that
you have done . You can look to your life and effort as having contributed to the development
of the world at a vital moment of civilisation when hcsitancy might have fatally tumed the
When our childrcn will look back and consider the period we are going through, 1 believe they
course of events towards compromise first and then to the defeat of liberty as we know it.
will consider the history of the last 10 years as the "charnières" in the course which the world
will fol low - and you as one of the main arehitccts of it- and also the bravest.
After Dulles lost his battle against his terrible illness in May 1959, Monnet was the only
foreigner among the honorary pallbearers. Among all of Dulles' friends, Janet chose
Mon net to keep pri vate papers of her l ate
husband.125
Notes
1 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, Fayard, 1 976; Department of State Bulletin , J uly 30, 195 1 .
2 Louis Galambos, cd . , Chief of Staff, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1 987, no. 2023 and Louis
G alambos, ed. Columbia University, nos. 1 009 and 1 05 1 ; Louis Galambos, ed., NATO and
the Campaign of 1 952 , Johns Hopkins University Press, 1 989, no. 2 1 5., Diary, June 1 1 ,
1 95 1 .
3 Galambos, ed., NATO and the Campaign of 1 952 , no. 304, August 3 , 1 95 1 .
4 Note from J .. S.W. for Jean Monnet, Pre-presidential papers, no 75, McCioy, John ( 1 ) , Eisenhower
Library (hereafter DDE Library), and Jean Monnet's Appointment books, June 2 1 , 1 95 1 ,
Fondation Jean Monnet pour L'Europe, Lausanne (hereafter FJM)
5 McCioy to Eisenhower, letter undated, Pre-presidential papers, no 75, McCioy, John, DDE Library.
6 /bid.
7 Grunther and Harriman were both present
8 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, p. 530.
9 Galambos, NATO and the Campaign of 1 952 , no. 424. On October 1 0, the day after the creation of
the special Executive-B ureau, a SHAPE picture showed a pensive Monnet with the two other
Wise Men and Eisenhower.
10 Galambos, NATO and the Campaign of 1 952 , no. 502.
1 1 New York Times, Novembcr 27, 1 9 5 1 and Galambos, NATO and the Campaign of 1 952 , no. 502.
1 2 See: Gruenther to Monnet, January 2, 1952, Gruenther Papers, Box 1 3, "Jean Monnet" , DDE
1 3 Galambos, NATO and the Campaign of 1952 , no. 542.
Library.
14 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, p. 62.
1 5 See McCioy to Eisenhower, letter undated, op. cit., p. 1 .
1 6 Eisenhower to Monnet, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, December 28, 195 1 , Prepresidential Papers, Box 78, Monn-(Misc), DDE Library.
1 7 Jean Monnet to Eisenhower, November 8, 1 952, AM 46/8/ 1 5 , FJM
1 8 Eisenhower to Jean Monnet, November 19, 1 952, AM 46/8/1 6, FJM
1 9 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, 259.
20 Jean Monnet to Eisenhower, December 3 1 , 1 943, Pre-presidential Papers, Box 78, Monn-(Misc),
2 1 Henri Rieben, Des guerres européennes à l'union de l'Europe, Lausanne, 1987, Note de Réflexion de
Jean Monnet, Algiers, August 5, 1 943, p. 279.
DDE Library.
3 1
22 Henri Rieben, op. cit, Compte rendu de la conversation du dimanche 1 7 octobre 1943, à Algiers,
chez le général de Gaulle, p. 290.
23 Pierre Mélandri ,Les Etats-Unis face à l'unification de l'Europe 1 945-54, Paris: Pedone, 1980, p. 29
24 Pierre Mélandri , op. cit., p. 27. Ronald Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power, The Free
Press, 1 982, p. 334.
25 Ronald Pruessen, op. cit., p. 309.
26 John Foster Dulles, "Peace Without Platitudes", in Fortune, XXV, no 1 , January 1 942, p. 87.
27 Ronald Pruessen, op. cit. , p. 309.
28 Dulles to Frederick Stem, November 20, 1 942, quoted in Ronald Pruessen, op. ciL, p. 3 12.
29 Dulles to James Warburg, September 1 6, 1 946, Dulles Papers, quoted in Ronald Pruessen, op. cit.,
p. 325.
30 John Foster Dulles, " Address on Foreign Policy to the National Publishers Association," New York
1/erald Tribune, January 1 R, 1 947. A copy is in John Foster Dulles Speeches and Press
Releases, Box 20, DDE Library.
3 1 See: Dulles to Arthur Vandenberg, March 22, 1 947; undated Dulles memorandum, approximately
April 7, 1 947, item 1 2, MCFM,I Dulles Papers. FRUS, 1 947, JI, 323-328, Ronald
Pruessen , op. cil., pp. 345-346.
32 " Discussion Meeting Report" , February 2, 1 948, Dulles Papers, 1 97 1 , see Pierre Mélandri, op. cil.,
p. 145.
33 FRUS, 1948, ll, pp. 98-99. On Monnct's possible influence on Robert Murphy and Lewis
Douglas, see Pierre Mélandri, op. cil., p. 1 55., who bases his comments on an interview
with Robert Murphy, July 1 974.
34 Townsend Hoopes, The Devi/ and John Foster Dulles, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1973.
35 Alfred Grosser, Les Occidentaux, Paris: Fayard, 1 978, p. 1 38.
36 On Dulles' fricndship with Monnel, sec: Eleanor Dulles, recordcd interview by Douglas Brinklcy,
May 1987, and Eleanor Dulles, interview with Pascaline Winand, April 1 990. On one
occasion, Eleanor Dulles stated thal " Monnet was the best friend Foster ever had " , in a later
interview, she said he was a friend, but hesitated to cali it the best friend her brother ever had.
37 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, p. 1 42.
38 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, pp. 143, 146.
39 Ronald Pruessen, op. cit., p. 1 1 8- 1 1 9.
40 Jean Monnet to John Foster Dulles, May 14, 1 959, FJM
4 1 Jean Monnet, op. cit., p. 1 46.
42 Townsend Hoopes, op. cit., p. 1 8 .
43 Dulles t o Monnet, March 30, 1 950, Dulles Papers, Box 54, Seeley Mudd Library, Princeton
University (herafter PL)
44 Monnet to Dulles, April 4, 1 950, Dulles Papers, Box 54 , PL.
45 Monnet to Dulles, April 19, 1 950, Dulles Papers, Box 54, Seeley Mudd Library, PL.
46on another instance, Monnet wrote a letter of introduction for Walter Halstein. On yet another, in
1 957, he introduced Max Kohnstamm as " a very intimate friend" of his. Monnet to Dulles,
M arch 9, 1 952, Box 62, Dulles Papers, P.U . ; Monncl lo Dulles, January 1 957, Box 1 20,
Dulles Papers, P.U.
47 John Foster Dulles, War or Peace, Macmillan, New York, 1950.
48 Dulles to Jean Monnet, May 23, 1 950, Dulles papers, Box 54, PL.
49 Pi erre Mélandri, op. cit., pp. 28 1 -2R2.
50 David Bruce was appointcd by Paul Hoffman as Marshall Plan Mission Chief at the beginning of
the Marshall Plan. On David Bruce, Stanley Cleveland, William Tomlinson and the Schuman
Plan see: Interview with Stanley Cleveland for the Jean Monnet Foundation, Lausanne, June
12, 1 98 1 . See also: Pierre Mélandri, op. cit., p 280.
5 1 Interview with S tanley Cleveland, op. cit.
52 Pierre Mélandri, op. cit., p. 283.
53 Dulles to Monnet, May 23, 1 950, op. cit.
54 Ibid.
55 Dulles to Monnet, January 3, 1 9 5 1 , Dulles Papers, Box 54, PL.
56 Dulles to Monnet, December 3 1 , 1 95 1 , Dulles Papers, Box 62, PL.
57 Dulles to Monnet. January 3, 1 95 1 , op. cit, and Dulles to Monnet, March 2 1 , 1 95 1 , Dulles Papers,
Box 54, PL.
58 Ibid.
59 Monnet to Dulles, April 1 9 , 1 95 1 , Dulles Papers, Box 54, PL.
60 Dulles to Monnet. May 3, 195 1 , Dulles Papers, Box 54, PL.
32
61 Monnet met Dulles on June 10 at six o'clock at the Résidence and then again at eight at Houjarray
that evening. The two men met again at the Résidence on June 12 at 1 1 . 1 5, Monnet's
appointment book s, FJM.
62 Dulles to Monnet, March 24, 1952, Dulles Papers, Box 62, PL.
63 Pierre Mélandri, op.cit., p. 366.
64 Monnet to Eisenhower, May 1 3 , 1952, Pre-presidential papers, Box 78, "Monn-(Misc), DDE
Library.
65 Dulles to Monnet, April 28, 1 952, Dulles Papers, Box 62, PL.
66 Monnet to Dulles, November 24, 1 952, Dulles Papers, Box 62, PL.
67 Dulles to Monnet, November 26, 1 952, Dulles Papers, Box 62, PL.
68 Monnet to Dulles, April 4, 1 950, Dulles Papers, Box 54, PL.
69 Monnet to Dulles, January 19, 1 953, AMH 46/5/1 , FJM; Dulles to Monnet, January 23 , 1 953,
AMH 46/5/2, FJ M.
70 Allocution de Jean Monnet, Fcbruary 8, 1953, AMH 46/5/5, FJM.
71 Adenauer to McCioy, December 1 , 1 952, Ann Whitman File, Administration Series, Box 25,
" M cCioy, John", DDE Library.
72 Gruenther to MacArthur Il, February 9, 1 953, Box 2, "MacArthur, Douglas II", NATO Series, DDE
Library.
73/bid.
74 Sec: Douglas Brinkley,"Jean Monnet and the American Conncction, 1 953-63," Paper prescnted at
the European S tudies Associations' Conference, George Masan University, Fairfax, Virginia,
May 24, 1989.
75 Eleanor Schoeneabum, ed. Political profiles. The Eisenhower Years, New York: Columbia
University, 1 977.
76 Grucnthcr to MacArthur, op, cit., and MacArthur II to Grucnthcr, Fcbruary 1 2, 1 953, Grucnthcr,
Alfred, Box 2, MacArthur II, Douglas, NATO Series, DDE Library.
77 Dulles' Memorandum for the President, February 1 8 , 1 953, Dulles White House Memos, Box 1 ,
"White House Correspondance: 1953 "(5), DDE Library.
78 FRUS, 1 952-1954 , Volume VI, pp. 276-277.
79 Dulles to Jean Monnet, February 19, 1 953, AMF/46/6/1 , FJM, see also: Jean Monnet, Mémoires,
p. 56 1 .
80 See: Monnet's appointment book s, FJM, Lausanne.
8 1 Pierre Mélandri, op. cit., p. 1 55 .
82 FRUS 1952- 1 954, Volume VI, Part 1 , U . S . Govemment printing Office, Washington D.C. 1 986,
p. XXII.
83 Jean Monnet, Mémoires, pp. 39 1 , 5 1 8 and Robert Bowie, interview for the Fondation Jean Monnet
pour l'Europe, June 1 5, 1 98 1 .
84 Political Profiles, op. cit., p. 564, Smith to Eisenhower, August 1 7, 1 954, Walter B . Smith, Box
5, "Appointment as UnderSecrctary" , DDE Library; Eisenhower to Bedell, Walter Bedell
Smith, Box 5, "Appointment as Undersecretary" , DDE Library; Smith to Donovan, January
1 2, 1 953, Walter B. Smith, Box 4, "American Committce on United E urope (2), DDE
Library.
85 Sec , for example, Reader's Digest, April 1953, pp. 44-47.
86 FR US 1 952-1954 , Volume VI, pp. 305-306, and John Poster Dulles, Memorandum for the
President, April 28, 1 953, Eisenhower Papers, Official Files 260-2, Box 9 1 9,"European Coal
and Steel Community", DDE Library.
87 83d Congress., 1 st session, U.S. Senate, SCOFR: Hearings. European Coal and Steel Community,
J une 4 and 5, 1 953,p. 1 5 - 1 6.
88 AMH 47/8/1 , Lettre de Monsieur Etzel, Washington, June 4, 1 953, FJM.
89 AM H/47/6, Monnet to Dulles, June 8, 1 953, FJM.
90 FRUS, 1 952-54, Volume V I , pp. 3 1 1 -3 1 2; Department of State Bulletin, June 29, 1953, pp. 927929; A MH/47/6/9, FJM.
91 Department of State Bulletin, July 27, 1 953, pp. 1 07 - 1 08.
92 FR US 1 952-54, Vol VI, See the summary of conversations held in Paris, Dec 1 3- 1 5, between
Monnet, Dulles, Humphrey, S tassen and their advisers; FRUS 1 952-54, VI, pp. 337-342.
93 Eisenhower to Adenauer, New York Times, January 7, 1 953, p. 1 .
94 George Bali to James Reston", February 1 7, 1 953;"James Reston to George Bali" , Fcbruary 20,
1 953; "George Bali to James Reston", February 22, 1 953, in Adlai Stevenson Papers, Box
373. Quoted in Mélandri, op. cit., p. 395.
95 Department of State Bulletin, February 23, 1 953.
96 "Address before the National War College", Octobcr 26, 1 953, in Dulles Papers, PL.
33
97 Monnet had met with Dulles the previous day , but he had also met with Adenauer who strongly
recommended to be ftnn with the French, as too did his friend Bruce. Monnet met again with
Dulles on the 1 5 . See: Monnet's appointrnent book s, FJM; See also: Mélandri, op. cit, p.
428.
98 Pierre Mélandri, op. cit., p. 427. See: FRUS 1 952-1954, Volume V, Part 1 .
99 FR US 1 952- 1 954, Vol VI, pp. 337-346.
100 Bruce to Monnet, Personal and Conftdential, December 28, 1953, AMR/ 46/8, FJM .
101 FRUS 1 952-56, Vol VI, p. 355.
1 02 FRUS 1 952-54, Vol VI, Dulles to Stassen, January 9, 1 954, p. 35 1 ; FRUS 1 952-1954, Vol VI,
Tomlinson to Bruce, January 26, 1 954, p. 356-358.
1 03 FRUS 1 952-54, Vol VI, pp. 360, 368; Monnet to Dulles, March 2 1 , 1 954, AMH/5 1 /5, FJM.
1 04 Monnet's appointrnent book s, FJ M; FR US 1 952-1954, Vol VI, pp. 377-385; Dulles to the
President, April 1 2, 1 954, O.F. 260-A-2, DDE Central Files, DDE Library; Dcpartment of
State Bulletin, May 3, 1 954; "Dwight Eisenhower 1 890- 1 969", Samuel Waugh, Box 1 ,
March 3 1 , 1 969, "Mr Waugh's experiences in D.C.", DDE Library.
1 05 Bruce to Dulles, September 16, 1954, AMH/60/2/4, FJM, Lausanne; The Memoirs of Anthony
Eden, Full Circle, London: Cassell and CY., 1960, pp. 1 58 - 1 64.
106 My translation, quoted in Pascal Fontaine, Le Comité d'Action pour les Etats-Unis de Jean
Monnet, Centre de Recherches Européennes, Lausanne, 1 974; FRUS 1 952-54, Vol VI, The
Secretary of State to the Office of the United States Representative to the ECSC, at Paris,
Washington, December 1 3 , 1954, p. 4 1 8; Also: Ibid, The Secretary of Sta te to the President
of the High Authority of the ECSC (Monnet), Washington, December 14, 1 954, p. 4 1 7.
1 07 FRUS 1 952-1954, Vol VI, Monnet to Dulles, December 1 , 1 954, Dulles to Monnet, December
1 3 , 1 954, Dulles to Monnet, December 1 4 , 1 954 , pp. 4 1 5-4 1 7; Dulles to Monnet, October
27 , 1 954, AMH 60/4/3, FJ M.
10 8 FRUS 1 955-57, Vol IV, Memorandum prepared in the Office of European Regional Affairs,
Washington, Decembcr 6, 1 955, p. 358; FRUS 1 955-57, Vol IV, Telegram from the Acting
Secretary of State to the Embassy in Italy., May 30, 1 955, p. 290.
1 09 FRUS 1 952-54, Vol VI, Bonsal to the Departrnent of S tate, March 20, 1 952, pp. 28-29; FRUS
1 952-54, Vol VI, Dunn to the Department of States, June 22, 1 953, pp. 89-92; FRUS 1 95254 , Vol VI, Dunn to Department of State, July 1 3 , 1952, pp. 1 22- 1 24.
1 10 FR US 1 955- 1 95 7, Vol IV, Dulles to Macmillan, December 10, 1 955, pp. 363-64.
1 1 1 FRUS 1955-57, Vol IV Memorandum of Conversation, Paris, December 1 7, 1955, and The
Secretary of State to the President, Paris, December 1 7 , 1 955, pp. 367-369.
1 12 Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1 956, pp. 1 0381 045; FR US 1 955-57, Circular Telegram from the Secretary of State to Certain Diplomatie
Missions, March 6, 1 957, pp. 534-536.
1 1 3 Quoted in Pascal Fontaine, Le Comité d'Action pour les Etats-Unis d'Europe de Jean Monnet,
Lausanne: Centre de Recherches européennes, 1974.
1 1 4 FR US 1 955-57, Vol IV, Martin to Timmons, Paris, November 10, 1 955, p. 347 ; Secretary of
S tate to the Departrnent of State, December 17, 1 955, p. 372.
1 1 5 Departrnent of State, Secretary's Memoranda of Conversation: Lot 64 D 199
1 1 6 FR US 1 955-57, Vol IV, Memorandum of Conversation, Paris, October 25, 1 955, p. 337; FR US
1 955-57, Vol IV , Memorandum of Conversation, Paris, Decembcr 1 7 , 1955, pp. 367-368.
1 1 7 Sce for example: Report of a discussion bctween Brentano and Dulles on Decembcr 17, 1 955,
p.372.
1 1 8 Monnet to Dulles, January 24 , 1956, Dulles Papcrs, Box 1 06, PL; FRUS 1 955-57, Vol IV,
Dillon to the Department of State, Novembcr 19, 1 956, p. 488.
1 19 FRUS 1 955-57, Vol IV, Memorandum of Conversation, Department of Stale, May 1 4 , 1 956, p.
44 1 .
1 20 FRUS 1 955-57. Vol IV, Letter from the Secretary of State to Foreign Minister Spaak,
Washington D.C., March 22, 1 957, p. 543.
1 2 1 Monnet to Dulles, April 26, 1 958, Dulles folder, FJM; Monnet to Dulles, July 1 3 , 1 958, Dulles
Papers, PL; See aIso: Monnet to Dulles, January 30, 1 957, Dulles Papers, PL.
1 22 FRUS 1 955-57, Vol IV, Memorandum of Conversation, Departrnent of State, April 20, 1 955,
Words from Mr. Albert Coppe, 2nd Vice President of the ECSC, p. 288; Monnet, Mémoires,
pp. 622-237.
1 23 See, for example:FRUS 1 955-57, Vol IV, Memorandum of Conversation, Departrnent of S tate,
May 1 4 , 1 956, p. 44 1 .
1 24 Monnet to Dulles, November 26, 1 956, Dulles Papers, PL.; Waugh to the President, J une 20,
1 955, and Eisenhower to Monnet, July 1 , 1 955, White House Central Files, PPF, I-L M,
34
DDE Library; Monnet to Eisehower, Scptembcr 27, 1 955, White House Central Files, PPF
1 -Z:Z, "Foreign rulers etc "M", DDE Library.
1 25 Dulles to Monnet, December 28, 1 956, Box 1 06; Monnet to Dulles, February 28, 1 958, Monnet
to Dulles, Novembcr 1 1 , 1958, Monnet to Dulles, December 9, 1 958, Box 1 32, Dulles to
Monnet, December 1 2, 1 958, Box 1 32, Monnet to Dulles, December 1 8, 1 958, Box 1 32,
Dulles to Monnet, January 8, 1 959, Box 1 4 1 , Monnet to M iss Bamau, February 1 4 , 1 959,
Monnet to Dulles, February 1 6, 1 959, Box 1 4 1 , Dulles Papers, PL.; Monnet to Dulles,
(translation), March 1 4 , 1 959, Dulles folder, FJM ; Alfred Grosser, Les Occidentaux, Fayard,
1 978, p. 1 39.
Th i s I s A Worki ng Dra ft
P l e a s e Do Not Quote Or
Cite W i thout Author ' s
Written Perm i s s i o n
J e an Monnet and D e an Ache s o n :
Prac t i c a l V i s i o n ar i e s
Doug l a s Br i n k l ey
Ho fstra Un ivers i ty
September 1 ,
1990
"Jean
Paper pres ented t o the conference ,
Monnet
a nd t h e Ame r i c ans " ,
held
at
the
Frankl i n D . Rooseve l t Lib rary , Hyde Park , N . Y .
October 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 9 9 0 .
I ntroduc t i o n
F e w European statesmen i n the twent i eth century have b e e n so
u nabashed l y
reve red
and
consu l t ed
by
the
o f f icial
Wa sh ington
fore i g n p o l i cy estab l i shment as that extraord i na ry Frenchma n and
c i ti z e n
of
Europe ,
Jean
Monnet .
Known
the worl d
ove r
as
the
a rch itect , v i s i onary and master bu i l de r o f the European Coal a nd
S t e e l Commun ity ( ECS C )
and the European Econom i e Commun ity ( EE C ) ,
Monnet ' s stead f a st and pro found i n f luence among a vast network o f
Amer i c a n
po l i cymakers ,
j ourna l i st s ,
i ntegrat i o n
did
in
more
Ame r i c a
bankers ,
to
l awyers ,
advance
than
any
the
oth e r
industr i a l i sts ,
concept
i nd iv idua l
of
European
or
l obby i ng
organ i z a t i on dur ing the Truman , E i s enhowe r , and Kennedy years .
u s ing
his
f r i endships
vast
capt ivat i ng
t ime-honored
By
Ame r i c a n
( many o f wh i ch w e r e cu l t ivated dur i ng Wor l d War I ) ,
interna t i ona l
f luent
persona l ity ,
and
mas tery
exper ie nce ,
of
the
i n st inct
Eng l i s h
for the
l anguage
and
loci
o f power ,
its
Ame r i can
co l l oqu i a l i sms , and t i re l e s s ded i c a t i on to a s ing l e id e a , European
un ity , Jean Monnet rema i ned Europe ' s most l i stened t o and respected
v o i c e in Ame r i c a ,
even a fte r he stepped down a s Pre s i dent of the
ECSC ' s H i gh Author i t y in 1 9 5 5 and formed the Act i o n Comm i ttee for
the Un ited S t ates of Eu rope ( 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 7 5 ) .
" To understand Amer i c a ,
i t s peop l e a nd i t s l eaders ,
one h a s
to go b a c k reg u l a r l y a nd form sorne gene ra l not i ons about Ame r ica
and the Amer i c an s , a cqu i re d ove r the decades of f r i e nd l y contact ;
but when i t cornes to a c t i o n I re ly on my j udgment a t the t ime , "
Monnet wrote i n h i s 1 9 7 8 Memo i rs .
" That wa s the re al reason for
1
my regu l a r v i s i t s , wh ich a lways began w ith c a l l s on we l l i n formed
f r i ends . "
Monnet went on to note that the ind iv idua l s in New York
and Wash i ngton that he a lways c a l l ed on were "men who cannet a f ford
to
make
m i stakes
newspapermen .
Wh at
bankers ,
ethers
amb i t i on or doctr i ne .
i ndustr i a l i s t s ,
say may
be
col o red
l awyers ,
by
and
imag i nat i on ,
I certa i n l y respect the i r i n f l uence ; but I
base my j udgement on the w i sdom o f pract i c a l men . " 1
By a lmost anyone ' s d e f i n it ion Dean Acheson f i t the l ab e l o f
" p ract i c a l man . "
order
out
of
H i s ent ire pub l i c l i fe was ded i cated to creat i ng
chaos ,
c o l l e ct ive
i n s t i tut i ons
out
of
prev i o u s l y
d i sparate structure s , a nd Western un ity out o f anachro n i s t i c Euro ­
n a t i o na l i sm .
Aches o n had even taken the t i t l e for h i s Pu l i t z e r
P r i z e w i n n ing memo i r Present at t h e Creat ion
attr ibuted t o A l phonse
X,
f rom a n utterance
the Le a rned King o f Spa i n
( 1252-84 ) :
" Had I been present a t the creat ion I wou l d have g iven some u s e fu l
h i nts for the better orde r i ng o f the u n i vers e .
"2
Both a s s ecretary
o f state ( 1 9 4 9 - 5 3 ) and e l der statesman ( 1 9 5 3 - 7 1 ) , Ache s on ancho red
h i s po l it i c a l ph i l os ophy in the c l a s s i c a l Rea lpo l i t i k not ion o f
b a l a nce o f powe r and s trong a l l i a nce s .
One o f NATO ' s
found ing
f athers a nd a n e a r l y advocate o f a host of European integrat i on
measures ,
he
p a s s ionately
b e l i eved
that
ma inta i n ing
and
strengthen ing the po l i t i ca l , m i l i t a ry and e conom ie t i e s w i th i n the
At l an t i c Commun i ty - the l i nk and b a l ance between No rth Ame r i c a and
2
2
Western Eu rope - was the cornerstone on wh ich Pos t -WWI I Ame r i can
fore i g n po l i cy rested . 3
A s unde r Sec retary o f State
f rom Augu s t
c.
under J ames F . Byrne s and G eorge
1945
to Ju l y
1947
Marsha l l and Se cretary o f State
f rom January 1 9 4 9 t o Janua ry 1 9 5 3 , Acheson emerged as perhaps the
Truman Adm i n i strat i on ' s most art i c u l ate a nd e f fect ive promoter for
a mu l t itude of econom i e and m i l i t a ry i ntegrat i on programs through
a number o f forma l l y unconnected inst i tut i ons :
the Marsh a l l P l a n ;
the Organ i z at i on for Econom i e Coopera t i on and Dev e l opment ( OE C D ) :
the Western European U n i o n
( WEU ) :
the
Counc i l
of
S chuman P l a n , wh i ch l ed to the creat i on of the ECS E ;
Defense Commu n i ty
( E DC ) :
and ,
of c ours e ,
NATO ,
Europe :
the
the European
a n a l l i a nce f rom
wh ich i t can be s a i d Acheson st rove harder than any ether Ame r i c a n
statesman to s t rengthen and ma inta i n unt i l h i s death i n 1 9 7 1 .
Th i s study focuses on how Monnet ,
never
held
pub l i c
o f f i ce ,
wa s
ab l e
a man o f modest means who
to
serve
as
an
uno f f i c i a l
l ia i s o n f o r the European Commun i ty movement i n Ame r i ca a nd t o h e l p
a dv i se ,
persuade ,
and at
t imes
man ipu l a te
such
a
power f u l
and
i ndependen t -m i nded person a l ity a s Dean Ache s o n , i nto understand i ng
that grea t
e c o n om i e ,
po l i t i ca l ,
and m i l i t a ry bene f i ts
cou l d be
incurred by the U n i t ed States i f Wash i ngton wou l d act ive l y support
a nd promote the European i ntegrat i on movement .
I n the C o l d Wa r era
Monnet , w i th h i s unshaka b l e v i s i on o f the U n i ted S tates o f Europe
motored by h i s t rademark persp icac ity , used h i s c l o se re l at i onsh ip
w ith h i s k i nd red s p i r i t Dean Acheson whom he had met in 1 9 2 7 and
3
3
worked w i th ,
in
to
1971
shrewd
usua l l y beh i nd the scenes ,
further h i s
peasant
unpara l l e l ed
i ntegra t i on crusade .
i nv es tment
i n f l uence
unt i l h i s f r i end ' s death
on
banker
from
Acheson
and
W i thout doubt the
Cognac ,
other
France
exerted
h i gh - rank ing
u.s .
government o f f i c i a l s , part icu l a r l y the Eurocent r i c d i p l omats a t the
State Depa rtment .
S i nc e the h i story o f the European i nt egrat i on movement dur i ng
the s e
y e a rs
c annet
recogn i z i ng
the
be
fu l l y
immense
appre c i at ed
i n f luence
or
that
e xp l a i ned
the
w i thout
Ache son-Monnet
re l a t i on s h i p had on the format i o n of U . S . foreign po l i cy a t t i tudes
toward Europe , and there fore Europe i t se l f , t h i s paper w i l l a s s e s s
( by u s i ng what l im i ted states id e documentat i on i s ava i l abl e ) t h i s
produc t ive t r a n s -At l a n t i c connect i on .
For a s po l i t i c a l sc ient i s t
A l be r t G ros ser s o percept ive l y noted about t h e power o f Monnet ' s
persona l i ty :
" The work and f r i endsh ip t i e s he had w i th men f rom
the most d iv er s e c ount r i e s were so i ntense that even h i s t o r i a n s
g iven
to
exp l a i n i ng
everyth i ng b y
i n f ra s t ructures
and p r o f ound
t rends f ind thems e lv e s ob l iged t o t a ke a ccount of them . " 4
But as
Monnet h ims e l f p o i g n a n t l y noted about h i s own g l ob a l reput a t i on for
i n sp i r i ng others :
l a s t i ng w i thout
Wa s h i ngton ,
" Noth i ng
i n s t itut i ons .
i s pos s i b l e w i thout men noth i ng
"5
is
Monnet ' s Wor l d W a r I I years i n
spent d i rect ing the convers i o n o f the U . S .
civil ian
economy t o a rmament product i on ,
taught h im prec i s e l y where
the
i n s t i tut i ona l
l ay
who
powe r
in
Ame r i ca
and
who
the
men
were
4
5
4
cont ro l l e d
that
powe r ;
during
the
Cold War
era
he
used
that
know l edge to ma in t a i n Ame r i can support of the European i ntegrat i on
movemen t
in
all
of
its
v a r i ou s
guises .
As
h i stor ian
J ohn
G i l l i ngham has noted , " the Un i ted States was both the most dec i s ive
i n f l u ence on Monnet ' s l i fe and the ma in source of h i s powe r . " 6
The l 9 2 0 ' s and 1 9 3 0 ' s
J e a n Monnet f i rs t met Dean Acheson i n 1 9 2 7 a t a sma l l d i nner
pa rty hosted by a mutu a l l awye r f r i end Ge orge Rub l e e i n Wa sh i ngton .
Acheson came to the a f fa i r with Fe l ix Frankfurte r ,
Ha rv a rd
Law
Wa s h i ngton .
School
and
his
" e nthus i a s t i c
h i s mentor at
door-ope n e r "
in
I t wa s Frankfurter who f i rst introduced Ache s on to
A l ready Acheson had acqu i red a reputat ion i n Wa s h i ngton
Monnet .
as a young i nt ernat i ona l l awye r w ith a n a c i d t angue and a bud ing
H i s emp l oyer , Cov i ngton , Bur l i ng and Rub l e e o f Wa s h i ngton ,
future .
wa s one o f Amer ica ' s l ead i ng interna t i ona l
E u rope a n
bus i ne s s
c l i ents .
Ach e s on
•
s
l aw f i rms ,
f i rst
case
for
w i th many
the
f i rm ,
fo l l ow i ng on the h e e l s o f a two -year c l erksh ip w i th Supreme Court
Just i c e Lou i s Brande i s , wa s a succe ss fu l d e fense of the K ingdom o f
Norway
in a
19 2 1
repa rations c l a im aga i n s t the U . S .
g overnment
be fore the Permanent Court of Arb i t ra t i on at The Hague .
through
his
s k i l l fu l
de fense
of
Norway
that
Monnet
had
I t wa s
f i rst
l ea rned of the up-and- com i ng Dean Acheson .
I n Morn i ng and Noon
( 19 65 ) ,
Acheson ' s memo i r s o f h i s e a r l y
y e a rs i n government wr itten 4 0 y e a r s a fte r t h e N orweg i a n c a s e , the
6
5
chapt e r c ov e r i ng The Hague expe r i ence was t i t l ed , " S tart ing a t the
Top . 11
Acheson
d id
cul t i vated a v as t
Br i t i sh
f r i ends
s t a rt
array
at
of
the
top .
i n f l uent i a l
in c l ud ing
Monnet ,
introduct i on by Frankfurte r .
In
the
early
European
o ften
1920 ' s
he
and e spec i a l l y
through
l etters
of
But in 1 9 2 7 , wh i l e the th i rty-n i ne
y e a r o l d Aches o n was j ust gett ing known i n i nterna t i on a l c i rc l es ,
Jean Monnet had a l ready estab l i shed for h imse l f a n a lmost l egenda ry
reputat i o n a s a sh rewd banker and f in a nc i a l manager .
Wh i l e
persuaded
Bri t a i n
st i l l
French
and
suppl i e s ;
in
his
twe n t i e s
dur ing WWI ,
Pr ime M i n i s ter Rene V i v i a n i
F rance
b i d d ing
against
each
the
y oung Monnet
to put
other
for
an
end to
scarce
war
a nd he wa s sent to London a s a member o f the French
L i a i so n Comm ittee and put in cha rge of Ang l o - French j o i nt e f forts .
F o l l ow i ng the wa r ,
Monnet became a voci fe rous
supporter o f the
Le ague o f Nat i on s , where as Deputy S ec re t a ry-Gene ra l
( 1 9 1 9 - 2 3 ) he
l ed negot i a t ions regard ing S i l e s i a a nd the S a a r , and the economie
rehab i l i t a t i o n of Aust r i a .
D i sappo i nted at the way F rench Prem i e r
Raymond P o i nc a re worked t o keep the de feated WWI
n a t i on s under
A l l i ed dom i nat ion , Monnet res igned to help his a i l ing father save
the near bankrupt fam i l y cogn ac bus i ne s s .
Both Monnet and Acheson
had been o r i g i n a l l y e x c ited about the League of Nat i ons in 1 9 1 9 ,
but
by
1923
they
were
d i s i l lu s ioned :
Acheson
saw
it
as
a
" un iv e r s a l p l umb p l a n " wh i l e for Monnet it was o n l y u s e fu l a s a
" sw i tchboard " ,
a
s econdary
d i p l omat ie
mechan i sm
for
d i a l ogue
between nat i on s .
6
Throughout the l at e 1 9 2 0 ' s r ight up unt i l 1 9 3 9 Monnet t rave l ed
a round the wor l d a dv i s ing governments and deve l op i ng a reputat i on
as a n i n t e rn a t i on a l banker extra ord inare :
in Sweden he he lped t o
underm i n e t h e Kreuger match emp i re ; on Wa l l S t reet , were h e made
a
sma l l
fortune
and
then went
for bust
a dv i sed the l ikes of J oh n J . McC l oy ,
H a r r iman ,
James
Forresta l
and
J ohn
in
the
1929
crash ,
he
Dona l d Swa t l and , W . Avere l l
Foster
Dul l es
on
European
i nvestment opportun i t i e s ; in Shangha i he worked c l os e l y w i th Ch i a ng
K a i -Shek t o ra i s e cap i t a l for the Ch inese ra i l roads ; i n Wa r saw h e
adv i sed t h e Po l i sh Government ; a n d i n Bucharest he stab i l i z ed the
Ruman i ab
He
currency .
also
b ecame
V i c e - Pres ident
( Eu ropean
partn e r ) of the Transame r i ca h o l d ing company , wh ich owned the Bank
o f Amer ic a .
The wor l d was Monnet ' s oyst e r but the pea r l d id not interest
h im .
Most young men operat i ng i n the hur r i ed a tmo sphere o f 1 9 2 0 ' s
Wa l l
S t reet
went
into
I ntoxicated w ith the
banking
to
a
ama s s
l iqu i d i ty o f capita l ,
fortune .
pe rsonal
they s trove t o
the i r own bank a ccounts w i th a s much money a s pos s ib l e .
fill
Monnet wa s
not o f that m o l d , he was p r ima r i l y intr igue by the power o f cap i t a l
because
h imse l f
i t was t h e f u e l wh ich kept n a t i onstates run n i ng ;
it
i nv i s ib l e ,
wa s
fung i b l e
therefore
and
insta neous
and
capab l e of t ra nscend ing nati ona l bounda r i e s .
l ike
a lmost
Austere
and f ruga l in h i s person a l hab its , Monnet wa s more l i ke a hybri d
o f French j e su i t pr ies t and t rav e l ing s a l e sman than the popu l a r
stereotype o f a dapper , c igar-smoking b i g c ity banke r , a l though h e
was
not
adverse
to
donn ing
a
p i n - st r ipe
su i t
if
the
" banker
7
impres s i o n 11 wou l d h e l p h i m to meet h i s bus i ne s s obj ect ives .
I t was
th i s u n i que a nd comp l e x persona l ity m i xture - one p a rt peasant , one
p a rt
banker
and
one
p art
aston i sh ing career had
wor l d over .
pr i est
wh i ch
by
the
i nsp i red such con f i dence
in
of
his
l eaders the
Hav ing a p r ivate t a l k w i th Monnet wa s l i ke a good
Catho l i c go i ng to con f e s s ion on S aturday ,
you may not l i ke your
penance but at l eas t you were a s sured d i sc re t i on ;
tha t .
e nd
Monnet ,
a banker who
and more than
neve r accumu l ated pe rsonal wea l th ,
never s ought or h e l d a pub l i c o f f i ce a nd never demanded notor i ety
or c red i t for h i s i nnovat ive ideas ,
mora l cause s :
11 Peace in Our T ime 11 , w i th h i s hopes p i nned on the
League o f Nat i on s ;
reduc i ng
t rade
s e l f l es s l y worked for h i gher
end i ng the Great Depre s s i on o f the 1 9 3 0 ' s by
b a r r iers ;
crush ing
Hi t l e r
and
Mus s o l in i
thereby
e l i m i nat ing European f a sc i sm ; crea t i ng a postwa r ord e r wh ich wou l d
make n a t i on a l i sm and thereby wa r obs o l ete ; estab l i sh i ng a f ederated
Western
Europe
within
States and Canada .
an
At l a nt i c
Partne rsh ip
w i th
the
U n i ted
I n other words , Monnet a l ways st rove for the
co l l ect ive good o f human i ty w i th h i s persona l wea l th and w e l fare
a lways a seconda ry cons iderat i on .
Monne t , Acheson and WWI I
S i nc e mo s t h istor i an s focus o n Monnet and Ache son ' s p ostwar
accomp l i shment s , when they were at the p i nnac l e o f the i r power and
prest ige ,
the c ruc i a l contr ibut i ons these two made t o the a l l ie d
wa r e f f o rt ar e o ften overl ooked .
o. c. ,
d u r i ng the war ,
Both men l ived
i n Wa sh ington
where they worked w i th each ether on the
8
Lend-Le a s e p rogram a nd o ften swapped ideas over d i nne r u sua l ly at
the home of Fe l i x Frankfurter , Ph i l i p Graham of the Wa s h i ngto n Post
o r the B r i t i sh Emba ssy .
t ook
l ong
wa l k s
in
Monnet , who rose e a r l y every morn i ng and
Rock
Creek
Park
for
menta l
concentra t i on
purpose s , wou l d s omet imes run into Frankfurter and Acheson wa l k i ng
t ogether t o work .
were
the
" W i th the i r two bowl e r hats ,
i ncarnat i on
adm i r i ng l y remembered
of
Law
and
the
in h i s Memo i rs .
the two f r i ends
Const itut i o n , "
Monnet
I t wa s d u r i ng the s e war
years that Monnet and Acheson became i nt imates ,
and d ev e l oped a
l i fe - l ong respect f o r each others d i s c i p l ine , ded i cat i on and idea s .
They both sha red a pro found a nd unco rruptab l e s i ng l em i nded d evot i on
t o i nterna t i ona l cooperat i on .
I n the 1 9 9 0 ' s i t i s common to re f e r to Monnet a s a v i s i on a ry ,
but Ache son s aw h i m a s noth i ng o f the sort .
Monnet cou l d ce rta i n l y
be ph i l o s oph i ca l a t t imes but th i s i s n o t what Acheson v a l ued about
h im .
I t was Monnet ' s act i on - o r i en ted , no- nonsense , t i re l e s s get-
the - j ob done approach t o every a s s i gnment o r proj ect he undertook
that Acheson t rea sured in his French f r i e nd .
To Acheson , men l ike
J e a n Monnet , Ha rry Truman , George Marsha l l and Lou i s Brande i s were
" great " because they were compa s s i onate yet rea l i st i c , ut i l i t a r i a n
w i thout b e i ng ca l l ous to tho se
less
" f i rm dec i s ive act i o n " who dea l t
Utop i a n panaceas .
i nt e l l ectu a l s "
George
Kenna n ;
dem igods "
1 ike
Acheson had
Wa l ter
" pr i m i t ive s "
fortunate ,
t ruth fu l men o f
i n t h e concrete a n d d i sda ined
1 i tt l e
Lippma nn ;
t o l e rance
for
" my st i c a l
th i nkers "
l i ke Jo seph McCa rthy
l ike Char l e s DeGau l l e .
I n part i cu l a r ,
or
" a rm cha i r
1 ike
" po l i t i c a l
Acheson u s e t o
9
equat e Marsha l l to Monnet , because both were con s i de red v i rtuous
and w i s e
in the respect ive count r i e s ,
had g l ob a l reputat i ons as
prest i g i ous statesmen o f great consequence but were ab l e t o a lways
rema i n above the ug l y f ray of part i s a n po l i t ics .
Monnet , l i ke Acheson , possessed the same reverence f o r a c t i o n .
In
fa c t ,
as
f o rmer
U.S .
Amba s s ador
to
the
European
Econom i e
Commun i t y J ohn Tuth i l l rem inds u s i n a recent pro f i l e o f Monnet he
wrote for France Maga z i ne ,
Monnet ' s favor i t e word was " ac t i on " ,
ev ident i n the o rgan i z at i on he f ounded i n 1 9 5 5 t o '' prope l Eu rope
to u n i ty " :
Or
as
the Act i on Comm i ttee for the Un i te d S ta t e s o f Europe .
f o rmer St at e
Department
adv i so r Henry
Owen h a s
recen t l y
noted , Monnet ' s " opt im i sm , h i s ded i ca t i on to act i on , were i n a way
more Ame r i ca n than European . "
That
Monnet ' s
surpr i s i ng .
When
wou l d
he
possess
wa s o n l y
18
Amer i c a n - l ike
he
tra i t s
t rave l e d throughout
Amer i c a , ma i n l y in the rugged Rocky Mounta i n reg i on ,
fam i l y ' s b ra ndy to t rad i ng posts and s a l oons .
marv e l ed
at
the
encountered
who
w ide
open
th rough
space
shea r
and
is
sturdy
wil l
and
not
North
s e l l ing h i s
The young Monnet
fron t i e r
f o l ks
determ i nat i on
he
had
trans f ormed an untamed wi lderness into d i s c ip l ined commun i t i e s and
then pushed even furth e r West .
" Fo r the f i rst t ime I m e t a peop l e
whose j ob w a s n o t t o manage wha t a l ready e x i sted ,
i t w i thout s t i n t , " Monne t l ate r reca l l e d .
l im i t s ;
no one knew where the
a l ways on t h e move ,
I
" No one thought about
f ront ie r was .
l e a rned to g e t r i d
but t o d ev e l op
I n th i s new wor l d
o f t h e o l d atav i s t i c
susp i c ious wh i ch a r e s o much a p o i n t l e s s worry a n d a wa ste o f
10
t ime . . . Here ,
I
encountered
a
new
way
of
l oo k i ng
at
th i ngs :
i nd iv idua l i n i t i a t ive cou l d be accepted a s a contribu t i o n to the
genera l good . "
I nterest i ng l y enough Acheson , the son the Ep i scopa l i a n B i shop
of
Connect icut
who
had
been
ra i sed
as
a
" p rope r "
Y ankee
and
Groto n i an , l i kew i s e found h i s pre - Y a l e summer work i ng as a crewman
on the G rand Truck Pa c i f i e Ra i lway i n northern Canada h i s most
trans forma t iv e ad o l e scent expe r i ence .
" These men , " Acheson l a te r
wrote of t he ra i l road l aborers he met , " had g iven me ne w eagerne ss
for exper i e nc e .
rev ived
a
sense
The s imp l e , ext rove rted pattern o f the i r l ives had
of
freedom
amidst
uncoerced
restored t o me a p r i c e l e s s posses s ion ,
They
ord e r .
j oy i n l i f e .
had
Never aga i n
was I t o l os e o r doubt i t . "
Throughout
father ' s
as
m i t igated ,
becau s e
his
and ,
his
l i fe Acheson
hence ,
comp l a i nt s
underm ined the
" Much
own :
in
o ften
l i fe
cou l d
must be borne .
were
seren i ty
a
bore
quoted
a
not
be
of
his
a f fected
or
Borne w i thout comp l a i nt ,
and
nu i sance
to
endurance . "
e s s e nt i a l
say i ng
to
others
Th i s
and
s to i c a l
Acheson i a n m a x i m i s a n a p t descr ipt i on o f Monnet ' s gener a l approach
to l i fe .
A l ong w i th Acheson ( that i s the pre- 1 9 5 3 Acheson ) he had
no pat i ence f o r negat iv i ty ,
and s econd-gu e s s ing dec i s i ons .
" One
person a l ity tra i t of Jean Monnet wh ich many students of the Monnet
method have n oted
opt i m i sm , "
is
E xecut ive
h i s pers i stent ,
perhaps
D i rector o f the Ame r i can Cou nc i l
Monnet S tud i e s C l i f ford Hackett has noted .
opt im i sm
as
a
f o rm
even therapeut i c ,
of
oxygen
for
his
for Jean
" H e seemed to requ i re
menta l
p roce s s e s .
His
11
metaphors about preva i l i ng ove r obstac l e s by us ing them , about even
u s i ng one ' s enem i e s to ove rcome them ,
about the need t o change the
context when prob l ems s eem ins olvab l e - a l l the s e p o i n t t owa rd th i s
opt im i sm .
Those who knew Monnet we l l o ften saw i n h i m a n exemp l a r
o f that t rad i t i on a l opt im i sm wh i ch i s seen a s a pecu l i a r l y Ame r i c a n
ca st o f m i nd . "
Where Acheson d i f fered f rom Monnet i n th i s regard i s i n h i s
comp l et e
i nt o l e rance
of
ind iv idua l s
obstruct i st t o h i s purposes .
whom
he
construed
as
Monnet wou ld u s e a nd conve rt h i s
adv e rs a r i e s by h i s cool , s o ft - spoken power o f persua s i on ; Ache son
wou l d s imp l y d i s regard a nd c l e ans e h i s hands of them a s qu i ck l y a s
U n l i ke
poss i b l e .
Acheson ,
who
be l i eved
in
the
value
of
a
bureaucrat i e h i era rchy to prevent government a l a n a rchy , Monnet was
not the s l ighte s t impressed by rank .
Monnet-Acheson re l a t i onsh ip .
Here i n l i e s the secret o f the
Monnet ,
a man o f great charm a nd
mod e st i n te l l igence , met the Ache s o n i a n l i tmus -t e s t o f a l s o b e i ng
a hard-nosed pragma t i s t .
The r e fore Acheson was w i l l ing to l i sten
t o m a ny of Monnet ' s more v i s i onary or seem i ngly f a r - f etched ide a s ,
becau se he knew that i f g iven fund ing , support and a green - l ight ,
Monnet ,
over
any
other
p ipedream i nto r e a l ity .
a
concept
into
r e a l i ty
ind iv idual
he
knew ,
cou l d
trans form
a
Monnet ' s i nventive i n te l l ect cou l d turn
by
pers i stently
toward imp l ementat i o n one step a t a t ime ,
tackl ing
the
obstac l es
never gett ing ahead o f
h im s e l f , but a lways maneuver i ng behi nd-the- scenes t o further the
caus e .
I t wa s Monnet ' s unbe l i evab l e capac i ty to concentrate h i s
atten t i o n o n a s i ng l e p o i n t wh ich Acheson adm i red .
12
By l a t e 1 9 3 9 , w i th the German Th i rd Re i ch gobb l i ng up at w i l l
sma l l er European na t i on s and Japan l ooming l a rge and hungry i n the
Pac i f i e ,
ready
through
to
exerc i se
terr i t o r i a l
its
conque st ,
Ma n i fest
the
cause
De s t i n y
wa s
to
clear :
greatness
to
stop
m i l i t a r i s t i c aggre s s i o n and usher i n a new era o f i nte rnat i on a l
peac e .
Bath
Monnet
and
Ache son
put
the i r
de ep - rooted
i nternat i ona l i s t conv ict i on s ( wh i ch tran s l ated as the i r f i rm be l i e f
i n prov i d ing Br i ta i n w ith a i r and nava l a i d ) t o work .
Monnet went
on con f ident i a l m i s s i on s t o the U n i ted States for the French A i r
M i n i st ry ,
wh i c h wanted to purcha se Ame r i ca n
a i rc r a f t
Octobe r , and December 1 9 3 8 , and aga i n i n January 1 9 3 9 .
of
the
Ang l o - French
Econom i e
Co-ord i nat ion
i n March ,
As cha i rman
Comm ittee
1939-4 0 ,
Monnet persuaded DeGau l l e a nd Church i l l to back h i s abort ive p l a n
for a Franco-Br i t i sh p o l i t i c a l un ion and j o i nt c i t i z en s h i p wh i ch
wou l d
have
kept
London
in
the
wa r .
S aon
a ft e r
th i s
fa i l ed
attempt , w i th France about to fa l l and h i s French pas sport endorsed
by Church i l l , Monnet went to Wa sh i ngton a s a c iv i l s e rvant in the
Br i t i sh M i n i st ry of Supp l y ; he rema i ned there for the next 5 years .
I n Wa s h i ngton he reconnected w i th Dean Ache son , who had reemerged
to pub l i c n o t i c e v i a an August 1 1 , 1 9 4 0 l ong l ette r t o the New York
T imes h e s igned a l ong w i th Cha r l e s C . B i rm i ngham , the grand o l d man
of the New York Ba r ,
and Thomas D .
Thache r ,
a
f o rmer S o l i c itor
Genera l o f t he U n i t ed States , argu ing that Congre s s iona l approva l
for the tran s f e r o f 5 0 o l d U . S . destroyers to Great Br i t a i n wa s not
l ega l l y n e c e s s a ry .
13
Acheson , who had res igned a s Unde rsecret a ry o f the Trea sury
i n 1 9 3 3 dur i ng Ame r i c a ' s greatest f i na nc i a l c r i s i s ove r a p o l i cy
d i sagreement w i th Pres i dent Frankl i n D . Roos eve l t on the que s t i on
o f the l ega l i ty o f a proposed gold purcha se program to deva lue the
dol lar ,
was
summoned back
into government by FDR and
appo inted
A s s i stant Secretary of State for Econom i e A f fa i rs on February 1 ,
194 1 .
Acheson had once aga i n proved h ims e l f u s e fu l to F DR i n the
summer
of
Cov i ngton
194 0 ,
&
as
a
prom inent
Wash i ngton
l awyer
w ith
Bu r l ing he concocted a l ega l arrangement , w ith the h e l p
o f Benj am i n V .
d es t royer
when
Cohen whereby t h e Pre s i dent cou l d trans f e r 5 0 o l d
ships
to the
Br i t i sh
Government
in
e xchange
f o r the
l e a s i ng o f Br i t i sh n av a l and a 1 r bases o f f the At l an t i c coast o f
Canada a n d i n the Car ibbean
w i thout
obt a i n i ng
Congre s s i o n a l
approva l .
T h e Dest roye r-Base dea l proved to be a n unm i t igated succes s ,
a Roos ev e l t i an t r i umph over the i so l at i o n i st forces i n Congress .
And
a fter h e was
r e - e l ected pres ident
unprecedented th i rd term ,
i n N ovemb e r
194 0
FDR repa id Acheson f o r h i s
for
an
l ega l i s t i c
cun n i ng b y appo int ing h i m to a n important s l ot a t State .
Wh en
p ro tests were l odged aga i n st the dea l as an i l l ega l c i rcumven t i o n
of
the
s u r faced .
l aw ,
Acheson ' s
noto r i ou s
to
Congress , "
McC l oy in S eptemb e r 1 9 4 0 .
the
for
" foolhead i n es s "
" I cont inua l ly hear peop l e s ay i ng that the Pres i dent
shou l d have gone
that
d i sd a i n
transac t i on
was
a
Acheson wrote John
pe rturbed
" Th i s s eems o n l y a nothe r way o f s a y i ng
impos s ib l e ,
and
I
have
v ery
l it t l e
pat i ence w i t h peop l e who i n s i st upon g l o r i fy i ng forms on t h e theory
14
that a ny other course i s go ing to destroy our i n s t i tu t i ons .
The
danger to them s eems not in reso l v i ng l ega l doubts in a ccordance
w i th the n a t i o n a l i nterest but i n re fus i ng to act when act i on i s
imperat ive . "
Ame r i c a
Wh i l e Acheson rece ived sorne harsh c r i t i c i sm f rom the
F i rs t
crowd ,
he
wa s
honored
by
su ch
Republ i ca n
i nternat i ona l i st s as Sec retary o f Wa r Henry L . S t imson who p ra i s ed
h i s resou rc e fu l n es s , even ca l l ing the Destroye r-Ba s e dea l " a rea l
turn ing p o i n t
in
the war
and
the
r e l a t i ons
G . B . . . . ''
In f ac t , the success of the swap ,
e l ec t i on
appo in tme nt
t ra n s formed Ache son
as
f rom
an
a
A s s i stant
l awyer w i th
of
the
U.S.A.
and
fo l l owed by h i s post­
S ecretary
st rong
of
State ,
i nternat i o na l i st
l ean ings i nto a staunch , no-ho l e s -barred , ant i -German p o l i cymake r .
Dur i ng WWI I ,
Acheson
served w i th
d i s t i nc t i o n
a s Ass i sta nt
S ecretary o f State f o r Econom i e A f fa i rs i n S ecretary Cordu l l Hu l l ' s
ine f fect ive S tate Depa rtment , part i c ipat i ng i n a l l the s ign i f icant
Lend- Le a s e
a rrangements
that
u l t imately
poured
$39
b i l l ion
in
Ame r i ca n war goods a nd c iv i l i a n i tems i nt o l ands res i s t i ng F a s c i sm
and Japanese
wa r l ords ,
cha i r i ng
the
Un ited
Nat ions
Re l ie f
and
Rehab i l i t a t i o n Agency ( UNRRA ) p l ann ing comm ittee and repre sent i ng
the S tate Department at the Bretton Woods Con ference o f 1 9 4 4 .
All
o f these expe r i ences brought Acheson i nto i nt imate contact w i th
many o f the best econom i e m i nds i n Europe i n c l ud i ng J ohn Maynard
Keyne s ,
work i n d r a f t ing and
se l l ,
I n part i cu l a r ,
Lo rd Ha l i f ax a nd Jean Monnet .
transfer
t it l e
imp l ement ing the
to ,
exchange ,
194 1
lease ,
Acheson ' s
Lend - Le a s e Act ,
l end ,
or
" to
otherw i se
d i spose o f . . . any d e f en s e a rt i c l e " to count r i e s whose d e fense was
15
cons idered " v i t a l t o the de fense o f the U n i ted States , " a l l owed h im
to understand more fu l l y the m i l i t a ry and econom i e makeup o f a l l
the Western count r i es
even neutra l nat i ons l i ke S w i t z e r l a nd ,
Sweden and Spa i n .
As a member o f the Br i t i sh Supp l y Coun c i l d u r i ng WWI I , Monnet ,
who a ccord ing t o Robert Nathan , wa s " the unsung hero " o f the wa r ,
i nvented the concept o f Lend - Le a s e wh i ch prov ided the A l l i e s w i th
war mate r i a l
supposed l y
1:o
be
returned
a ft e r the wa r .
Monnet
rea l i z ed f rom the start that the goods wou ld not b e returned but
hoped the program wou l d evo lve i nto a system whe re i n resources were
Monnet , who be l ieved that
pool ed c oope rat ive l y for a common end .
Amer ican a rmament product i on was the most c r i t i c a l requ i rement for
w i n n i n g the wa r ,
v i s i t e d FOR a t Hyde Park in 1 9 4 0 ,
and w ith the
help of Ha rry Hopk i n s , persuaded the pres ident t o announce in h i s
1 9 4 1 State o f the U n i o n Message the nea r l y u n f a thomab l e produc t i on
year .
Rooseve l t ' s
" Ame r i c a w i l l be the great a rsena l
of democracy"
goa l
of
5 0 , 000
a i rpl anes
a
f amous
phra se
was c o i ned by
Monnet .
I n add i t i on to adm i n i ste r i ng Lend-Le ase and wor k i ng for FDR ' s
" V i ct ory
Program " ,
Monne t ,
who
National
Libera t i on Comm i ttee ,
became
a
member
f l ew to A l g i e r s
hel ped t o reconc i l e a feud between Gene ra l
G i raud .
the
of
in
the
French
1 9 4 3 were he
DeGau l l e and General
For the rema inder o f the i r l ives Monnet , who b e l i eved i n
obs o l e scence
embod iment
of
of
F rench
nat iona l
sovere ignty ,
nat i ona l i sm ,
wou l d
and
be
at
DeGau l l e ,
the
l oggerhead s .
Acheso n , who thought DeGau l l e " a great man " , but deep l y regretted
16
a nd depl o red " the havoc he wrea ked on European u n i t y " wou l d f rom
WWI I
onward
a lways
cons u l t
w i th
Monnet
on
how
to
ove rcome
DeGau l l e ' s noto r i ous ob s t i nacy .
Except f o r one t r i p to Montrea l , Acheson rema ined i n Ame r i c a
all
d u r i ng t h e war ,
where b y 1 9 4 5
i nt e rna t i ona l con ferences
he had
rung u p a
i n t h e Uni ted State s .
record f o r
I t wa s
at the
important UNRRA Con f e rence 1n At l a nt i c C i ty that Acheson f i rst got
acqu a i nted w i th the power of Jean Monnet ' s s i ngu l a r v i s i on s for the
postwa r w o r ld .
Wh i l e Acheson was we l l aware o f Monnet ' s prod i g i ou s
repu t a t i o n a s a p l anner or as Theodore Wh ite dubbed h im , a " broker
of
ideas , "
noth ing
prepa red
h im
for
the
w i d e - ra nge
of
reconstruct i o n c oncepts wh ich Monnet reve a l ed a t the f i rst UNRRA
meet ing .
Forma l l y c reated on November 9 , 1 9 4 3 i n Washi ngton , UNRRA grew
out of va r i ous s ugges t i ons from the Uni ted S tate s , Br i ta i n � and the
The
S ov i et U n i o n on the need for a postwar re l i e f o rgan i z at i on .
f i rst s e s s i on of the UNRRA Counc i l met at the C l a r i dge Hot e l
At l an t i c C i t y f rom November 1 0 t o December 1 ,
194 3 ,
in
w i th forty­
f ou r nat i ons p a rt i c ipat i ng a nd Monnet repre s ent ing France .
The
de l egates
and
e l ected
Acheson
Cha i rman
of
the
Counc i l
meet ing
former New York Senator Herbert Lehma n as D i rector Genera l , s et t l ed
budget ary
quest. i on s ,
and
agreed
on
procedures
of
work i ng
m i l i t a ry author i t i e s and nat ions that cou l d not pay .
w i th
Throughout
the s e weeks Acheson and Monnet o ften d i ned together a nd took l ong
b r i s k e a r l y morn i ng wa l ks down the boa rdwa l k , usua l ly accompan i ed
by O l iver ( l at er Lord )
Franks and S i r Owen D i xon ,
the Austra l i a n
17
M i n i ster i n Wa s h i ngton .
"I
a l ready knew the French repre s e ntat ive ,
one o f the greatest o f Frenchme n , Jean Monnet , " Acheson wrote i n
Present at t h e Creat i o n .
" We had been fr iends for many years .
Happ i ly i n those weeks [ at At l a n t i c C ity ] we had opportu n i t i e s for
l ong t a l ks on t he famous boa rdwa l k a l ong the w i n t e r ocea n .
Monnet
gave me fa s c i nat ing g l imps es into General d e Gaul l e , who was as yet
only a controvers i a l mystery to me , and i nto Monnet ' s own pragma t i c
v i ew o f Europe ' s need to e scape i t s h i stor ica l pa roch i a l i sm . "
The Struggl e f o r a Free Europe
" My heart f e l t thanks for the unwav e r i ng support you have g iven
us s i nc e the e a r l i e s t days , " cab l ed Jean Monnet to Dean Acheson on
February 1 1 , 1 9 5 3 , a month a fter Ache son had stepped down as Harry
Truman ' s Secretary o f State .
o n l y the beg i n n ing . " 7
p l anned
open i ng
" O f our great enterpr i s e - - th i s i s
The event t o wh i ch Monnet r e f e r red was the
of
the
Common
Market
for
coa l ,
the
" g re a t
enterp r i s e " noth i ng l es s than the post Wor l d Wa r II restructu r i ng
o f the i n t ernat i o n al po l it i cs and econom i e s o f Eu rope .
cab l e sugge sts the part i cu l a r
Monnet ' s
importance o f Dean Ache son a s an
i nde fat igab l e Ame r i ca n apost l e of Europe an econom i e a nd m i l itary
i ntegra t i on .
Ever s ince the UNRAA con ference , Acheson had l ea rned
t o appre c i a t e the fact that fo l l ow i ng the v i ctory of the A l l i e d
powers
over
impover i shed ,
Fear i ng
that
Germany ,
Eu rope
pol i t i ca l l y
the s e
wou l d
e n f e eb l ed ,
cond i t i ons wou l d
aga 1 n
and
l ead
be
left
br imm i ng
to
a
econom i c a l l y
w ith
hatred .
dangerous
power
7
18
vacuum ,
he made the i r e l i m i n a t i o n ove r r i d i ng concern o f Ame r i can
foreign
po l icy .
conv i n ced that
As
the
Cold
Wa r
i ntens i f i ed ,
Acheson
became
once the West had hal ted Moscow 1 s po l i t i c a l
and
m i l i t a ry expan s i on i sm , the rebu i l d i ng a nd rest ructur i ng o f Europe
wou l d have to be Ame r i c a ' s foremo st p r i or i ty . 8
" You were more than k i nd to th i nk o f me on the day the common
ma rket went i nto e f fect , " Acheson wrote Monnet back on March 4 ,
from h i s vaca t i on home
i n the Car ibbea n .
" Certa i n l y t h i s step
g ives
of
s i gn i f icant ,
every
i nd i c a t i on
b e i ng
the
most
econom i e step i n Eu rope in any of ou r memor i e s .
hope ful
I hope i t w i l l
have the env i ronment t o succeed and that i t w i l l succeed and l ea d
to other deve l opments as fu l l of prom i s e .
on the work we engaged in togethe r ,
I t i s good t o l ook back
and I am deeply t ouched that
you shou l d have sent me a cab l e i n c l ud i ng me in those who have had
a hand in shap i ng th i s p l an . " 9
Aches o n
e f fa c i ng ,
wa s
be i n g
uncharacte ri s t i ca l l y
mode st
and
sel f­
f o r he d i d not mere l y l end a hand i n the mak i ng o f the
common c o a l market but worked a s s i duou s l y to h e l p create i t , in the
process becom ing the l ead ing Ame r i can proponent of a new i ntegra ted
Europe and the dynam i c fore ign-pol icy conceptua l i z e r who guided the
Un i te d
States
i nternat i ona l i sm .
Monnet ,
out
of
prewar
i s o l a t i o n i sm
Throughout the Cold Wa r per i od ,
to
postwar
i t was J e a n
perhaps m o r e t h a n any othe r cataly s t , who i n f l uenced the
8
9
19
way Acheson perce ived the rebu i l d i ng and re structu r i ng proce s s for
postwa r Eu rope .
A ft er Wor l d War I I both Monnet ' s and Acheson ' s cont r ibut i on
to European u n i ty took the form o f econom i e a s s i stance .
The two
statesmen v i ewed Wor l d War I and Wor l d Wa r I I as components o f a
pro l onged European C i v i l War o f 1 9 1 4 - 4 5 that dest royed the Br i t i sh ,
F rench ,
German ,
Au s t r i o -Hunga r i an and ottoman emp i re s ,
and w i th
them , the o n l y r e a l sys�em o f g l ob a l arder that had ever ex i sted .
Th i s
c o l l aps e ,
they
thought ,
t r iggered the Ru s s i a n
and Ch i ne se
rev o l u t i on s , pul l i ng t he U n i ted States ou t o f i s o l ated abso rpt i on
i n i t s own and hem i sph e r i c a f f a i rs t o one o f g l ob a l respons i b i l ity .
I t wa s
plain to
short l y a ft er h i s
J ames
F.
By rne s ,
Dea n Acheson
as
early as
S eptember
194 5 ,
appo i n tment a s Undersecretary o f S tate under
that
the
preservat i on
of
such
a
wor l d
arder
requ i red the c omb i ned e f forts of both N orth Ame r i c a and Western
Europe .
No European he l d th i s conv i c t i o n more f i rm l y than J e a n
Monnet .
However ,
that
they
had
b y 1 9 4 6 i t was apparent to Acheson and Monnet
underest imated
the
econom i e
chaos
in
overe s t imated of UNRRA ' s a b i l i ty to rebu i l d Europe .
E urope
and
The eventua l
a nswer wa s the Marsha l l P l a n , or as Genera l Marsha l l pre fe rred to
cal l it ,
the European Recovery Program ( ERP } .
Monnet v i ewed the
Marsha l l P l a n as a godsend , a needed ant idote to Europe ' s econom i e
woe s .
Acheson , one o f the Ame r i can i nnova tors o f the p l a n , wrote
Monnet that an " econom i e l i fe ra f t " wa s underway .
Two years a fter Germany ' s surrender , Western E u rope rema ined
c r ipp l ed by the d es t ruct i on and d i s l ocat i on of war .
The U n i ted
20
States had prov ided re fugee re l i e f and l oans to B r i t a i n and France
s ince 1 9 4 5 , but n e i ther there nor e l sewhere i n Europe had sta nd a rds
of
l iv i ng recovered
from the wa r .
During th i s two-ye a r p e r i od
Ach e s on became conv i nced that the S ov i et U n i o n wa s emb a r k i ng on a n
" o f fens ive aga i n s t t h e Un i ted S t a t e s and t h e We s t " i n t h e Ba l ka ns
and th e M i dd l e East , p i npo i nt i ng G reece and Turkey a s part i cu l a r l y
vu l n e rab l e .
I n e a r l y 1 9 4 7 , wh en the Br i t i sh i nd icated they could
no l onger a f ford to support the roya l i s t Gre e k reg ime ,
Acheson ,
w i th
Doc t r i ne
the
help
of
Loy
Henderson ,
shaped
the
Truman
prov i d i n g $ 4 0 0 m i l l i on i n eme rgency m i l i t a ry and econom i e a id :
c ounter
" Commu n i s t "
i n surgents
i n Greece
and
to
to
strengthen the
m i l i t a ry i n Turkey .
Ache son feared that " the corrupt i o n o f G reece
wou l d
and
i n fect
I ra n ,
all
the
E a st , "
and
moreover
" . . . c a rry
i n fect i on to A f r i c a th rough As i a Minor and Egypt ,
and to Europe
through
the
Italy
and
France ,
a l ready
threa tened
by
s trongest
Commun i st part i e s in Western Europe . "
A ft e r pe rsuad i ng Congress t o app rove a i d to Greece and Turkey
in
Ma rch
1947 ,
Acheson
began
a
persona l
campa ign
of
interdepartment a l memo-w r i t ing focu s ing on European i ntegrat i on a s
a
means
d iv ided
of
s t imu l a t ing
Germany .
recovery
But
perhaps
and
s o lv i ng
Acheson ' s
the
most
prob l em
of
a
s ign i f i c a nt
cont r i bu t i o n t o European econom i e recovery wa s the t r i a l ba l l oon
he sent a l o ft in h i s May 8 ,
1 9 4 7 speech be fore the D e l t a Counc i l
i n C l ev e l and , M i s s i s s i pp i .
Truman had been schedu l ed t o d e l iver
the addr es s but sent Acheson instead .
I n the speech , a precursor
of General Ma rsh a l l ' s h i s t o r i e June 5 Harvard commencement addres s
21
propos i ng
a
ma s s ive
economie
aid
program
to
Europe ,
Ache son
out l i ned h i s v i ews of the f ive econom i e impera t ives of U . S . fore ign
pol i cy :
import a t i o n o f l arge v o l umes o f good from abroad i n orde r
to n ar row the b a l ance o f payments gap between Ame r i c a a nd the rest
of the wor l d ;
the concentrat ion o f emergency a s s i stance i n a re a s
where i t wou l d most e f fectively increase econom i e and po l i t ic a l
stab i l it y wh i l e promot ing coopera t i o n between " free " n a t i ons w i th
demo c ra t i e
Germany
i n s t i tut i ons ;
( a nd Japan ) ;
an
a c c e l erat ion
add i t i on a l
of
emergency
e f forts
to
rebu i l d
f inanc i ng
of
fore ign
purcha s e s ; and the need for Congre s s to grant execut ive author i ty
over the contro l o f c erta i n agr i cu l tura l and i ndus t r i a l mate r i a l s .
Character i z ing h i s speech as a reve i l l e to the Ame r ican peop l e to
avert the econom i e c o l l apse of Western Europe and to prevent its
fa l l ing into the Soviet orb i t , Acheson warned in conc l u s i on that
Europ e a n
recov ery
components
cou l d
not
be
comp l ete
unt i l
the
o f t h e conti nent ' s economy were working
h a rmo n i ous u n 1 o n .
national
t ogether
in
By 1 9 5 2 , over $ 1 2 b i l l i o n o f Marsha l l P l a n a id
had bee n expended , w ith over ha l f g o i ng to Great B r i t a i n , France ,
and West Germany ;
Marsha l l
P l a n made
in
add it i on ,
the notion
the
of
a
a l l -European
rev ived ,
n ature
of
the
in tegrated G e rmany
e a s i e r t o accept .
Monnet a l s o worked to rebu i l d a war-torn France .
e l ec t r i c
power
compa n i e s were n a t i o na l i z ed ; Jean Monnet i n January 1 9 4 6 ,
headed
l ib e rat io n
of
France ,
ra i l roads ,
mines ,
and
A fter the
the new l y created Comm i s s a r i a t du P l a n to prepare a c omprehens ive
p l an for the reconstruc t i on and modern i z at i on of the French economy
22
known a s the " Monnet P l an . "
A year l a ter , on January 1 1 , 1 9 4 7 , the
p l a n wa s adopted by the French government , and Monnet h ims e l f was
appo i nted
Comm i s s i on er
Gene ral
of
the
Nat i on a l
Pl ann i ng
Boa rd .
Aches o n thought the Monnet P l a n for the postwar modern i z at i on o f
France
Plan ,
"bri l l iant"
and gave
it his
fu l some support .
The Monnet
accord i ng t o h i s tori ans Arnold Z u rcher and I rw i n Wa l l , was
the f i rst step toward creat ing econom i e stab i l i ty in F rance wh ich
u l t imat e l y led to the pool i ng of coa l and steel w i th G e rmany .
I n July 1 9 4 7 ,
short l y a fte r the i n i t i a t i on o f the Marsh a l l
P l a n , Acheson l e ft the State Depa rtment to return t o pr ivate l aw
pract i c e ;
i n January
1949
he wa s summoned back
i nto government
s e rv ic e , as Pre s ident Truman ' s Se cretary of State .
Even dur i ng h i s
br i e f months a s a pr ivate c i t i z e n i n 1 9 4 8 , Ache son wrote l etters
t o many
of
his
f r i e nd s ,
pra i s i ng the
Econom i e Coope r a t i o n ( OEEC ) ,
Orga n i z a t i on
of
European
for e xamp l e te l l i ng Jean Monnet that
OEEC ' s agenda of redu c i ng trade b a r r i ers , creat i ng a customs u n i o n
a n d e a s ing rest r i c t i on s on foreign exchange w e r e forward steps to
" creat i ng a l a s t i ng peace and prosperity i n Europe . "
a ft e r Acheson ' s return to State ,
A few months
a few s imp l e handwr i tte n words
from Monnet -- " When y ou have a m i nute free I shou l d l ove to see
i n i t i ated what wou l d become a four-year j o i nt pursu i t o f
y ou . "
European i ntegra t i on .
Monnet and Acheson had much to t a l k about .
Wh i l e Acheson was
out of government , a c ruc i a l step towa rd sa fegua rd ing the Conti nent
aga i ns t a
rearmed G ermany had been taken .
On Ma rch
17 ,
1948 ,
representatives o f B e l g ium , France , Luxembourg , The N e th e r l a nd s and
23
Brita i n met
i n the Be l g i a n cap ita l
to
s ign the Brus s e l s Treaty
prov id ing not only for co l l ec t ive s e l f-de fense but a l s o for Western
Union i n the f i e l d s of cu l tura l and econom i e co l l aborat ion .
To
imp l ement the i r obj ect ives , an e l aborate orga n i z at i on was set up ,
cons i st i ng
of
fore ign
m i n i sters ,
m i l i t a ry
spec i a l i st s a n d d i p l omat i e representat ives .
the
forerunne r
of
the
next
and
much
personn e l ,
econom i e
The Western U n i o n wa s
l a rger
stage
of
con federa t i on wh ich Acheson l abo red m i ght i l y to create
m i l i tary
the No rth
At l an t i c Treaty Organ i z a t i on ( NATO ) .
In
many
ways ,
NATO
was
an
A l l i ed
response
to
the
b l ockade of Be r l in and s e i zure of power in C z echo s l ovak i a .
by such d i spl ays o f naked force ,
Canada ,
Denma rk ,
Nether l a nds ,
France ,
Norway ,
l eaders o f 1 2 n a t i ons
l e e l a nd ,
Portuga l ,
Un i ted
Italy ,
K i ngdom ,
Arou s ed
( Be l g i um ,
Luxembourg ,
Un i ted
s igned the NATO treaty i n Wa shi ngton o n Apr i l 4 , 1 9 4 9 .
months ,
S ov i et
S t at e s )
W i th i n four
the document wa s rat i f i ed by the parl i aments of a l l
memb e r c ount r i e s .
The
its
At negot iat ions for the p roposed treaty Acheson
not on l y s t r es s ed i t s s ign i f icance a s a deterrent but a s gua rd i a n
o f the v a l u e s o f We stern c iv i l i z a t i on :
" Our n a t i ona l secur i ty i s
v it a l ly a f fected b y t h e security o f the North At l a n t i c are a .
The
peop l e s
and
of
the
c iv i l i z at i on .
North At l an t i c
in
a
common h e r itage
We North At l a n t i c peop l e s share a common fa ith in
fundamenta l hurna n r ights ,
persan ,
a re a have
the
in th e d ign ity and worth of the human
p r i nc i p l e s
of
democracy ,
persona !
f reedom
and
po l it ic a l l iberty . "
24
A l though Ache son and Monnet c once ived o f NATO pr ima r i l y a s a
m i l i t a ry a l l i ance for " j o i nt determ i n a t i o n o f the part i c ipat i ng
nat ion s to res i st a rmed attack from any country , " one a l s o can see
that they were fu l l y aware o f its l a rger purpo s e s .
By 1 9 5 2 , they
had come to rega rd the t reaty orga n i z a t i on as a s p r i ngboard w i th
wh i ch t o l aunch a broader A t l a n t i c Commu n i ty .
" Wh i l e the immed i a te
t a s k o f the N orth A t l ant i c Treaty o rgan i z at i on i s to bu i l d m i l i ta ry
strength as rap i d l y as p o s s i b l e , the importance o f NATO i n the l ong
run goes
f a r beyond the creat i on of m i l i t a ry s trength , " Acheson
sa i d on March 1 0 ,
mora l s t rength .
of
1952 .
" There must be econom i e and soc i a l and
Future hope l i e s i n the dev e l opment o f a commun ity
free peop l e s ,
strong i n the i r m inds and hearts
as
in the ir
resources - s trong enough to meet a ny cha l l enge that may be o f fe red
by those who s t i l l hold the anc i ent doct r i ne that m ight makes r i ght
a nd who regard the fundamenta l human asp i ra t i ons and sympat h i e s o f
our peop l e s a s weakne s s e s t o b e desp i s ed . "
Acheson and Monnet
never b e l i eved the m i l i tary , po l i t i c a l or econom i e a spects
a l l i ance
cou l d ,
in
Acheson ' s
words ,
be
separated
of
in
the
the
" inte l l ectua l equ i v al ent of a c re am s eparator . "
Ache son ' s many contr ibut i ons to NATO - h i s l obby i ng Cong ress
to
pass
Art i c l e
5,
his
s te l l a r
d i p l oma cy
at
the
1952
Li sbon
Conf erence , h i s r o l e in creat i ng a West G e rman gove rnment out o f
the
three
Western
undi sputed .
h im
that
a re
z ones
we l l
documented
and
I t su f f ices to say that Acheson wa s one o f NATO ' s
master bu i l ders .
to
occupat i o n
the
When he became Secretary o f State i s wa s apparent
econom ie
recovery
of
Europe
wa s
not
enough .
25
M i l i t a ry
s t rength
aggre s s i on ,
wa s
a l so
needed
to
con front
pos s i b l e
S ov i et
for the West wa s d iv i ded , d i sorga n i z ed and u n a rmed .
I n a s e r i e s o f notab l e speeches from 1 9 4 9 t o 1 9 5 3 ,
Acheson
l ectured what then was com i ng to be c a l l ed the Free World on how
to bu i l d a dete rrent to wa r th rough u n i t y and s t rength .
From the
moment he t ook the cha i r in London at the F i rst Work i ng S e s s i on o f
the N orth At l a n t i c Counc i l
i n May
1 9 4 9 unt i l h i s December 1 9 5 2
f arewe l l importu n i ng progress towards i ntegrat i on and the At l a n t i c
partne rsh i p , he never t i red o f promot i ng un ity i n t h e We st . " U n i ty
i n Europe requ i re s the cont i nu i ng assoc i a t ion and support o f the
Un i ted States , "
Acheson
repeate d l y
Europe wou l d spl i t apart . "
i n s i sted .
" W i thout
it
Free
Before Ache son de l ive red h i s December
fa rewe l l addre s s he had a l ong t a l k w i th Monnet on the i ntegra t i on
progre s s .
The speech r e f l ects Monnet ' s conv i c t i on that Ach eson
shou l d u s e the phra s e ' un ity o f Eu rope ' .
I n h i s e f fort s , Acheson
had not o n l y the working support o f Jean Monnet , but a l s o Konrad
Adenauer , A l c i de di Gaspe r i , D i rk S t i kke r , Pau l -Hen r i Spaak , Lord
Franks , a nd Robert S chuman .
" The i r i nnovat i ons o f po l it ic a l ideas
and methods were a s s t artl ing as those t a k i ng p l ace i n phys i c s , "
Ache son a ss e rted i n 1 9 6 3 .
" The i r concept i on o f supranat i on a l and
i rrevocab l e ru l e s adm i n i st ered by common i n s t i tu t i on s empowered to
make dec i s i on s b ind i ng upon i nd iv idua l s and member c ount r i e s wa s
a s f a r - reach i ng a s the concept ion o f n a t i o na l i sm i n the f i fteenth
century . "
As
Sec retary
European - i n i t i ated
of
State ,
i ntegra t i on
Acheson
genera l l y
programs
that
approved
po inted
in
most
the
26
d i rect i o n o f u l t imate p o l it ica l
federat ion .
But ,
in 1950 ,
when
Senator J . W i l l i am Fu lbr ight , who chai red the Ame r i can Comm ittee
f o r a Free and U n ited Europe ,
economi e
dependence
on
the
federat ion , Acheson ba l ked .
spoke o f E urope mov i ng away from
Un ited
States
and
toward
p o l it i c a l
Europe wa s not yet econom i ca l l y se l f ­
su f f ic i ent , Acheson responded , and wa s thus i ncapab l e o f meaningful
pol i t i c a l u n i f i ca t i on .
" Wh i l e there i s grow ing popu l a r debate i n
Europe on the prob l em o f federat i on , ne ither the peop l e nor the i r
gove rnmen t s appear ready f o r th i s step , " Acheson stated bo l d l y o n
March 1 3 , 1 9 5 0 .
Europe had not yet reached the l ev e l o f stab i l ity
a nd dev e l opment necessary for a s ound federa t i on , nor had Europea ns
yet
psycho l og i ca l l y
overcome the i r
unbr i d l e d nat i ona l s overe ignty .
f i rmly
to
Wh i l e acknow l edging that Europeans
had the " r ight t o d e c i de democrat i c a l l y ,
d id when ,
rooted attachment
how and whether they w i l l
Wash i ngton Pan -European i s t s l i ke
as our found i n g f athers
federa te , "
he
f rowned upon
Fu lbr ight who had pass ionat e l y
embraced W i n ston Church i l l ' s 1 9 4 6 ca l l for the e s tabl i shment o f a
Un ited States
of
Europe and whose
p o l i t i c a l federa t i o n for Europe now .
overheated
rheto r i c demanded
Accord ing t o Ache son E urope
had to s e t i t s own pace w ithout pressu re f rom Wash ington .
I t t ook
the c omb ined e f fo rt s o f Jean Monnet and F rench M i n i s t e r Robe rt
S chuman t o turn h im into a n outr ight b e l i ever i n a u n ited Europe .
Whe n Monnet proposed that France take the l ed i n estab l i sh ing
an i nternat i o n a l authority ta regu l ate c o a l and s t e e l product ion ,
Acheson wa s a ston i sh ed ; i t sounded l ike " the damndest c a r t e l I have
ever heard of i n my l i fe . "
But the more he thought about i t , the
27
more h e r e a l i z ed Monnet • s i n sp i red s cheme m ight be the s o l ut i on to
ove rcomi ng the pers i stent dol l a r gap wh i l e end i ng Ge rmany • s " pa r i ah
statu s " a s we l l .
The S chuman P l a n c a l l ed for b r i n g i ng the who l e
Wes t e rn European coa l and steel i ndust r i e s into a s i ng l e market .
On May 7 , 1 9 5 0 , Schuma n i n fo rmed Acheson i n Pa r i s , p r i o r t o te l l ing
h i s own c abi net c o l l eague s , of h i s p l an t o announce the c oncept o f
a coa l a nd s t eel commu n i ty i n two days .
The S ecretary o f State was
thr i l l e d a t Monnet • s cu n n i ng and S chuma n ' s ne rve , even a ft e r hav i ng
been
f orced
to
endure
a
tongue
l a s h i ng
a
few days
l at e r
from
Br i t i sh Fore ign M i n i st er E rnest Bev i n for not in form i ng London o f
Schuman ' s proposa l .
Acheson made i t unm i staka b l y c l e a r t o Bev i n ,
a man h e grea t l y esteemed ,
dev e l op
a
European
that the Un ited Stat e s wa s t ry i ng to
pol icy
and
that
the
so -ca l l ed
spec i a l
re l at i onsh i p w ith Br i t a i n ran counte r t o th i s cont i ne nt a l approach .
The
S ecretary
government ' s
estab l i shment ,
the
of
State
refusal
wou l d
to
be
d i sappo i nted
part i c ipate
in
at
d i scus s i ons
p l an " ,
Acheson
has
Br i t i sh
for
ECSC
" The g e n i u s o f
a s the Schuman Plan became known .
S chuma n -Monnet
the
written ,
" l ay
in
its
prac t i c a l , commonsense approach , i t s avo i dance o f l im it a t i ons upon
s overe ignty and touchy pol i t i ca l
ea rthy than coa l and stee l ,
common
d i rect i on
of
prob l em s .
Wha t cou l d be more
or more des i ra b l e than a poo l i ng a
France
and
Germany ' s
coa l
and
ste e l
i ndu s t r i e s . "
Wh i l e Acheson rea l i z ed Monnet wa s the father of E CS C , h e never
unde rest imated the c ruc i a l ro l e Schuman p l ayed in its genes i s .
In
S ketches from L i fe o f Men I Have Known ( 1 9 6 1 ) , Acheson devotes an
28
e f fus ive chapter to Schuman ' s postwar te na c i ty .
However , Acheson
never had the s ame warm persona! re l at i onship with S chuman that he
had
w i th
Monnet ;
neverthe l e s s
extreme l y product ive .
the i r
pro f e s s i ona l
rapport
To Acheson , Monnet was a c i t i z e n o f Europe ,
a man who thought i n terms o f wh at wa s best for Eu rope .
Acheson rea l i z ed ,
was
wa s a
Frenchman
f i rst and
S chuman ,
a European s econd .
Wh i l e Ache son never b e l i eved Europea n u n i ty cou l d become a rea l ity
unless
" th e
system , "
he
French
( d id ]
wa s
fact
in
someth i ng
won
ove r
about
to
the ir
the
cons ti tut i on a l
European
i ntegrat i on
movemen t part l y becau se o f h i s adm i ra t i on for French i ngenu ity a l a
J e a n Monnet and Robert S chuman .
seated weakn es s
of
the who le
Acheson wou l d te l l co l l eagues ,
" I th i nk the i nherent ,
a l l i ance
of
the
We s t
is
deep­
France , "
" but at the s ame t im e there i s the
greatest i nvent iven es s and i ngenu i ty com ing out o f France , and [ the
S chuman P l a n ] was a b r i l l i a nt idea . "
to the S chuma n P l a n that
He ob served w i th re ference
" . . . the most te rr i b l e prepa ra t i on
d ip l omat i e l i fe is the tra i n ing i n Ang l e-Saxon l aw .
the
spu r i ou s
idea
categor i ca l ly wha t
to
be
th ings
you
spec i f i e :
mean .
Peop l e
t ry
who have
for
That g ive s you
to
f i nd
rea l l y
out
great
constructive ideas don ' t re a l l y know what they mean . "
Dur i ng h i s years as Secretary o f state ,
Ache s on constant l y
strove t o create a prom i nent l eade rsh ip r o l e for France .
" I have
a lways kept in my m i nd the words you had spoken to me one day ,
the presence o f our l ate co l l e ague Bev i n :
l eadersh i p in Europe . ' ,
a fter
both
had
returned
' France must have the
Schuman wrote Acheson on March 5 ,
to
pr iva te
1 i fe .
in
"It
was
for
1953 ,
me
a
29
programme
and
a
persona!
respons ib i l ity .
It
a l so
meant
estab l i shment between us o f a mutu a l re l i ance wh i ch neve r ,
du r i ng the most d i f f i cu l t debates .
t rusted
each
oth e r w i th
sorne
the
eve n
When we exchanged m e ssages or
con f i dence ,
we
knew we
expressed
ou rse lves w i th tot a l conv i c t i on and f rankness . "
Acheson , E DC and Monnet ' s Act i on Cornrn i ttee
f o r a Uni ted S tates of Europe
To de f l ect constant Ame r i c a n pressures a f ter the war for a
rearrned Gerrnany , Jean Monnet proposed to French Prime M i n i s ter Rene
Pl even that he dev i s e a p l an
( s oon known as the P l even Pl a n )
to
a l l ow for gradu a l German rearrnarnent w i th i n a l a rger European a rrny ,
or European De fense Cornrnun ity ( E DC ) .
From th e start French pub l i c
op i n i o n was host i l e to t h e i d e a o f E DC ,
to parade once more
for b y perrn i t t i ng G e rrnans
in rn i l itary un i forrns
s i de-by - s id e w i th the
French it wou l d grant a k i nd of mora l equiva l e ncy .
s igned the Bonn peace contract on May 2 6 ,
A l though France
1 9 5 2 and the E DC treaty
a day l at e r , the t reaty cou l d not t ake e f fect w i thout rat i f i c a t i o n
by t h e s ix European par l i aments .
Monnet knew that the rat i f i c at i o n
proce s s wou l d be l ong , a nd its outcorne was a lways i n doubt .
A l though a separate organ i z a t i on , E DC wa s t o b e cons i de red an
i ntegra l
Lisbon
part of NATO ,
Con ference
in
a structure Acheson had approved a t the
February
1952 .
Ache son was
d e l ighted
at
Monnet ' s idea o f a European a rrny , for i t was expected to reduce the
dol l a r
gap ,
strengthen
NATO
a nd
e ase
the
burden
on
Arne r i c a n
f i nances a t a t irne when t h e Cold W a r requ i red Wash i ngton t o a s s ume
a g l ob a l rn i l i t a ry posture .
"We regard E DC a nd NATO , " Acheson sa id
30
a t L i sbon i n 1 9 5 2 ,
be
" a s i nterconnected i n st i tut i ons .
comp l ete w i thout
c omp l ete .
the
othe r .
NATO w i thout
E DC w i thout NATO has d i f f i cu l t i e s . "
N e i ther w i l l
E DC
will
not
be
The French d i d not
share Acheson ' s opt i m i sm about the re l i ab i l ity o f a rem i l i t a r i z ed
Germany
as
an
a l ly ,
so
Ache son
a nd
Monnet
l aunched
a
publ i c
re l at i on s campa ign t o conv ince them otherw i s e .
Short l y a ft er the i n it i a l ing o f the May EDC treaty ,
a nnounced Ame r i c a n
European un i ty :
support the
backing
for
E DC
and
the
gene r a l
Acheson
concept
of
" The Un ited States w i l l cont i nue to encou rage and
e f forts
of
the
statesmen
and peop l e s
of
E u rope
to
ach i eve a c l o s e a n d endu r i ng un ity becau s e we a re conv i nced that
th i s
unity
will
contr ibute
substant i a l l y
to
the
strength
and
prosper i ty o f our European f r i ends and to the success o f our mutua l
e f forts to ma i nta i n peace i n the world . "
Short l y
meet i ng
be fore
his
i n Decemb e r 1 9 5 2 ,
fa rewe l l
addre s s
to
the
NATO
Monnet c a l l ed o n Ache son .
Counc i l
Concerned
about French S oc i a 1 i st and Br i t i sh roadb1 ocks t o the EDC , Monnet
u rged
Ache son
Commun ity
to
stress
Ame r i c a n
i n h i s NATO speech .
comm i tment
to
the
Defense
Ache son wa s s l igh t l y put - o f f by
Monnet ' s i n s i s tence that it wa s up to Wa sh i ngton to app l y pressure
on Europe to a ccept E DC .
" S omet imes i t seemed t o m e that Monnet
forgot - as do the rest of us - Just ice H o l ines ' s admo n i t ion tha t
cert a inty i s n o t t h e test o f cert i tude , " Acheson wro:te i n Present
a t t h e Creat i o n .
" The t roub l e seemed to me to run f a r deeper and
t o l i e at the very root of popu l a r acceptance of European un ity .
I po i nted out to h im the ama z ing d i stance the Un i ted S t at e s had
31
gone , o ften i n coope rat ion w i th European i n i t i a t ives as b r i l l i a nt
as they were novel . . . Now mome ntum i n Europe wa s be i ng
l o s t and
retrogre s s i on had set i n to the p o i n t o f threate n i ng d i s a ster . . . I t
wou l d b e qu i xot i c ( for Ame rica ) t o cont inue
Europeans were g iv i ng up the strugg l e .
( push ing E DC )
i f the
I f the European Defense
Commun ity went to p i eces , I foresaw great d i f f i cu l t i e s for the new
adm i n i strat i o n .
What wa s hard for me t o understand was how the
German s and French , who had seen u s go t o great l e ngths to respond
to
statesmanl ike
de fense and
e f forts
future ,
as
on
the ir
part ,
cou l d
they were now d o i ng ,
risk
the ir
own
i n petty p o l i t i c a l
squabb l i ng . "
Wh i l e Acheson ' s NATO speech d i d str i ke the un ited Europe theme
Monnet had wanted ,
it was h i s Janua ry
14 ,
1953 ,
f a rewe l l
State
Department n ews c o n f e rence , wh i ch spec i f i ca l l y focused on the need
for EDC .
Adm i t t ing that gett i ng the French to rat i fy EDC was a n
uph i l l batt l e , he po i nted out that the S chuman P l a n had a l so faced
f o rm i d ab l e obsta c l es :
"I
th i nk that we can be opt i m i s t i c and not
pess i m i s t i c about the fut:u re of the European d e fe nse s commun ity . "
I t wou l d devolve upon Pre s id ent - e l ect Dw ight D . E i s enhower to se e
to i t that the EDC and European po l i t i c a l u n i ty became r e a l i t i e s .
For the next e i ght years o f E i senhower ' s pres i dency , Monnet ,
for
the most part ,
ignored Acheson .
Wh i l e
he
d id
send h im
a
gene rous t e l egram upon h i s stepp i ng down a s secretary o f state , not
once d u r i ng these years d i d he w r i t e Acheson to s o l i c i t h i s adv i ce .
The two met a few t imes i n Pa r i s and New York , but Ache s on wa s no
l onger a key p l ayer i n the European integrat ion proce s s s o Monnet
32
f ocused h i s energ i e s on the Ame r ic a n dec i s i onmakers that matte red :
Dav id K . E . Bruce , Doug l a s D i l l on , Robert Bow i e , and i n part i cu l a r ,
John Foster Dul l e s .
When word o f Ame r i c a n Pre s ident-e l ect E i senhowe r ' s s e l ec t i o n
o f J oh n F o s t e r Du l l e s to serve a s h i s secreta ry o f s t a t e reached
J e a n Monnet i n Par i s , the e l a ted Frenchma n immed i a t e l y f i red o f f
a t e l egram t o h i s c l o se f r iend o f ove r 3 0 years :
nom i nat i on has moved me very deep l y .
" News o f your
It is a source of j oy for me
a s you r devoted f r i end . . . The burden is heavy but the task ahead i s
great and the reward fu l l o f prom i s e i f peace cannat o n l y b e kept
but deve l oped .
To a t t a i n th i s goal
I b e l i eve that the present
creat i o n of a Un i ted States of Europe i s e s sent i a l and I know how
rouch you share the s e conv ic t i ons . "
E i s enhowe r y e a rs ,
Monnet was us i ng
Thu s ,
f rom the out set of the
old Ame r i c a n
conne ct i on s
to
l obby on beha l f of EDC .
Monnet f i rs t met Du l l e s at the Pa r i s Peace Con ference o f 1 9 1 9 ,
where Du l l e s was s e rv i ng as a n adv i so r to Pre s ident Woodrow W i l son .
An
i nt ima t e
f r i endsh ip qu i c k l y e nsued a nd a s the y e a r s pas sed ,
Monnet l ea rned to adm i re Du l l e s ' s " st rength o f characte r " ,
auth o r i ty " and " br i l l i a nt " l ega l i s t i c t a l ents .
been more p l ea sed w i th E i s enhower ' s cho ice ,
"moral
He cou l d not have
for Monnet knew from
prev i ou s conversat i o n s w i th Du l l es that he was strong ly comm i tted
to the rat i f i c a t ion of the EDC .
24 ,
When Du l l e s d i ed o f cancer on May
1 9 5 9 , Monnet was the on l y fore igner among the p a l l b earers .
I n e a r l y Febru ary 1 9 5 3 , l e s s than a month a ft e r E i s enhowe r ' s
i naugura t i on ,
Du l l es l a nded h i s F l y ing Fortre s s in Lu xembou rg to
33
observ e f i rsthand the i naugura t i on o f the ECSC .
Du r i ng the course
of the i r extended conversa t i ons ,
Monnet a sked Du l l e s to name an
Ame r i ca n amba s s ador to the ECS C .
Du l l e s honored the request and
n om i nated
Dav i d
K. E .
Bruce 1
a
l ongt ime
p roponent
of
European
integra t i on a nd an o r i g i nator of the concept of the European a rmy .
Monnet 1 s h igh recommenda t i on o f Bruce appears t o have been wha t
determ i n ed Du l l e s 1 s
s e l ec t i on 1
for Monnet though t Bruce br ight 1
eager and l oya l the reby represent i ng the " h i ghest trad i t i o n o f [ a n ]
Ame r i can [ d i p l oma t ] . "
Bruce wa s a wea l thy Ba l t imore l awyer and Democrat i e c a reer
f ore ign s e rv ic e o f f i ce r w ith c l ose t i e s to Dean Acheson a t a t ime
when S en a tor J o e McCa rthy 1 s hatchet-w i e l d ing
camp a i g n wa s
Depa rtment .
decap i t a t i ng
Du l l e s
repercu s s ions
from
was
the
sorne
" pos i t ive
o f the best heads
rel uctant
venomou s .
to
r i sk
l oy a l ty "
in
the Sta te
negat ive
pol i t ical
Congres s i ona l
Repub l i can
i s o l a t i on i st w i ng by appo i nt i ng a l iberal Democrat l i ke Bruce to
a European Coa l a nd Steel Commun i t y wh ich reeked o f co l l ect i v i sm .
Monnet
rem i nded
Du l l e s
that
he
h imse l f
had
s erv ed
the
State
Depa rtment when the Republ icans were out o f power and that Bruce
was the best man for the j ob so why not put p o l i t i c s a s ide and
app o i nt h im .
Monnet 1 s pragma t i sm and l obby i ng e f forts p reva i l ed .
On February 1 9 1
Du l l e s w i red Monnet i n Luxembourg te l l ing h im o f
Bruce 1 s appo i ntment a s U . S . Repre sentat ive t o the Coa l and S t e e l
Commun i ty
and
u.s.
I nt e r i m Comm ittee .
observer
to
the
European
De fe ns e
Commu n i ty
" Th i s appo i n tment i s o f course i nd i ca t ive o f
the great i mp o rtance wh ich the Pres ident a nd the u . s .
government
34
attach t o the s e movements i n Europe to deve l op a un i f i ed s i x nat i on
Commun ity , "
Du l l es t o l d Monnet i n the cab l e .
The app o i ntment o f Bruce came a s a re l ie f t o Aches on .
He
imme d i a t e l y f i red o f f a congratu l a tory l etter to h i s o l d f r i end ,
stre s s ing that for the sake o f E DC ' s future i t wa s e s sent i a l that
the new adm i n i st ra t i on put prompt empha s i s o n the cont i nu i ty o f
interests a nd act ive support for a l l facets o f European federa t i on .
Acheson
also
told
Bruce
that
it
was
extreme l y
i mportant
for
E i senhowe r to undo the grow ing impre s s i on throughout the Cont i nent
that a Korean Wa r consumed Ame r i c a wa s d i s i nterested in European
un ity .
From 1 9 5 3 to 1 9 6 0 Bruce became Ache son ' s Ame r i c a n i n formant
o n European happen ings .
Const a n t l y bol ster i ng Ache sons '
sagg i ng
mora l e w ith opt i m i s t i c reports o f i ntegra t i o n advancements , Bruce
a l so
upd ated h i s f o rmer boss on Monnet ' s manuver ings .
In 1958 ,
a s France wa s hav ing c o l o n i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n North A f r i ca , Bruce
wrote
Acheson
that
he
wa s
" deep l y
pe s s i m i s t i c
over
the
North
A f r i c a n s i tua t i on . . . J e a n Monnet ought to be emp l oyed to deve l op a
Con federa t i on there . "
I n one exchange o f correspondence both Bruce
a nd Ache son r ef e rred to Monnet as " the father of European u n i ty . "
A ft er the beg inn i ngs o f the common market o f coa l i n Februa ry
fo l l owed by
steel
on
May
1,
1953
a
f lu rry o f
l auda tory Monnet
pro f i l es appeared i n European and Ame r i can maga z i n e s and j ourna l s .
Upon read ing s orne o f the s e p i eces , Bruce wrote Dul l e s , who i n turn
wrote E i se nhowe r ,
Monnet ,
that g iven the pos i t ive pub l i c ity surround ing
the m an many were c a l l ing " Mr .
Europe , "
i t wou ld be an
exce l l ent idea to i n v i t e Monnet to Wa sh i ngton for a day o r two as
35
the o f f i c i a l guest o f the government .
That May ,
a fte r rece iv i ng
a n honorary doctorate f rom C o l umb i a Un ivers i ty ( he l at e r rece ived
honora ry
degrees
f rom
Pri nceton ,
Ox ford ,
Dartmouth ,
Ya l e
and
G l a sgow , but none from a French or cont inental i ns t itut i on ) , Monnet
was
i nv i ted
to
the
Wh i te
E i s enhower and Dul l e s .
f l e x ib l e E i s enhowe r .
Ch i e f
of
A l l i ed
House
to
d i s cuss
ECSC
and
E DC
w i th
Monnet l i ked and respected the undogma t i c ,
When
Forces
I ke had been app o i nted Commander
in
Eu rope
in
Ap r i l
1951 ,
he
made
p e r fect l y c l ea r t h a t he w a s aga i n s t creat ing a European a rmy .
on June 2 1 ,
a ft er a s i ng l e conversat ion w i th Monnet ,
his
know i ng
f i rs t
f ul l
persua s i on .
Wh i t e
we l l
House
that
I ke
meet ing
was
w i th
Pre s ident
sus cept i b l e
to
it
But
E i s enhowe r
Monnet went
changed h i s m ind a nd voc a l l y endorsed the EDC proj ect .
i nto
in
E i s enhower
his
a rt
of
W i th E i s enhower c oncentrat i ng on end i ng the Korean
Wa r , Monnet wa s on l y g iven a ha l f hour w i th the new Pre s ident i n
wh ich they d i s cus s ed French uncert a i nty regard ing E DC .
Monnet now
had a n o f f i c i a l Wh i t e Hou s e cha nne l , the Pres ident , t o present h i s
ideas to .
French oppos i t i on t o the E DC , wh i ch began i n 1 9 5 2 , con t i nued
t o grow i n 1 9 5 3 , c o i n c id ing w ith the r i s e of Cha r l es DeGau l l e .
The
dea th o f S ta l i n in Moscow and the end o f the Korean War se emed to
make Ge rman rearmament l e s s press i ng .
Du l l e s ,
at the u rg i ng o f
Monnet and ethers , attempted to force France to rat i fy t h e treaty
by threaten i ng an
" agon i z i ng reappra i s a l "
of U . S .
Western Eu rope shou l d they f a i l to support E DC .
pol icy toward
By 1 9 5 4 ,
a fte r
French r everses i n I ndoch i na , the EDC appea red to the F rench a s y e t
36
a nother b l ow to the i r van i sh i ng m i l i t a ry prest ige .
1954 ,
under the government o f
P i erre-Mendes
On August 3 0 ,
France ,
N a t i o n a l A s s emb l y f i n al l y rej ected the t reaty .
the
French
Ache son v i ewed the
rej ec t i on as a severe s etback to European i ntegra t i on and Western
m i l i t a ry
cooperat ion .
Po l it i c a l
Commun i ty
W i th
a l so
re j ec t i on ,
c o l l apsed .
the
To
a
proposed
deep l y
European
d i sappo inted
Acheson , the ECSC now appeared a n i s o l ated outpost of i ntegrat i on
i n a Eu rope reve rt i ng a l ong nat i ona l i s t i c l i nes .
Fur i ous ove r the f a i l u re o f EDC , Acheson b l amed E i s enhowe r and
Dul l e s '
a nd
condescend i ng att i tude t oward the French be fore ,
a ft er the
o ldest
ally
to
fal l
of
rej ect
D i enb i enphu
the
t reaty .
for
hav i ng
Common
dur i ng ,
caused Ame r i c a ' s
sense ,
he
thought ,
demanded that the U n ited states d e a l t a c t fu l ly w ith France ;
and
spec i f i ca l ly not i s sue " agon i z i ng reappra i sa l " u l t i mata .
Acheson v i ewed E i senhower ' s l itany o f threats t o Europe
( end i ng a rros d e l ive r i e s to the Con t i nent , w i thdraw i ng s i x m i l i t a ry
d iv i s i on s f rom G e rmany , ra i s i ng the specter o f end i ng a l l fore i g n
a id i f a European a rmy i nc l u d i ng German t roops d i d not mater i a l i z e )
a s counte rproduct ive e f f rontery .
" EDC , and perha ps the beg i n n ing
of
Eu rope ,
the
po l i t i c a l
commun ity
of
wou l d
not
have
been
impos s i b l e i f pressure had been ma i nta i ned for a nother y ea r ,
and
i t c ou l d have a f fected pro found l y a l l that f o l l owed in the decade
of
the
S chuma n .
f i ft i e s , "
Acheson
wrote
in
I n a l e tter to a f r i end ,
his
e s s ay
pra i s i ng
Robert
Acheson took th i s be l i e f one
step fu rther , c l a im i ng that i f the nat i on a l e l ec t i on had been h e l d
i n t h e f a l l o f 1 9 5 3 i nstead o f the fa l l o f 1 9 5 2 , France wou l d have
37
rat i f i ed
E DC
imp l emented
a
and
Europe
w i d e - ra nge
l ead in g to po l i t i c a l
wou l d
of
have
in
i ntegra t i on
federa t i on .
mach i ne -gun
measure s ,
fash i o n
u l t imate l y
" Ve ry great momentum had been
gathered in Europe and i n th i s country , not mere l y in strengthe n i ng
our
m i l i ta ry
p o s i t i on ,
but
in
t a k i ng
l ong
steps
towa rd
the
un i f i ca t i on of Europe - the Li sbon Con ference in February 1 9 5 2 ; the
succe s s fu l re s o l u t i on by m i n i sters of the prob l ems in the way o f
the European De f en s e Commun ity ; the steps wh i ch that treaty wou l d
have c a l l e d f o r s i x months a fter
i t s rat i f i cat i o n to beg i n the
c re a t i o n of a po l i t i c a l commun ity - a l l of wh i ch , f o l l owing on the
succes s fu l Schuman P l a n a nd d i s cu s s ions of a common market , etc . ,
I th i nk wou l d have gone through i t the wor l d had not come t o a fu l l
stop when the po l it i c a l convent i on s met i n the surnme r o f 1 9 5 2 , "
Acheso n wrote i n 1 9 5 8 .
" At that t ime i t wa s c l e a r t o everyone i n
the w o r l d th at , whoever w a s i n power i n the Un i t ed States a fter the
e l ec t i o n ,
was not a nyone then in powe r .
[ Robert ) Ta ft react i on were great .
The poss ib i l i t i es o f a
Eve ryth i ng came t o a stop , and
the momentum h a s never been rega i ned . "
Because the ent i re postwa r un i f i ca t i on o f Eu rope appeared t o
be s l ow l y d i s s o l v i ng because o f t h e weakn e s s e s a nd m i stakes o f a
Repub l i can
adm i n i strat i on ,
Acheson
i ntegra t ion baton for the Democrats .
pract i ce ,
d e c i ded
to
p i ck
up
the
Put t i ng as ide h i s p r ivate law
he began pou r i ng h i s e nergy ,
soul and comm i tment i nto
art i c l e s and speeches on the need for a new European u n i ty program .
Meanwh i l e i n Europe , Monnet ' s mandate as Pres ident o f the ECSC H igh
Author i ty wa s due to expi re on Febru ary 1 0 , 1 0 5 5 .
On N ovember 1 1 ,
38
1 9 5 4 , Monnet had shocked many by unexpecte d l y a nnounc i ng he wou l d
not put h ims e l f u p f o r the ECSC pres idency .
E l even months l ate r ,
on October 1 3 , 1 9 5 5 , he l a unched a new European un ity p rogram :
Act i on C omm i ttee for the Un ited States of Europe .
the
From then on ,
i t was Jean Monnet and h i s Act i on Comm i ttee , more tha n any oth e r
persan
and
o rgan i z a t i on ,
that
i n f l uenced Acheson 1 s
out l ook and
ideas concern ing the integra t i on movement .
Monnet knew that the very name - Act i on Comm i t tee for a U n i ted
States
of
Europe
wou l d
have
i n f luent i a l Ame r i c a n f r i e nd s ,
an
automa t i c
appe a l
to
his
f r i ends h e needed i n h i s corner i f
movement toward a un ited Europe were to adva nce .
Monnet has d e c i ded to re f l ect on E DC 1 s
" It appears that
fa i l ure , "
Acheson wrote
Bruce short l y a fter the Action Comm i ttee was created .
But Monnet
re fused to j us t " re f l ec t " on the E DC setback , he immed i a t e l y poured
h i s energy ,
wh i ch
had
soul and comm itment into o rga n i z ing a po l i t i c a l l obby
n e i th er
o f f icial
stand ing
nor
powe r ,
but
i n f l uence on renew ing t h e movement for i ntegra t i on .
mere l y
an
To Monnet ,
there was no a l ternat ive for the peop l e o f Europe but u n i ty .
The
s o -c a l l ed " Eu ropean i st s " were part i a l l y to b l ame for the down fa l l
o f the E DC , Monnet cha rged , because they had fa i l ed t o w i n over the
support of the work i ng c l a s s .
To c o rrect that overs ight , Monnet
i nv ited the d i rectors of European l abor u n i on s , heads of soc i a l i s t
p o l i t ic a l part i e s a nd important bus i ne ss e l ite s f rom the s i x E C S C
members t o p a rt i c ipate i n t h e re l aunch ing o f Europe .
strides
i n g a i n ing s o c i a l i s t ,
non-Commun i s t support
He made great
in G e rmany ,
wh i ch wa s no sma l l a ch i evement cons i d e r i ng that the G e rman S o c i a l
39
Democrats had voted i n the German Pa r l i ament aga i n s t both ECSC and
the E DC .
I n F rance , Monnet brought non-Gau l l i s t po l i t i c a l part i es ,
the t rade u n i o n s and s oc i a l i s t party l eader Guy Mol l et i nto the
un ited Eu rope movement .
The immed iate goa l Monnet had i n m i nd was
t o b roaden the ECSC by put t i ng the product ion
e l ectr i c i ty
un i came ra l
under
the
j ur i sd i c t i on
l e g i s l a t ive
a s semb l y
of
wou l d
the
of petrol eum and
H igh
con t i nu e
Autho r i ty .
to
s erve
A
the
expanded commu n i ty .
Acheson con t i nued h i s b i tter and unrem i t t i n g pub l i c thra s h i ng
o f the E i s enhowe r adm i n i strat i on for the fa i l ure o f E DC unt i l Dav i d
Bruce i n f o rmed h im o f t h e re l aunch ing o f t h e Europe idea a t the
Mes s in a Con ference o f June 1 - 2 , 1 9 5 5 .
There , the fore ign m i n i sters
of the S i x chose Rene Mayer to succeed Monnet a s Pre s ident of the
ECSC H igh Author i ty and dra fted a b l ueprint for further a c t i on to
advance European i ntegrat i on .
The Mes s i na d i scu s s i ons c u l m i nated
i n the creat i on of the Europea n Econom i e Commun i t y
European Atom i c Energy Commu n i ty ( Euratom )
on March 2 5 ,
In
a nd the
2 1 months l at e r ,
when ,
1 9 5 7 , the S i x s igned the Treat i e s o f Rome .
m id -January
Comm ittee ' s
( EE C )
1956 ,
intent i on
to
Monnet
l obby
had
a nnounced
for a n a tom i c
his
energy
Act i on
comm i s s ion
mode l e d a ft er the Coa l and Stee l Commu n i ty .
From th a t moment unt i l
the
rat i f i ed
Trea t i e s
of
Rome
were
s igned
and
by
the
six
p a r l i aments over a year l ater , Monnet d i sa s s o c i a ted h ims e l f from
the idea o f the Common Ma rket ,
t o p romote Euratom .
in stead u s i ng h i s Act i on Comm ittee
Monnet c l a ims he re fused to support the Common
Market because h i s pol i t i c a l i n s t i ncts t o l d h im that the Fre nch
40
Pa r l i ament
wou l d
re j ect
th i s
trad i t i on s a s i t h a d the E DC .
cha l l enge
to
European
i ntegra t i on i st
protect i o n i s t
The European I ntegrat i on movement
cou l d not surv iv e a nother E DC - l ike setback .
that
the i r
shou l d
I nstead , Monnet a rgued
concentrate
on
promo t i ng
Euratom i n ord er to bo l s ter Europe ' s nu c l ea r e n e rgy i ndustry wh i l e
renounc ing nuc l e a r weapon s on beha l f o f a l l the membe r state s .
To
Monnet ' s cred i t even though he had o r i g i n a l l y sh i ed away from the
Common Ma rket conv inced that Euratom shou l d be g iven p r i o r i ty o f
deve l opment a s the focal p o i n t o f the European Econom i e Commun ity ,
once the Rome treaty had been s i gned he fu l l y supported i t .
But
by
his
dogged l y
showcas i ng
Amer i ca n f r i ends ,
the
supposed v i rtues
of
Euratom
to
wh i l e at the same t ime downp l ay ing the Common
Ma rket , Monnet had u n f o rtunate l y l ent h i s powe rs and pe rsua s i on t o
t h e wrong caus e .
The EEC Treaty ' s immed iate obj ectives for i t s memb e r states
were the estab l i shment of a customs u n i on w ith free movement o f
good s ,
the d i smant l i ng o f quotas a nd barri ers t o t rade ,
i nt roduct i o n o f
free movement of persans ,
and the
s e rv i c e s and cap i ta l .
" Even w i thout Ame r i can he l p , the un i f i ca t i on o f Europe h a s p i cked
up , " a n e nthus i a s t i c Acheson wrote a c l os e f r i end .
h im the most ,
howev er ,
was that the Treaty prov ided
po l i c i e s on ag r i cu l ture a nd tra nsporta t i on ,
extern a l
trade po l i cy ,
Wha t e ncouraged
a nd taxa t i o n
for common
a soc i a l po l i cy ,
auth o r i ty .
Euratom ,
an
wh ich
prov ided f o r the j o i nt deve l opment of nuc l e a r energy for peace fu l
purposes wh i l e
renounc ing nuc l e a r weapons on beha l f o f
member state s , sounded to Acheson " . . . too good to be t rue . "
all
the
He was
41
r ight , because France saon turned away f rom Euratom , opt i ng i nstead
for
a
nuc l ea r
supporter
u rg i ng .
of
force
of
its
Euratom we l l
own .
i nto
the
Acheson
rema i ned
1960 1 s ,
ma i n l y
a
at
staunch
Monnet 1 s
Yet by the t ime J" ohn Kennedy moved into the Wh i t e Hous e ,
Euratom was
a
d i nosaur and
DeGau l l e had des igned the
force de
f rappe .
" The
success
of
the movement toward u n i ty
i n the West
of
Europe i s no l onger i n doubt , " a n opt im i s t i c Acheson wrote short l y
a ft e r t h e Trea t i e s o f Rome had been s i gned .
progres s i s undec ided .
the
The Coa l a n d S t e e l Commun i ty , Euratom , and
Common Market have been a ccepted .
p o l i t i c a l commun ity a re on the way . "
to
c o n f ront
a
new
l ack
of
S ov i et
l aunch i ng
of
sa te l l i t e , on October 5 ,
Demo c ra t i e
Adv i s o ry
Look de fense
Sputn i k ,
1957 .
cuts
common
commun i ty
and
Acheson 1 s i ntegrat i on i sm had
con f idence
in
Ame r i can
Add i ng to the l os s o f prest ige wa s
Comrn i tt e e ,
spend i ng
A
European
l eadersh i p a ft er Suez debac l e .
the
" O n l y the rate o f
the
f i rs t
a rt i f i c i a l
e a rth
As foreign-po l i cy cha i rman o f the
Ach e s o n
c 1 a i rn e d
and mass ive
that
if
reta l i a t i on
I ke ' s
New
pol icy were
a l l owed to cont i nue , the S ov i ets wou l d soon have " a m i s s i l e edg e "
ove r Amer i ca .
E i s enhower ' s
Troub l ed
perce ived
by
t remors
i nept i tude
in
the At l an t i c
a nd
Khruschev 1 s
Commu n i ty ,
Cold
Wa r
cocki ne s s , Ache s o n worked a s s iduou s 1 y to re as su re Arne r i c a ' s a l l i e s
o f Wa sh i ngton ' s cont i nu ing comm itment to Eu rope .
a
new
p o l i cy
and
Ame r i c a n
pres ident
that
He began to seek
wou l d
promote
bath
European un i ty and At l a n t i c partnersh ip .
42
The Atlant i c Partnersh ip
When
John
Pre s ident i a l
F.
Kennedy
e l ec t i on ,
de feated
l ea d i ng
R i chard
Europeans
Adenauer made the i r d i s appo i ntment known .
wanted
cont i nu i ty
and
expe r i ence
in
N i xon
such
in
as
the
1960
DeGau l l e
and
These European state smen
internat i ona l
a f fa i rs
to
emana te from Wash i ngton , not fash i onab l e rhetor i c f rom a re l a t ive l y
unknown geopo l i t i c al nov i ce l i ke J FK ;
t o m i nd .
Monnet had a n i ngen i ou s way o f ma i nta i n i ng c l o s e Ame r i c a n
f r i ends i n bath p o l i t i c a l part i e s .
conti nued
h i gh - l ev el
ru sty
I f N i xon won , Monnet cou l d have
consu l ta t ions
Adm i n i strat i on h o l dovers ;
his
but J e a n Monnet d i d not se em
w ith
the
E i s enhower
wh i l e i f Kennedy won , h e wou l d resurrect
f r i endships w i t:h the
old Truman Adm i n i st ra t i o n gang ,
part i cu l a r l y Georg e Ba l l , John McC l oy and Pau l N i t z e ,
a group o f young Turks l ike Henry owen and J .
But
the
classic
rega rd i ng
his
examp l e
of
r e l a t i onships
Monnet ' s
w i th
Robert Schaet z e l .
chame l eon
Ame r i c a n
a l ong w i th
l i ke
stat esmen
behav i o r
is
his
w i th
the
h i s most u s e f u l Wash i ngton a s s e t .
As
f r i endsh i p w ith Dean Acheson .
Dur ing
the
Kennedy
except i on of Ge orge Ba l l ,
prev i ou s l y n oted ,
corre sponded
era
Monnet
found
Acheson ,
throughout the E i senhowe r years ,
o r met w i th
his
old
f r i end
worki ng c o l l eague o f the Truman p e r i od .
and
Monnet s e l d om
former product ive
But a fte r Kennedy won the
e l ect i o n and app o i nted Acheson to s e rve as cha i rman o f the Adv i sory
Comm ittee on NATO , Monnet immed iate l y began wr i t i ng Ache son rare
personal l etters on h i s European u n ity ideas .
Ache s on , a staunch
be l i ever in European i ntegrat i on , wa s back in government
i f onl y
43
i n a n u no f f ic i a l capa c i ty
every
other
sound i ng
·
- -
board
and Monnet wa s go i ng t o u s e h im a nd
he
cou l d
f i nd
to
b r i ng
his
Act i on
Comm i ttee ' s i d e a s to the young Pres ident ' s attent i on .
Short l y a ft er I naugura t i o n Day , Kennedy , who was d i s appo i nted
a t Ache son ' s
immed i at e
re f u s a l
of
the NATO
amba s s ador i a l
post ,
a s ked i f he m i ght a t l e a s t be w i l l i ng t o rev i ew the ove ra l l NATO
s ituat i o n and re-eva l uat e both U . S . m i l i t a ry obj ect ives i n the wake
of
Du l l e s '
d i s a strous
mass 1ve
reta l i a t i o n
p o l i cy
and
European
a f fa i rs in genera l s i nce the b i rth of the Common Ma rket in 1 9 5 7 .
Acheson agreed to serve a s ch i e f d e facto con su l t a nt on At l an t i c
Commu n i ty a f f a i r s once i t w a s made c l e a r that he wa s n o t b e i ng
app o i nted to a spec i f i e o f f ice .
He wanted to rema i n fre e to work
for h i s l aw f i rm w i thout b e i ng subj ected to c on f l i c t of i nterest
charges ,
and
had
no
des i re
con f i dence , wanted no pay ,
to
occupy
a
pos i t i o n
of
trus t
and
and needed no State Depa rtmen t desk -
- he s im p l y wanted t o feed the Pres i dent i d e a s on NATO and European
(85)
a f fa i rs .
On Febru ary 8 ,
19 6 1 ,
Pres ident Kennedy o f f ic i a l l y announced
Ache s o n ' s n ew pos i t i on a s cha i rman of h i s adv i s o ry comm i ttee on
NATO .
to
H i s a s s i gnment :
study the prob l ems
o f NATO and the
Common Market and beg i n prepa rat ions for meet i ng a new c r i s i s over
Ber l i n shou l d one erupt .
the
S tat e
d ocument s .
Ame r i ca ' s
f i rs t
original
i ntegrat i on movement
task ,
as
he
expectat i on s
in genera l
nat i on a l
con f ident i a l
rev i ew i ng
Depa rtment
His
Aches on spent Febru a ry and March 1 9 6 1 a t
of
s i nce
saw
it ,
NATO
wa s
a nd
1949-50 .
s e cu r i ty
to
summa r i z e
the
European
Next ,
h e wou l d
44
a s s e s s the resu l ts o f the Sov i e t acqu i s i t i on o f nuc l e a r powe r , the
further deve l opme nt o f thermonuc l e a r weapons by the U n i ted State s ,
and the b i rth o f the European Common Marke t .
Further , Ache son was
supposed to eva l uat e h i s data in l ight of European d i s content ove r
Ame r i c a 1 s
nuc l e a r
monopo l y ,
a s s i sted
by
the
ne w
S e c re ta ry
of
De fense Robert McNamara a s we l l a s Robert Bowi e , Foy Kah l er , Robert
Kome r , Paul N i t z e , Wa l t Rostow , Henry Owen and A l bert Woh l stetter .
The result w as the Acheson Report ,
(86)
At l a n t i c
Prob l ems
for
the
Future , "
a
or " A Rev i ew o f North
7 4 -page
p roposed
d i rect ive f o r Nat i on a l Security Counc i l cons iderat i on .
(87)
p o l i cy
I n the
report , Acheson for the f i rst t ime o f f ic i a l l y recommended that the
a l l i ance move away f rom dependence on U . S . nuc l ea r powe r and u rged
that mu l t i l at era l NATO convent i ona l
i ncreas ed .
forces
in Europe be great l y
He drew heav i l y on an Apr i l 1 9 6 0 pol icy paper wr itten
Tasks for the 1 9 6 0 1 s "
by Robert Bow i e " The North At l a n t i c Na t i ons :
and
R i dgway
s o l i c ited
and
r ecommendat i ons
Ma xwe l l
Tay l o r .
from
Monnet
Lau r i s
and
Norstad ,
D i rk
Matthew
S t i kker
of
The
Nethe r l a nds were the o n l y Europeans whom Acheson consu l ted be fore
turn i ng
d i rect :
in
his
f in a l
report .
Monnet 1 s
adv i c e
to
Acheson
wa s
make sure that the rev iew " unequ ivoca l l y " supported the
EEC and B r i t i sh membersh i p to the o rga n i z a t i o n .
Conta ined
in
the
Acheson
NATO
report
were
the
Kennedy 1 s amb i t i ous new approach t o European a f f a i rs ,
De s ign .
seeds
of
the Grand
I t t r a n s l ated into the general Monnet n o t i o n o f a European
u n i on w i th i n an At l a n t i c partne rsh ip .
On Apr i l 2 1 Kennedy approved
Acheson 1 s rev i ew as h i s o f f i c i a l 11 Po l i cy D i rect ive Regard i ng NATO
45
and the At l an t i c Nat i on s , " set forth i n NSC Memora ndum No . 4 0 , and
d i s s em i nated it throughout government for impl ement a t i o n .
a re exce l l ent papers , "
24,
1961 ,
Pre s i dent Kennedy wrote Acheson on Ap r i l
" They w i l l prov i de a bas i s
At l a n t i c nat i on s .
" These
for our pol i cy t owa rd the
I am d i rect ing that spec i f i e act i ons be taken
to ensure that the i r c onc lus i ons a re urgen t l y c a r r i e d out . ''
The
G rand
De s i gn
had
concrete
obj ec t i ve s :
(92)
fac i l itat i ng
Br i t i sh entry i nto the European Commun ity , i n part , by d i scred i t i ng
Br i t i sh percept i on s o f a " spec i a l re l a t ionsh i p " between the U . K .
and
U.S. ;
i ncrea s i ng
t a r i f f barr i ers ;
f o rce s ;
a nd
i ndependent
( MLF ) .
to
U. S.
exports
by
reduc i ng
trans -At l a n t i c
conv inc ing Europe to b o l ster i t s convent i on a l
persuade
nuc l ea r
forces
European
in
nat i on s
f avor
of
to
f orgo
deve l op i n g
t h e mu l t i l ate ra l
force
Except for the MLF , wh i ch Acheson d i d not favor unt i l l ater
i n 1 9 6 3 , his NATO Po l i cy Rev i ew a rt i cu l ated how the s e G ra nd De s ign
obj ect ives cou l d be rea l i z ed .
Much o f the report focused on how
t o overcome DeGau1 l e ' s nas cent force d e frappe because i t was a
dangerous imped iment to a un i f i ed Europe .
A week a ft er Kennedy appo i nted Acheson t o conduct the NATO
Rev i ew , Acheson rece ived a phone ca l l from Jean Monnet .
As Acheson
rel ayed the story to Joe Al sop , Monnet told the former s ecretary
o f state that he had " s orne new ideas he wa nted t o bounce o f f h im
soon . "
" Y ou
Secretary ? " ,
a re
st i l l
recept ive
to
new
Monnet teas i ng l y a sked Acheson .
ideas
"I
' rn
a re n ' t
you
Mr .
st i l l recept ive
to your s a rd i ne s andw i ches and Ch r i stmas cognac , " Ache son rep l ied ,
" bu t spare me any b o l d new ideas , the Kennedy c rowd has a monop o l y
46
o n those and they ' 1 1
end up broke . . . s t i c k to the one good idea
you ' ve a l ready got [ Europea n un i f i cat i on ] and l ets work t o expand
it . . . but p l e a s e l e t s use the words ' sound ideas ' and avo i d the word
' new ' " ·
A ft er a l it t l e more good-natu red banter i ng ,
f r i ends
agreed
to
meet
soon
i n Wash ington .
A
the two o l d
few
da y s
Acheson rece ived a spec i a l d e l ivery package f rom Monnet :
l a te r
a f l a shy ,
l at e 1 9 5 0 ' s Hawa i i a n - s ty l e neckt i e , the k i nd Acheson l oved t o wea r
when he wa s d r i nk i ng mart i n i s .
Laugh i ng Acheson t o l d A l sop that
" Monnet wa s the o n l y man he enj oyed b e i n g b r i bed by . . . he knew how
t o do i t w i th understated f l a i r . "
Acheson a l s o t o l d A l sop that he
knew h e was back i n the Wh ite House f o l d " because Monnet wa s once
aga i n u s i ng h im t o advance h i s u n i ted Europe cause . "
A l s op ,
Accord i ng to
Acheson was suscept ib l e to Monnet ' s ove rtures because he
knew h i s f r i end wa s not t ry i ng to adva nce h im s e l f but advance h i s
Act i on C omm ittee i ntegrat i o n ideas .
I n fact ,
whom
were
Acheson became j u st one o f many former a s s oc i a t e s
app o i nted
Adm i n i strat i on ,
Ba l l ,
C.
to
p l ay
p rom i nent
ro l es
in
Kennedy ' s
and who s e f r i endships Monnet dusted o f f .
Doug l a s
D i l l on ,
McGeo rge Bundy ,
Pau l N it z e ,
J.
G eorge
Robert
Schaetz e l , Sta n l ey C l ev el and , Arthur Ha rtma n , Tom F i n l ette r , Dav id
Bruce ,
Robert
a rch i tects
of
Bow i e
and
Kennedy ' s
a
of
others ,
De s ign
program
host
G rand
many
for
a
who
became
renewa l
of
m i l i t a ry and econom i e coope rat i on between the Un i te d States and
Western Europe ,
were mak i ng pol icy and Monnet wanted to get h i s
i d e a s across t o them .
Monnet
had
i n f l uenced
At one t im e or another s i nce the 1 9 4 0 ' s ,
all
of
these
men
and
othe r
Kennedy
47
Adm i n i strat i on State , De fense a nd Treasury o f f i c i a l s into fav o r i ng
a nd
crea t i ng
i n s t i tut i ons
and
pol i c i es
that
wou l d
promote
the
un i f i ca t i on of Europe and a trans-At l a n t i c p a rtne rsh i p between a
u n i ted
Europe
McGeorge
Bundy
and
Bu ndy
l ooked
the Un ited
d i st anced
upon
State s .
h i ms e l f
these
Out
f rom
l�t l a nt i c i st s
amu s ement and occ as i ona l annoyance .
of
th i s
Monnet ' s
wi th
a
group
grand
m i xture
only
v i s i ons .
of
fond
As the MLF debate grew , Bu ndy
pej ora t iv e l y dubbed these Eurocent r i c statesmen " the o l og i ans " for
they
were
constant l y
p re ach i ng
the
Monnet
gospel
of
At l a n t i c
Partnersh i p i n c l ud i ng nuc l e a r sha r i ng .
L i ke
Monnet ,
Kennedy
surrounded
h ims e l f w i t h
m i nds , most o f whom were pro-European un ity .
concerned , t h i s re f l ected we l l on J FK .
b r i ght
young
As f a r a s Monnet wa s
George Ba l l , who had worked
c l os e l y w i th Monnet on p l ans for the ECSC in the l ate 1 9 4 0 ' s and
who l ate r represented i t and severa l other Common Ma rket agenc i e s
i n t h e Un i ted State s , w a s part i cu l a r l y wel l - s ituated a s Kennedy ' s
Unde rsec ret ary
of
State
for Monnet
to
l obby
the
Pres ident
for
Amer i c a n support of B r i t ish entry i nto a n e n l a rged E E C and a new
At l an t i c pa rtnersh i p .
On Ache son ' s recommenda t i on t o Ba l l , Monnet
wa s i nv i ted to the f i rs t of three lu ncheons at the Kennedy Wh i te
House o n Ma rch 6 , 1 9 6 1 to d i s cu s s NATO , the A l g e r i a n c r i s i s a nd the
Common Ma rket .
Kennedy
wa s
s i ncere ly
intr igued
by
Comm ittee and Monnet ' s i dea s on European un i f icat i on .
Kennedy
wou l d
award
Monne·t ,
Commun ity , the Freedom Meda l . )
the
father
of
the
Coa l
the
Act i on
( In 1963
and
Stee l
Monnet was l i kew i se impre s sed w i th
Kennedy , a nd h i s Memo i r s are f i l l ed w i th pra i s e o f J FK the man , h i s
48
creat ive v i s i o n o f the world a nd h i s s t r i ct e s towa rd a ch i ev i ng " an
equ a l partnership between the Un i ted States and a un i ted Eu rope . "
Acheson rea l i z ed that the mere presence o f Mon net i n the Wh ite
House wou l d h e l p Kennedy remember that DeGau l l e o n l y spoke for a
fract i on o f Europeans and that the maj o r i ty o f the
c i t i z e n s s t i l l supported
a
u n i ted Europe .
cont i nent 1 s
I n h i s famous Ju l y 4 ,
1 9 6 2 Ph i l a d e l ph i a speech , wh i ch was worked on a t v a r i ou s stages by
George Ba l l , J .
Robert Schaet z e l ,
and Henry Owe n ,
Kennedy c a l led
for a t rue " At l a nt i c pa rtne rsh i p " between the U n i t ed States and the
" u n i t i ng of Europe . "
Monnet 1 s Act i on Comm i ttee , on June 2 6 , 1 9 6 2 ,
i s sued a reso l ut i on , wh i ch Monnet had prev i ou s l y run by Acheson for
s ugge s t i ons ,
and
1n
many
way s
c l os e l y
resemb l e s
the
econom i e
sect i o n o f Acheson 1 s NATO Po l i cy Rev i ew i n support o f Kennedy 1 s
ca l l
for
an
At l a n t ic
Commu n i ty ,
stat i ng
that :
" the
econom i e
pol i t i c a l un ity o f Europe i n c l ud i ng Brita i n [ who had app l ie d for
entry i nto the EEC ]
and the e stab l i shment o f re l a t i ons of equ a l
partnership w i th t h e U n i ted s tat es , a l one w i l l make i t pos s i b l e to
conso l idate the West and so create cond i t i ons f o r l a st i ng peace
between
East
and
West . "
Ache son
1 i ked
bath
Monnet 1 s
Act i o n
Comm ittee reso l u t ion a nd Kennedy 1 s Ph i l ad e l ph i a speech b u t c r i nged
at the i r u s e o f the phra se " equa l partnersh i p ; " h i s expe r i ence a s
a l awyer l e d h im to i n s ist that he h a d s e e n and been engaged l n
nume rous partne rsh ips , but never o n e that wa s equa l .
Throughout h i s b r i e f pres idency ,
cou n s e l
f rom
Ache son
on
all
aspects
Dur i ng the Berl i n Cr i s i s o f 1 9 6 1 ,
Kennedy constant l y sought
of
U . S . - Eu ropean
a f fa i rs .
Acheson headed a spec i a l t a sk
49
force and i t was h i s report , " The Ber l i n Cr i s i s " subm itted on June
2 8 that s e rve as the bas i s for a l l the fo l l ow i ng NSC d i s cu s s i ons
that summ e r unt i l the August 1 3 S ov i et c on s t ruct i o n of a barbed
w i re b a r r i cade between E a st and West Ber l i n , soon to b e known the
wor l d ove r as the Be r l i n Wa l l .
p o l i cy t owa rd A f r ica ,
w ho
was
ab l e
to
i t was Acheson more than any ether adv i s or
conv ince
JFK
adv i s o rs - - Ad l a i S tevenson ,
John
Kenneth
I n Wh ite House deba t e s over U . S .
that
his
" A f r ica
Ches te r Bowl e s ,
were
G a l bra i th
for
Africans"
S oapy W i l l iams and
" woo l yheaded
l ibe ra l s "
who
understood noth i ng about the de l icate tran s i t i on Ame r i ca ' s European
a l l ies
were
g o i ng
c o l o n i a l rul e .
through
in
the i r
e f forts
to
d i s engage
f rom
Dur i n g the Ango l a -Azores debate o f 1 9 6 2 , Acheson
wa s ab l e to p a rt i a l ly conv i nce Kennedy that the purpose of the " the
interna t i ona l
orphan
a s y l um ,
the
Un ited
Nat i o n s "
wa s
to
usurp
Amer i ca n powe r , and the adm i n is trat i on had t o stop vot i ng aga i nst
Portuga l o r a ny NATO a l l y f o r that matter i n that forum .
Acheson
const a nt l y warned Kennedy that i f h i s adm i n i s t rat ion con t i nued to
vote aga i n s t European a l l i e s i n the U . N . , NATO wou l d b e weakened ,
the European m ovement f o r greater po l i t i c a l un i f i ca t i on wou l d be
sta l l ed and any pos s i b i l ity of a " new At l a n t i c Commu n i ty " wou ld
col l aps e .
O f the s i x v i s it s to Eu rope wh i ch Acheson made f rom 1 9 6 1 to
1963 ,
most
on
Kennedy ' s
beha l f ,
he
v i s ited
Monnet
eve ry
t i me ,
except once dur i ng the Cuban M i s s i l e Cr i s i s when Kennedy asked h im
to meet Adenauer f o r an emergency b r i e f ing .
" The day I had hoped
to see you I was sent on to t a l k w ith the Cha nce l l o r i n Bonn , "
50
Acheson wrote Monnet .
i n forma t ive
( to me )
" I t was u s e f u l . . . but not a s p l easant or
as a n hour or two w i th you wou ld have been . "
Acheson u s e t o t e l l Luke Bat t l e that i t wou l d not b e a worthwh i l e
European t r i p i f h e d i d not get i n a t l eas t a n hour " j aw s e s s i o n "
o n current a f f a i rs w i th J e a n Monnet .
Short l y a fter the Cuban M i s s i l e C r i s i s , Acheson wrote Monnet
comp l a i n i ng about weakn es s in the West , DeGau l l e ' s cont i nued ant i ­
Br i t i sh b i a s ,
the med iocr i ty o f world l eadersh ip ,
the " s l own e s s "
o f the wh o l e Eu ropean i ntegrat ion process a n d the s e em i n g l y e nd l e s s
cri s i s
i n the At l an t i c A l l i ance wh i ch made a broader
Commun ity " appe a r unrea l i s t ic .
"Atlantic
Monnet took i s sue w i th Ache son ' s
b l e a k a s s e s sment o f the wor l d s ituat i o n .
" I am not p e s s im i s t i c a s
to the cond i t i ons o f t he wo r l d , " Monnet wrote back to Ache son .
"It
i s i nev i t ab l e that Europe and the Un ited States move on d i f ferent
wave l ength s .
pa rt ne rsh i p
They a re d i f ferent . . . The way to get th i s [ At l ant i c ]
is
for
Europe
f i r st
Engl and shou l d be part o f i t ;
t o get
un i f i ed
and
for
th i s ,
then Europe and the Un i ted States
shou l d dea l j o in t l y w i th prob l ems that n e i ther of them c a n solve
by themse lv es , such as moneta ry stab i l i ty , a id to under-deve l oped
c oun t r i e s or a g r i cu l tur al surp l uses .
As the i nterests w i l l become
more a nd more un i f i ed , the p o l i t i c a l v i ew w i l l become more and more
Th i s may be a cyn i c a l v i ew , but I th i nk that i f we want
commo n .
men to u n i te , we mu s t u n i te t h e i r interest f i rst and for th is it
is n e c e s s a ry that they accept to act accord ing to the s ame ru l e s
adm i n i stered by common i ns t i tut ions .
I know that th i s may appear
t o be
in
a
l ong proce s s ,
but a
cha nge
the a t ti tude
of men
is
51
neces s a r i l y a s l ow proce s s .
I th i nk th i s i s what we a re do ing a nd
i n fa c t th i s i s wha t i s happe n ing . "
Ache son
thought
it
wa s
e a sy
for
his
f r i end
Monnet
to
be
opt irn i s t i c .
Wa s not the purpose of the Act i on Cornrn i ttee to promote
all
of
a spects
l eade rsh i p
But wh i l e
the
European
i ntegra t i on
moveme nt ,
to
prod
the
in the Western Cap i ta l s to th i nk broa d l y and b o l d l y ?
approv ing
o f t h e Act ion
Cornrn i ttee 1 s pub l i c
re l a t i ons
a c t iv i t i e s , Acheson a l so thought that the o rga n i z a t i on wa s we a k a nd
handcu f fed by the obs t ruct i o n i s t e f forts o f DeGau l l e .
The general
had power ,
peop l e wi th
powe r ,
sorneth i ng
of
no
use
in
stopp i ng
Br i t i sh entry i nto the Common Ma rket .
he l p :
1 ike-rni nded
Monnet had o n l y channe l s to
DeGau l l e
from
veto ing
" Monnet , a nd h i s peop l e can
they a re good at organ i z i ng support for a new id e a whe n the
opponent is i gnorance or i nert i a , " Acheson wrote S chaet z e l on Apr i l
1,
1963 .
" But they ca nnet l ead aga i nst DeGau l l e .
power bas e . "
They have not
Yet i n th i s sarne l etter to Schaet z e l , Acheson qu oted
l i ne a ft er l i ne from a speech Monnet had recent l y de l ive red i n New
York and suggested to the Deputy Ass i stant Se cretary o f S tate for
At l an t i c
A f fa i rs
that
Monnet 1 s
stress ing the
he
study
very
importance
care fu l l y
o f moneta ry
the s e
ideas
of
stab i l ity t o the
West .
Throughout the 1 9 6 0 1 s , Acheson de l ivere d d o z e n s o f speeches
prornot i ng
the
At l a n t i c
Partne rsh ip
idea ,
i nc l ud i ng
Br i t i sh
rnernbersh i p to the EEC a nd the reun i f icat ion o f G e rrnany w i t h i n a
u n i ted Europe .
Out o f a l l th e se addre s s e s , o n l y one , h i s Decernber
1 9 6 2 West P o i n t speech , brought i nternat i on a l attent i on .
Pra i s i ng
52
the i d e a s beh i nd the Grand Des i gn and promot ing the devel opmen t o f
new
At l an t i c
reach ing
Commu n i t y
nature , "
" pol i t i c a l
Acheson
ca l l ed
i n s t i tut i on s
for
a
ne w
of
a
most
dynam i sm
fa r­
in
the
a l l i ance ' s p o l i cy and for more conven t i o n a l forces in Eu rope .
For
the
for
most
part ,
the
speech
wa s
a
v i ntage
Acheson i a n
strengthe n i n g and extend ing the A tl ant i c Commun i ty ;
ca l l
howeve r , m i d ­
w a y through the addre s s , Ache son a s s erted that , " G reat Br i t a i n has
l ost a n emp i re and has not yet found a rol e . "
Th i s port i on of the
speech wa s t ran sm i tted across the At l a n t i c to Engl and the fol l ow i ng
day where i t was imme d i at e l y f ront page news .
The B r i t i sh were
outraged by Acheson ' s ha rsh j udgment of the i r country and pub l i c
outcry
ensued d i sproport i onate t o the actual
speech .
expose
To
the
re l a t i on s h i p
s t r i ke a b l ow at the
t ime-honored
as
b e i ng
of
the
" spec i a l re l at i o nsh i p " wa s to
convent i ons
i l lu sory .
importance
of
the
A l though
Ang l o -Ame r i ca n
many
p o l i t i ca l l y
soph i s t icated B r i tons conceded that Acheson had s a id n oth i ng that
they thems e lv e s had not sa id p r ivate l y ,
they were s t i l l angry --
Pr ime M i n i st er Haro ld Macm i l l i a n in part i cu l a r -- that the former
Secretary of State made the statement he d id publ i c l y .
For Acheson , the " spec i a l re l a t i onsh ip w i th B r i ta i n had a lways
been grea t l y exaggerated ,
i f it e x i sted a t a l l .
From the t im e o f
the 1 9 4 5 postwar l oa n t o the 1 9 6 2 West Po i nt speech , Acheson wa s
a lways among the f i r s t i n Wa sh i ngton to recommend rebu f f i ng Br i t i sh
requests
for
spec ia l
concess ions .
As
a
support e r
of
E u ropean
i ntegrat i on Acheson wa s impat i ent w ith mak i ng too much of Ang l o-
53
Ame r i can t i es because they wou l d a l so be a n obsta c l e for B r i ta i n
j o i n i ng Eu rope a s a Common Ma rket member .
As i f Wash i ngton ' s l ack o f fu l l consu l tat i on d u r i ng the Cuban
cri s i s
and
Acheson ' s
West
Po int
speech
were
i nd i cators o f B r i t a in ' s decl i n ing i n f luence
Decembe r 1 9 6 2 ,
not
c l ea r
in Ame r i c a ,
enough
by l ate
London was a l so caught i n a ma j or de f e n s e cr i s i s
caused b y the Kennedy adm i n is tra t i on ' s cance l l a t i o n o f a n a i r-tc­
surface
miss ile
cal l e d
Skybol t ,
a
weapon
e ssent i a l f o r t he Roy a l Air Force .
B r it a i n
regarded
as
I t now appea red that Ame r i c a
wa s t ry i ng t o deprive B r i t a in o f nuc l ea r capab i l i t y .
rea l shocker came to the West when on Janu a ry 1 4 ,
Howeve r , the
1963 ,
DeGa u l l e
a nnounced h e wou l d veto B r i t i sh entry i nt o the Common Ma rket .
Wh i l e
many
in
the
Kennedy
adm i n i s t ra t i on
overreacted
to
DeG a u l l e ' s veto , Acheson casua l l y noted that i t wa s t o be e xpected
o f DeGau l l e and i t wa s no reason for the West to become a l a rmed .
Howeve r ,
Acheson ' s con f i dence wa s tempora r i l y d e f l ated when ,
January 2 3 ,
1963 ,
on
DeGau l l e and Adenauer s i gned the Franco-Ge rman
cooperat i on t reaty .
a nd I
" Chance l l o r Adenauer made a m i stake
t h i n k a s e r i ou s one - - i n s ign i ng the French treaty whe n he d id , "
an
exa sperated
B i rrenbach .
DeGa ul l e ' s
Acheson
" Th e
des ign
wrote
Chance l l or
[ of
French
G e rman
has
i ndust r i a l i st
never
l eade rsh ip
understood
in
Eu rope )
Dr .
Kurt
Genera l
nor
the
und ign i f i ed and demean ing ro l e des igned for h im and for G e rmany .
He h a s be l i eved that h i s p l a ce
i n h i st ory wou l d be that o f the
reconc i l e r o f France and Germany
a p l ace l ong s i nce occu p i ed by
Me s s i eur s S chuman and Monnet .
Ne ither nat i on has today the powe r ,
54
i nterest , o r i n c l i na t i on to return to the fut i l e host i l i t i es o f the
past .
H i s r e a l rol e ,
i f he but knew i t ,
wa s to cement together
Western Eu rope and North Ame r i ca . "
By wr i t i ng powe r fu l po l em i cs ,
cand i d l y expre s s i ng h i s v i ews
on the i s sues , by app e a r i ng on t e l ev i s i on news shows , by l ectu r i ng
to
c o l l ege
congre s s iona l
and
u n ivers i ty
comm ittees
and
aud i e nce s ,
by
g iv i ng
tes t i fy i ng
d o z ens
of
be fore
addre s s e s
numerous pr ivate i n st itu t i on a l mee t i ngs and con ference s ,
at
Acheson
did more to extol the v i rtues of the EEC than any other Ame r i can
statesman in the V i etnam e ra .
He rema ined opt i m i s t i c about the EEC
expand i ng into a broader At l a n t i c Commu n i ty wh i ch wou l d i n c l ude the
Un i t ed
State s ,
fathers ,
canada
Acheson
a nd
Bri t a i n .
cont i nued
to
As
ins ist
one o f
that
NATO 1 s
f ound i ng
ma i nta i n ing
and
strengthen ing the po l i t i c a l , m i l itary and e conom i e t i e s w i t h i n the
At l a nt i c Commun i ty wa s the corners tone on wh i ch Ame r i ca n fore ig n
pol i c y rested .
But by the l a te 1 9 6 0 1 s , Acheson the advocat e had
grown d i s i l l u s i oned w i th both Ame r i ca n a nd Europe a n l eadersh ip , a nd
to a
l e s s e r degree Monnet 1 s constant che e r l ead ing .
DeGau l l e 1 s
doubl e veto o f Br i t i sh entry to the E E C , the fa i l u re o f MLF , Fre nch
w i thd rawa l
f rom the NATO
i n tegra ted m i l i t a ry comma nd structure ,
France 1 s woo i ng o f the S ov i et U n i on beh ind Ame r i c a 1 s back and LBJ 1 s
and N i xon ' s abs orpt i on w i th V i etnam , depres sed a n age i ng Acheson .
He f e a red the " g reat enterp r i s e " was s l ow l y d i s s o l v ing , w i th th e
Common Market turn i ng i nto more o f a bureau crat i e paper m i l l than
the
forward mov i ng
d reams .
supranat i ona l
organ i z a t i on
of
Jean
Monnet 1 s
B l a m i ng the " pauc i ty o f l eade rsh ip " i n the West on such
55
" utter i ncompetent s " a s Br i t i sh Pr ime M i n i ste r Haro l d W i l son a nd
West G e rman Cha nce l l or W i l l y Brandt , a l ong w i th Ame r i c a n Pres idents
Lyndon J ohnson and R i chard N ixon ,
imag i ne that Monnet ' s bo l d ,
Acheson found i t d i f f i c u l t to
i nnovat ive i ntegrat ion measures could
preva i l over the bureaucra t i e ba ckwa sh from the Western c a p i ta l s .
In
a
1970
l et t er
to
I nst itute in Berl i n ,
Shepard
S t one ,
the
d i rector
of
the
Aspen
Acheson revea l ed h i s l ongstand i ng a f fect i on
for Monnet , wh i l e a l so expre ss i ng h i s doubts a s to the l i ke l ihood
that Common Market cou l d adva nce econom i ca l ly or po l i t i ca l l y i n the
near future :
" I am de l ighted to hear that l e grand Je an i s we l l
and c a n s t i l l hand l e h i s wi ne s and v it t l e s .
I
see
h im
next
he w i l l
te l l
me ,
as
he
I am sure that when
a l ways
does ,
that
the
u n i f i c a t i on of Europe is j u st a round the corne r , a l though i t does
I n a l etter to
seem to me that that corner is a reced i ng one . "
Brit i sh Labour M . P . De smond Donne l l y that same y e ar , Ache s on took
on a more me l a ncho l y t one :
a
worn-ou t
s l ogan . . . I ' m
" Eu ropean un i f i cat i o n now sounds l i ke
gett i ng
to
old
to
be
a
ph i l osoph i c a l
opt i m i s t l i ke Monnet . "
Conc l us i on
Throughout
the
1960 ' s ,
Monnet
and
Ache s on
s e emed
to
overe st imate the pos s ib i l i t i e s of the Grand Des ign and the At l a n t i c
pa rtne rsh ip , a n d const a n t l y de l uded themse lves about the rea l i t i e s
o f M L F and Br i t i sh entry i nto the Common Ma rket .
they u nderest imated the i r r iv a l Cha r l e s DeGau l l e .
a n i n d i ctmen t of Monnet a nd Acheson .
At the same t ime
But th i s i s not
For the two ag i ng statesman
56
saw the i r m i s s i on a s b e i ng to promote , i n fact to i n sp i re i nterest
in the not i o n of a u n i te d Europe .
F rom the s i g n i ng o f the t reat i e s
o f Rome , we l l i nto t h e 1 9 7 0 1 s a p e r i od many h i s t o r i a n s re f e r to a s
the s econd wave o f European i ntegrat i on , there w a s no shortage o f
nat i ona l i st i c
Amer i ca .
cyn i c s
and
obstruct i o n i s t s ,
both
in
E u rope
and
Even wh i l e Acheson 1 s opt im i sm dw i nd l ed , Monnet saw i t a s
his dut y t o n ev er l o s e s ight of his u l t imate goa l ,
opt i m i s t when
the c a rds were stacked
t o rema i n an
aga i n s t h im and when h i s
equa l l y enthus i a s t i c but l e s s ded icated be l i evers i n European un ity
chose to ca l l
i t qu i t s .
The comb ined s t rength o f th i s At l a nt i c
Commu n i t y , both men thought , wou l d render g l oba l w a r obs o l ete , l e ad
to the c o l l aps e of
the S ov i e t tota l i t a r i a n system ,
and a l l ow a
" f i n e wor l d " federated sy stems mode l ed a fte r the Un i ted S tates to
f l ou r i sh i n Western Europe .
The prob l em the h i st o r i a n e ncounters when rummag i ng through
the Ache s o n -Monnet co rrespondence and re l ated documents from th i s
period
i s j u st how t o a s s e s s Monnet 1 s
i n f luence o n Ache son a nd
oth e r Ame r i c a n po l i cymakers when i t wa s based l arge l y on h i s rare ,
custom-ta i l ored g i ft f or ora l persuas ion .
words ,
l ead in g
Monnet
had
statesmen
perspec t 1ve
. 10
.
an
u nca nny
i nto
seeing
ab i l i ty
the
to
wo r l d
I n Henry K i s s inger 1 s
" me smer i z e "
from
his
Ame r i c a 1 s
own
un ique
Wha t we do know i s that w i thout Ame r i ca 1 s support
a nd e ncou ragement wh ich Monnet worked t i re l e s s l y to garne r , the EEC
wou l d neve r have been created .
10
57
Even a s l at e a s 1 9 7 2 , J ames Reston i n a New York T imes
a rt i c l e marve l ed a t "Mr Europe ' s "
( a s Monnet wa s c ommon l y c a l l ed )
ab i l ity a t 8 3 years o f age to con t i nue h i s spec i a l ro l e a s Eu rope a n
a dv i s o r t o the U n i ted State s :
wa s i n P a r i s ,
" The other day wh en Henry K i s s inger
he had a ta l k a bout the money ,
trade a nd secu r i ty
prob l ems o f the U n i ted States and Europe w ith J e a n Monnet .
Even
s ince Co l on e l House a nd Harry Hopk i n s , Wh ite Hou s e a i des have been
turn ing to h im
f o r help ,
and wh i l e they don ' t
al ways take h i s
adv i ce , he a l ways h a s someth i ng sens i b l e to say . 11 1 1
By constantly
renew i ng , cu l t ivat i ng a nd prodd ing h i s Wa sh i ngton connect i ons f rom
the advent o f F OR to the fa l l o f R ichard N i xon ,
beh i nd the scenes w i th sma l l
u su a l l y work i ng
cot e r i e s o f dec i s i o n makers ,
Jean
Monnet a lmost s ing l ehanded l y kept the Un i ted States comm i tted to
the concept of European u n i ty .
Throughout th e se years De a n Acheson
proved to be perhaps h i s most impo rtant product ive and l ong stand i ng
(\"'J efhel".5
I t wa s J e a n Monnet who brought Acheson t o under s t a nd tha t
"
convert .
European
u n i ty
within
an
At l a nt i c
Partnership
wa s
not
a
far-
f etched utop i a n scheme b u t a pract i c a l and nece s s a ry h i st o r i c a l
step
f o rward t o prevent wa r ,
n a t i on a l i sm
and
to
to e rad icate ob s o l e s cent European
u l t imate l y
usher
i n s t i tut i ona l i z ed g l oba l coopera t i on .
in
a
new
er a
of
Acheson ded icated most o f
h i s postwa r pub l i c l i fe try ing t o fu l f i l l th i s At l a nt ic prophecy ;
Monnet ded icated a l l o f i t .
11
58
JEAN MONNET ,
THE ROO S EVELT ADMI N I S TRAT I ON ,
AND THE WARTIME YEARS
Pre f ace
O n Frank l i n R o o s e v e l t
Roo s e v e l t w a s a magn i f i c e n t v i r t u o u s o o f t h i s type [ o f n a t ur a l l y
p o l i t i c a l be ing ] and h e w a s t h e mo s t ben evo l en t a s we l l a s t h e g r e a t e s t
m a s t e r o f h i s c r a f t i n mod e r n t i m e s . H e r e a l l y d i d de s i r e a be t t e r l i f e
f o r rn a n k i nd . The g r e a t ma j or i t i e s wh i c h h e o b t a i ne d i n t h e e l e c t i on s i n
t h e Uni t e d S t a t e s dur i ng h i s f our t e rms o f o f f i c e , d e s p i t e moun t i ng
hos t i l i ty by the p r e s s , and p e r pe t u a l prophe c i e s on t h e i r p a r t t h a t he
had gone t o o f a r , and wou l d f a i l to be r e - e l e c t e d , w e r e u l t i m a t e l y due t o
an ob s c u r e f e e l ing on t h e p a r t o f a rna j o r i t y o f t h e c i t i z en s o f t h e
Un i t ed S t a t e s t h a t he w a s on t h e i r s i d e , t h a t h e wi s h e d t h e m we l l , and
t h a t he wou l d do s orn e t h i ng f or t h e m . And t h i s f e e l i ng gr adua l l y s p r e a d
o v e r the e n t i r e c i v i l i z e d wor l d . . . .
H e wa s , i n h i s o p i n i o n s and publ i c a c t i on , e v e r y i n c h a derno c r a t . A l l
t h e p o l i t i c a l and p e r s o n a l and pub l i c c r i t i c i s m o f h i m m i gh t be t r ue ; a l l
t h e p e r s o n a l de f e c t s wh i ch h i s enerni e s and s orne o f h i s f r i e nds a t t r i bu t ed
t o h i m m i g h t be r e a l ; y e t a s a pub l i c f i gu r e h e w a s u n i q u e . As the s k i e s
o f Europe grew d a r k e r , i n pa r t i c u l a r a f t e r w a r b r o k e out , h e s e emed t o
t h e poor and t h e unhappy in Eur ope a k i nd o f b e n e vo l e n t derni -god , who
a l on e c o u l d and wou l d s av e t h em in the end . . . .
Doub t l e s s he m a d e m any p o l i t i c a l rn i s t a k e s , s orne o f them d i f f i c u l t t o
r emedy ; s orne wou l d s ay a b o u t S t a l i n a n d h i s i n t en t i ons , a nd t h e n a t u r e o f
t h e S ov i e t s t a t e ; o t h e r s rn i g h t j u s t l y po i n t t o h i s c o o l n e s s t o t h e F r e e
F r e n c h movemen t , h i s c av a l i e r i n t e n t i ons wi th r eg a r d t o t h e Supr eme
C ou r t . . . . H e i r r i t a t ed h i s s t a u n c h e s t s uppo r t e r s a nd f a i t h f u l s e r v an t s
b e c a u s e h e d i d n o t t e l l t h e m wha t h e w a s d o i ng ; h i s g o v e r nrne n t w a s h i gh l y
p e r s on a l a n d i t rnaddened t i dy - rni nd e d o f f i c i a i s and hurni l i t a t ed th o s e who
t hough t t h e po l i c y s h o u l d be c ondu c t ed in c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h and t h r o ugh
t h e m . He s ome t i mes e x a s pe r a t e d h i s a l l i e s , b u t when t he s e l a s t be t hough t
t h e m o f who h i s i l l -w i s h e r s w e r e i n t h e U . S . A . and i n t h e wor l d o u t s i de ,
and wha t t he i r mo t i v e s w e r e , t h e i r r e s p e c t , a f f e c t i on and l oy a l t y t e nded
to r e t u r n . No man made m o r e pub l i c enerni e s , y e t no man bad a r i ght t o
t ak e gr e a t e r pr i d e in t h e qu a l i ty and t h e mo t i v e s o f s orne o f t h o s e
enerni e s . . . .
He d i d n o t s a c r i f i c e f undame n t a l p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s t o a d e s i r e t o
r e t a i n power . . . h e s aw t o i t t h a t h i s admi n i s t r a t i on w a s i n t h e v a n o f
pub l i c op i n i on and d r e w i t o n i n s t e ad o f b e i n g dr agged b y i t ; h e made the
rn a j o r i t y o f h i s f e l l ow c i t i z en s prouder t o b e Arne r i c an s t h a t t h e y h a d
b e e n be f or e . He r a i s e d t h e i r s t a tu s i n t h e i r o w n e ye s - - - i mrnen s e l y i n
t h o s e o f the r e s t o f t h e wor l d . . . .
I t w a s an e x t r ao r d i n a r y t r an s f or ma t i on o f an i nd i v i d ua l . P e r h a p s i t w a s
l arge l y br ough t abou t by the c o l l ap s e o f h i s h e a l th i n t h e e a r l y 2 0 ' s a n d
h i s rn a r v e l l ou s t r i urnph o v e r h i s d i ab i l i t i e s . F o r h e began l i f e a s a we l l ­
born , po l i t e , n o t pa r t i c u l a r l y g i f t e d young man . . . . H i s i l l n e s s and t h e
suppo r t and e n c our ageme n t o f h i s w i f e - - wh o s e gr e a t n e s s o f c h a r a c t e r and
goodn e s s of h e a r t h i s t ory wi l l d u l y r e c o r d - - s e emed t o t r ans f orrn h i s
pub l i c p e r s on a l i ty i n t o t h a t s t rong and b e n e f i c e n t c h am p i on who b e c arne
the f a th e r of h i s p e o p l e , in an a l toge t h e r un i que f a s h i on . He d i d m o r e
t h a n t h i s : i t i s n o t t o o rou c h t o s ay t h a t h e a l t e r e d the f undarne n t a l
c on c e p t o f governrn e n t and i t s ob l i g a t i ons t o t h e governed . . . .
- - - I s a i ah B e r l i n , P e r s o n a l I mpr e s s i on s ( Ox f o r d : Ox f ord U . P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 )
z
I t w a s an e xp e r i e n c ed and s e l f - a s s u r e d J e a n Monn e t who a r r i ved i n
W a s h i n g t o n i n Oc tober 1 9 3 8 t o b e g i n s even y e a r s o f s e rv i c e f o r t h e F r e n c h
a n d B r i t i s h governmen t s w i th t h e adm i n i s t r a t i on o f F r ank l i n R o o s e ve l t .
The F r e n c hm a n wa s exp e r i e n c ed b o t h i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s and w i t h t h e
Amer i c ans b u t no t h i ng i n h i s pr e v i ous f i f ty y e a r s w a s f u l l p r e p a r a t i on
f o r t h e c r e a t i v e i n t e r p l a y wi th t h e l e ad e r s o f t h e New D e a l .
Monn e t wi tne s s e d t h e t r an s i t i o n f r om an i s o l a t i on i sm wh i c h a f f e c t e d
mo s t l e ad i ng o f f i c i a i s o f t h a t Adm i n i s t r a t i o n ,
i n c l u d i ng t h e P r e s i d e n t ,
t o a f u l l c omm i tment t o w i n n i ng t h e S e c ond Wo r l d W a r f o r wh i c h i t w a s to
be c ome t h e pr i n c i p a l s uppl i e r and f i nan c i e r ,
manpowe r .
an impor t a n t s our c e o f
a n d a l e ader i n p l ann i ng t h e pos twar p e a c e .
I t w a s e nough t o da z z l e even an expe r i e n c e d Amer i c a -wa t c h e r l i k e
Monn e t who h a d f i r s t b e e n to t h e N e w Wor l d m o r e t h a n t h i r t y y e a r s e a r l i e r
and who had l i ved and worked t h e r e on and o f f t hrough o u t h i s l i f e .
Monn e t f i r s t engaged t h e top- l e v e l o f t h e R o o s e ve l t adm i n i s t r a t i o n a s a
buye r o f a i r c r a f t f o r t h e F r e n c h gove rnmen t ,
t h e n a s c h a i rman o f a London­
b a s ed c ommi t t e e c o o rd i n a t i ng Ang l e - F r e n c h war suppl i e s ,
W a s h i ng ton member o f the B r i t i s h S u pp l y Counc i l ,
next a s a
t h e n i n A l g i e r s a s an
a u t ho r i z ed Ame r i c an a g e n t a t t emp t i ng to k e e p F r e n c h m i l i t ar y o f f i c e r s
d i r e c t e d toward t h e German enemy i n s t e ad o f e a ch o th e r ; a nd ,
f inal ly ,
as
an a g e n t o f t h e r e c on s t r u c t e d F r e e F r e n c h C o mm i t t e e p r e pa r i ng f o r t h e
l i ber a t i on o f h i s c o u n t ry .
E a c h r o l e he p l ayed t h e s ame way wh i c h m e a n t h e w a s n o t p l a y i n g any
rol e .
He c ame i n t o your o f f i c e t o do you s orne good ;
g a i n e d f ame ,
or we a l th ,
he n e i t h e r w a n t e d nor
o r powe r . G r e e t ed w i t h s k e p t i c i sm by t h o s e who
d i d not y e t know him i n t h a t c on f u s ed s t rugg l e f or war t ime i n f l ue n c e i n
W a s h i ng ton ,
Monne t r e m a i ne d to c on v i n c e t h e W a s h i n g t on m a n a g e r s t h a t he
gave ex a c t l y wh a t he promi s e d - - -hone s t adv i c e ,
argumen t s ,
and ,
above a l l ,
a p l an f o r a c t i on .
c o n c i s e and per s u a s i v e
I n e a ch o f t h e s e j obs
Monn e t w a s a r m e d wi th h i s i n s i d e r - ou t s i d e r s t y l e ;
he pr a c t i c e d a k i nd of
t h e benevo l e n t p e n e t r a t i on of i n s t i t u t i on s bu t only for t he i r own good
or ,
mor e p r e c i s e ly ,
p r e p a r a t i on ,
for t h e good of the e n t e r pr i s e wh i c h w a s f i r s t
then v i c t o r y i n the c o n t e s t w i t h H i t l e r .
He h a d po l i s hed t h i s appr o a c h i n t h e f i r s t f i f ty y e a r s o f h i s l i f e
wi th t h e i n s t i t u t i on s r anged a c r o s s h i s c u r r i c u l um v i t a e f r om t h e Hud s on
B a y C ompany i n C anada ,
York ,
P a r i s and London ,
t o t h e l e a d i ng inve s t me n t b a n k i ng f i rms i n New
and to t h e e a s t e r n European and C h i ne s e
governme n t s i n t h e a f t e rma th o f the O c t o b e r 1 9 2 9 c r a s h .
The memo i r s o f Monn e t i nd i c a t e t h e t i me when h e f i r s t appr e c i a t e d t h e
nature of the Nazi regime .
d i nn e r w i t h h i s
Foster Dul l e s ,
par t n e r ,
I t wa s i n S ep t emb e r 1 9 3 5 w h e n he wa s h a v i ng
G e o r g e Murnane . One o f t h e e th e r gue s t s w a s
a l awye r w i t h whom Monne t ,
Murnane h a d w o r k e d c l o s e l y .
Dul l e s r epor t e d t h a t H i t l e r ' s f i r s t d e c r e e s ag a i n s t t h e J e w s h a d b e en
made pub l i c . Monne t c o n c l u d e d t h a t '' a man who wou l d do t h a t wou l d s t a r t a
war . "
The f o l lowing s pr i ng ,
H e i n r i c h B r u e n ing ,
Monne t t a l k ed w i t h f ormer G e rman c h a nc e l l or ,
s oon a f t e r t h e R h i n e l and w a s r e o c cupi ed by Ge rmany .
t h e A l l i e s d o n o t e n t e r G e rmany now ,
w i l l t h i nk t h em s e l v e s i nv i n c i b l e .
(1)
B ru e n i ng w a r n e d ,
If
H i t l e r and h i s army
B u t t h e B r i t i sh and t h e F r e nc h
c o u l d n o t agr e e t o a c t and H i t l e r g a ined i n s tr eng th by t h e f a i lu r e . .
t h e t ime t h e F r en c h r e cogn i z e d t h e n e e d f or r e a r m i ng ,
By
mor e t h a n a n o t h e r
y e a r pa s s e d .
Monne t c e l e br a t ed h i s f i f t i e th b i r thday on November 9 1 9 3 8 ,
when h e
w a s j u s t b a c k i n P a r i s f r om h i s f i r s t a i r c r a f t m i s s i on i n W a s h i n g t o n .
Europe ,
For
it was a d a y when any i n no c e n c e abou t H i t l e r w a s f i n a l l y l o s t f or
i t w a s t h e s t a r t o f d i r e c t Na z i v i o l en c e aga i n s t t h e c o n t i n e n t ' s Jews .
It
mus t h a v e b e e n Monne t ' s mo s t s omber b i r t h d a y s i n c e i t w a s a l s o t h e day
we c a l l Kr i s t a l l n a c h t .
Two o f Monne t ' s t h r e e c l o s e s t a c qu a i n t anc e s
i n t h e s e Wa s h i ng t o n y e a r s w e r e J e w i s h Ame r i c a n s - - F e l ix Fr ank f u r t er and
H e n r y Morge n th au - -bo th o f whom s e r v e d a s i n s p i r e r s
a pp l i e d t o Monn e t h i ms e l f )
( t o use a t e rm l a t e r
o f f o r t i t ude aga i n s t t h e f e a r f u l r e g i me t h e n
l e ad i ng Germany t ow a r d w a r and s e l f - d e s t r u c t i on .
The t h i r d ,
Harry Hopkins ,
wa s a l s o a man who c o u l d r e m i n d you o f
Monne t ; W a s t h e s o c i a l wo r k e r who ended a s t h e c l o s e s t p r e s i d e n t i a l
a dv i s e r i n f or e ign a f f a i r s any l e s s v e r s a t i l e t h an t h e young c o g n a c
s a l e sman who e n d e d a s the f a t h e r o f a un i t e d Europ e ? T h e l a t e r
a c comp l i shme n t s o f b o t h men a r e enhan c e d n o t d i m i n i s hed i n p o i n t i ng o u t
t h e s e humb l e r p r o f e s s i o n a l o r i g i n s and by n o t i ng t h a t Monne t s p e n t m o r e
y e a r s s e l l ing t h e f am i l y c o g n a c - - - t e n ,
i f y o u c ou n t t h e two y e a r s a s a
London appr e n t i c e - - - th a n hH d i d i n any o t h e r j ob i n h i s l ong l i f e un t i l
h e f i n a l l y f ound s t e ady work a t t h e age o f 6 7 a s h e a d o f t h e Ac t i on
C omm i t t e e .
Monn e t knew and wor k e d w i t h many o t h e r Ame r i c an s i n t h e s e y e a r s j u s t
be f o r e and dur i ng t h e w a r ,
i n l at e r work .
s orne o f whom b e c ame rouch more impor t a n t t o h i m
J a c k Mc C l oy , G e o r g e B a l l a n d Du l l e s a r e among t h e be s t
examp l e s o f t h e d e e p bondi ng o f Monn e t t o h i s b e l ov e d Ame r i c an l awye r ­
s t a t e smen i n t h i s p e r i o d .
W i l l i am B u l l i t t ,
H e a l s o w o r k e d c l o s e l y w i t h H e n r y S t i m s on , w i t h
w i th Robe r t Na th an and w i th D e a n A c h e s on .
B u t t he s e t h r e e k ey adm in i s tr a t i on f i gur e s - - - one i n t h e Wh i t e Hou s e ,
one i n t h e T r e a s ur y D e p a r tme n t ,
t h e t h i r d i n t h e S upr eme Cour t - - - h a d
a lmos t n o t h i ng t o do w i th Monne t a f t e r t h e w a r .
( Hopk i n s w a s d e a d i n 1 9 4 6
when Morg a n t h au h a d a l r e ady b e e n r e t i r e d by t h e Truman adm i n i s t r a t i on ;
F r ank f ur t e r s t ay e d i n t h e Cour t and k e p t up a f r i en d l y b u t l arge l y l ong­
d i s t a n c e r e l a t i on w i th Monne t a f t e r 1 9 4 5 ) .
Ye t w i t h o u t
Fr ank f ur t e r , Hopk i n s and Mor g a n t h a u t h e r e wou l d
n o t have b e e n a Monne t
s t ory t o t e l l i n the wa r t ime y e a r s i n W a s h i ng t o n and wi thout t h e s e t h r e e
and t h e d e t a i l l e d a c c oun t s o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s ,
i t wou l d be d i f f i c u l t t o
t e l l a c oh e r e n t s t ory o f h o w t h e R o o s e v e l t Adm i n i s t r a t i on i t s e l f f ough t
t h e war .
E a c h o f t h e t h r e e w a s c l o s e t o t h e P r e s i de n t o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s who
r e l i e d on t h e m f or i n s p i r a t i on ,
argum e n t and f r i e nd s h i p . Th e i r prox i m i t y
t o t h e P r e s i d e n t drew Monn e t to e a c h l i k e i r on f i l in g s t o t h e magne t i z e d
ob j e c t .
E a c h o f t h e thr e e w a s f i r s t dr awn h i ms e l f t o t h i s r e m a � k a b l y
a t tr a c t i v e P r e s i d e n t :
t h e e a r l i e s t a c qu a i n t an c e w a s Morgan t h au ' s f o r h e
w a s a n e ighbor h e r e i n D u c h e s s C oun t y ;
t h e n F r ank f u r t e r w h o s t ar t e d
g i v ing t h e young G o v e r n o r o f New York adv i c e wh i l e t e a ch i ng a t t h e
Harvard L a w S choo l ;
and f i n a l l y ,
H a r r y Hopk i n s ,
I owa-born New York C i t y
s o c i a l w o r k e r who s e r ve d t h e P r e s i d e n t i n many r o l e s but none s o
impo r t a n t a s f r i end and c o n f i d a n t s t a r t i ng e ar l y i n t h e f i r s t R o o s e v e l t
admin i s t r a t i o n .
O f t h e thr e e ,
Monn e t m e t o n l y Mo r g a n t h a u i n h i s f i r s t 1 9 3 8 - 3 9 v i s i t s
o n b e h a l f o f P r ime M i n i s te r D a l ad i e r who w a n t e d Amer i c a n a i r c r a f t and who
h a d b e e n t o l d by U . S .
Amb a s s ador B u l l i t t t h a t Monn e t w a s t h e m a n to g e t
them . B ul l i t t ' s r e c ommenda t i on may h a v e p e r s u ad e d Edouard D a l a d i e r b u t i t
w a s n o t rou c h h e l p w i th H e n r y Morgan t h a u . To unde r s t a n d why ,
we mus t l ook
into Monne t ' s r e c e n t pa s t .
��
I n O c t ob e r 1 9 3 8 a s Monn e t s ought U . S . a i r c r a f t f o r F r a nc e ,
he was
s t i l l engaged in pr i v a t e bu s in e s s m a t t er s f r om w h i c h h e s l ow l y
�
e xt r i c a t ing h i ms e l f i n t h e f o l l ow i ng mon t h s .
1 9 3 5 w a s G e o r g e Murn a n e ,
H i s bu s i n e s s p a r t n e r s i n c e
an Ame r i c an f r i end whom h e h a d known f o r many
y e a r s . Murn ane h a d l ong conne c t i on s wi th F r a nc e ,
1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 8 as d e p u t y comm i s s i on e r of
i n c l ud i ng s e r v i ng f r om
the F r e n c h - Ame r i c an Red C r o s s .
Monne t ,
Murnane w a s r e g i s t e r e d i n 1 9 3 5 a s a C anad i an c ompany t o
engag e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a n k i n g ,
br ough t t og e t h e r by Du l l e s ,
apparen t l y a f t e r i t s p r i n c i p a l s h a d b e en
a s e n i o r p a r t n e r o f t h e S u l l i v a n and C r omwe l l
l aw f i rm . D u l l e s a l s o l e n t t h e f i rm money s oon a f t e r i t s f ound i ng . The
p a r t n e r s h i p wa s l a t er i n c orpor a t ed i n New York w i th o f f i c e s in Hong Kong ,
London ,
Paris ,
and S h angh a i . Murnane m a n a g e d t h e New York end o f t h e
bus i n e s s w i th Monne t t h e r o v i ng p a r t n e r ,
b a s ed i n P a r i s . ( 2 )
I n Oc t o b e r 1 9 3 9 Monn e t e x e c u t e d an a g r e e m e n t w i t h Murnane t o ch ange
t h e i r d i v i s i on o f t h e f i rm ' s i n c ome f r om 5 0 - 5 0 t o 7 5 / 2 5 i n f avor o f
Murnane who wou l d manage t h e bus i ne s s i n Monne t ' s a b s e n c e .
a i r c r a f t p u r c h a s e s a l one ,
Ins tead of
Monn e t w o u l d now und e r t a ke c o o rd i n a t i o n o f a l l
F r e n c h and B r i t i s h m i l i t ary s up p l i e s and s h i pp i ng f r om a London o f f i c e .
H i s c on f i d e n c e mu s t h a v e b e e n s t r en g t h e n e d by t h e r e c o l l e c t i on o f
s imi l ar work ,
i n P ar i s and L ondon ,
a quar t e r c en t u r y e a r l i e r ,
when the
s ame A l l i e s s t r ug g l e d t o c oord i n a t e t h e i r war t i me suppl i e s t o a v o i d
d e s t r u c t i v e c ompe t i t i on f or t h e s ame s c a r e c ommod i t i e s .
Now t h e s up p l y
prob l em w a s i n comp a r a b l y m o r e d i f f i cu l t b e c a u s e b o t h coun t r i e s h a d s l ep t
away mo s t o f the two d e c a d e s s i n c e t h a t f i r s t wor l d w a r ended . B o t h wou l d
n o w pay f or t h a t s omno l en c e . ( 3 )
Monn e t h a d a r r anged h i s p e r s o n a l a f f a i r s t o und e r t a k e n t h e s e o p e n ­
ended r e s po n s i b i l i t i e s . H e w a s t o draw $ 1 0 0 0 a mon t h f rom t h e
p a r t n er s h i p ;
his wi f e ,
Sylvi a ,
away f r om Monne t . Monn e t
w a s t o ge t $ 1 8 0 0 wh i l e l i v i ng i n N e w York
m e a nwh i l e t ook over t h e Monne t ,
Mur n a n e
o f f i c e - ap a r t m e n t a t Rue F ab e r t i n P ar i s a f t e r h a v i ng s o l d h i s own , rouch
l arger h o t e l p r i v e on t h e R u e de C onde . Un t i l S y l v i a r e j o i n ed him in
London i n 1 9 4 0 ,
Monn e t l i v e d a l one i n t h e new a p a r t m e n t a n d t r av e l l e d t o
W a s h i ng t on and L ondon i n a d e s p ar a t e s e ar c h f o r mi l i t ary e q u i pm e n t f or
France . ( 4 )
Even b e f o r e h e made t h e s e p e r s o n a l s a cr i f i c e s ,
he made h i s
, f i r s t t r i p s t o W a s h i ng t on and New Y o r k s e ek i n g a i r c r a f t f o r F r an c e ' s
m i n i s c u l e a i r f o r c e whi ch h a d b e e n d e c l a r ed hope l e s s l y i n a d e qu a t e ag a i n s t
t h e G e r m a n s b y a n Ame r i c an a u thor i t y l i v i ng i n F r a nc e . Th i s Ame r i c an ,
C h a r l e s A L i ndbe rgh ,
who w a s we l l a c qu a i n t ed w i th Monne t ,
we l l - k nown t o W i l l i am C .
Bull i t t ,
wa s a l s o
t h e Ame r i c a n Amb a s s ador i n P a r i s .
w a s a t t h e emb a s s y d i n i ng t a b l e t h a t Monne t ,
t h e L i ndbergh s ,
It
and s e n i or
F r e n c h o f f i c i a l s o f t e n m e t s i n g l y or i n comb i n a t i on a t t h e d i r e c t i on o f
t h e we l l - c o n n e c t e d B u l l i t t .
D e s p i t e L i ndbergh ' s p e s s i m i s m - - - a lmo s t a c h a r a c t e r d e f e c t i n t h e e y e s
o f Monne t - - - th e F r e nch gove r nmen t o f P r ime M i n i s t e r D a l a d i e r w a s r e ady
f or v i g o r o u s s t eps t o r eg a i n t h e mome n tum l o s t in t h e i n t e r -w a r y e a r s . ( 5 )
Now m a s s i ve pur c h a s e s o f e qu i pm e n t by F r a n c e w e r e f o r e s e e n even i f t h e
money w a s unav a i l abl e .
B u l l i t t h a d b e e n a s k e d by G u y La C h ambr e ,
French
M i n i s t e r f o r A i r , w h o c o u l d exp l o r e a p l an t o bu i ld p l a n e s f o r F r a n c e i n
C an a d a .
B u l l i t t r e p l i ed t h a t F r a n c e n e e d e d a man w h o knew b o t h Ame r i c a
a n d t h e wo r l d o f bus i ne s s t o p u t t h i s k i nd o f d e a l t o g e t h e r .
d e a l m a k e r on h i s own ,
Bul l i t t ,
a
r e c o gn i z e d an expe r t i n J e an Monn e t whom h e a l s o
r e c ommen d e d t o t h e F r e n c h h e a d o f governmen t ,
Edou a r d D a l ad i e r ,
as the
man w h o c o u l d s o l ve F r a n c e ' s shor t age o f c a s h t o p a y f o r t h e arros . ( 6 )
Monn e t a r r i v a ! i n Hyde P ar k NY on Oc t o b e r 1 9 1 9 3 8 t o m e e t P r e s i d e n t
R o o s e ve l t h a d b e e n we l l p r e p a r e d by t h e Amb a s s ad o r i n P ar i s .
Bul l i t t
c ab 1 e d t h e P r e s i de n t about t h e Monn e t m i s s i o n w i th i n s t r uc t i on s t h a t no
one e l s e see t h e m e s s ag e .
Then t h e Amba s s ador h i ms e 1 f a r r i v e d in
W a s h i ng t o n o n Oc t o b e r 13 1 9 3 8 ,
t h e P r e s i d en t .
one w e e k i n advan c e of Monne t ,
t o br i e f
B u1 1 i t t t h e n �re n t t o Hyde P a r k t o awa i t Monn e t who a 1 s o
w e n t t o t h e p r e s i de n t i a l home a s s o on a s h e a r r i ve d i n New Yor�
(7L
8
The o r i g i n s o f t h e i d e a t o bui l d F r e n c h f a c t o r i e s i n C an a d a a c r o s s
f r om B u f f a l o and De t r o i t a r e n o t c l e a r . Monne t ,
a s a young man ,
who h a d l i v e d i n C an a d a
wou l d h a v e b e e n o p e n t o a p l an wh i ch c a l l ed f or
c o o p e r a t i o n be tween C a n a d a and the Un i t ed S t a t e s and i n wh i c h Ame r i c an
manage r s ,
wor k e r s and suppl i e s wou l d h a v e t o be i nvo l ved .
ini t i a ted i t .
Perhaps he
Eva s i on o f t h e Ame r i c an N e u t r a l i ty A c t by a c r o s s -border
l o c a t i on wou l d a l s o have appe a l ed to beth B u l l i t t and Monne t . The French
governm e n t wou l d h a v e f e l t c om f o r t a b l e i n a c ou n t r y w i th both h i s t or i c a l
and c u l tur a l t i e s t o F r a n c e .
a t t r a c t e d t o t h i s p l an .
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t s e emed a l s o t o be
B u t the s u p e r f i c i a l a t t r a c t i on s s oon met t h e
r e a l i t i e s wh i c h T r e a s u r y S e c r e t ary H e n r y M o r g a n t h a u br ough t t o t h e
d i s c us s i o n .
Morg a n t h a u p l ayed an unu s u a l r o l e i n t h e Roo s ev e l t adm i n i s t r a t i o n ' s
f o r e ign po l i cy .
dur i ng Wor l d W a r
He w a s t h e s o n o f t h e Ame r i c an amb a s s ador t o Turkey
I .
App a r e n t l y ,
b o t h f a t h e r and s on a c q u i r e d a s u s p i c i on
of Germany f r om t h a t exper i en c e . ( 8 )
The eve n t s o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s f o c u s ed t h i s
s u s p i c i on i n t h e e y e s o f H e n r y Mor g a n t h a u J r who ,
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e ve l t ,
a s an e a r l y f r i e nd o f
f ound a cur i ou s p l a c e i n an adm i n i s t r a t i o n m a r k e d b y
c a u t i on a n d d e t a chmen t i n i t s f o r e ign a n d m i l i t a r y p o l i c y m a k e r s .
Mo r g a n t h a u b rough t n e i t h e r qu a l i ty t o t h e T r e a sury D e p a r t m e n t wh i ch h a d
w i d e r e s p on s i b i l i t i e s a s g o v e r n m e n t p r o c u r e me n t a g e n t f o r many g o o d s
i n c l u d i ng m i l i t a r y equ i pme n t .
B u t M o r g a n t h a u ' s oppor t u n i ty f o r i n f l u e n c e c ame i n i t i a l ly n o t i n
p r o c u r e m e n t but i n h i s f r e q u e n t and f r ank t a l k s w i t h Roo s e ve l t . The
Pres ident ,
who l i k e d t o h e a r d i v e r s e op i n i on s b e f o r e choo s i ng a c o ur s e ,
l i k e d Morgan t h au ' s f i rmne s s and l o y a l t y ,
a nd l i s t e n e d t o h i s o p i n i on s on
t h e c o m i ng d a n g e r s i n Europe . ( Robe r t S he rwood d e s c r i bed Morgan t h a u a s the
o n l y one in t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s o f f i c i a l f am i l y who s u pp o r t e d h e l p for the
European demo c r a c i e s unt i l W a r S e c r e t a r y H e n r y L S t i ms o n and Navy
S e c r e t ar y Fr ank Knox a r r i v e d i n t h e pr e s i d en t i a l c i r c l e i n m i d 1940 . ( 9 )
When M o r g a n t h a u f i r s t h e a r d o f t h e B u l l i t t -Monn e t p l an f or C a n ad i an
p l an t s p r o du c i ng Ame r i c an a i r c r a f t f o r F r a n c e h e o r d e r e d a s t a f f p a p e r by
H a r r y D . Whi t e ,
a c l o s e a d v i s e r . The P r e s i d e n t go t a c opy be f or e the
Monne t -R o o s e ve l t m e e t i ng at Hyde Park wh i c h m e a n t that Mor g a n t h a u had
e i t h e r h e a r d d i r e c t l y f rom B u l l i t t o f t h e Monn e t m i s s i on ,
or t h a t the
P re s i de n t h a d t o l d the Tr e a s ur y S e c r e t ary of t h e aud a c i ou s p l an and a s k e d
h i s v i ew s on i t ,
or b o t h .
Roo s eve l t t e l ephoned M o r g a n t h a u a f t e r m e e t i ng w i t h B u l l i t t and Monn e t
a t Hyde P a r k . He a s k e d h i m t o s e e t h e two v i s i t o r s and s a i d t h a t t h e
T r e a s u r y D e p a r m en t ' s c o n c e r n a b o u t e x c h a n g e p r o b l e m s w i t h the C a nad i a n
p l an t s c ou l d be h a n d l ed .
B u t M o r g a n t h au h ad o t h e r f e a r s e v e n i f t h e y were
n e v e r expr e s s e d t o Bu l l i t t or Monne t .
To h i s s t a f f and h i s f am i l y ,
he
wor r i ed about wh a t might happen i f C an a d a w a s no l onge r on our s i d e .
Wh i t e ' s memo t o Morganthau h a d a l s o s ugge s t e d t h e p l an t s m i g h t e v e n d r a w
t h e Uni t e d S t a t e s i n t o a E u r o p e a n war . ( 1 0 )
When Amb a s s ador B u l l i t t and t h e F r e n c h f i n a n c i e r m e t Morgan t h a u on the
w e e k e nd ,
h e l e t t h e two give the i r a c c o u n t of t h e P r e s i de n t ' s
e n thus i a s t i c r e c e p t i on o f t h e C a n ad i an a i r c r a f t p l an t i de a .
h a d e v e n d r awn a map ,
Mon t r e a l ,
they said ,
The P r e s i de n t
o f whe r e a p l a n t c o u l d be bu i l t o u t s i d e
wha t i t s produc t i on c ap a c i ty c o u l d be a n d h o w t h r e e s h i f t s o f
wor k e r s a d a y c o u l d p r o d u c e 5 0 0 0 p l an e s [ a y e a r ,
a pp a r e n t l y ] . M o r g a n t h a u
t r i ed t o s l ow down the e n th u s i a sm w i th que s t i on s abou t f in a n c i ng .
F i n a l l y Morganthau s ugge s t e d
Bu l l i t t ]
[ a c c or d i ng t o Monne t ' s memo i r s i t w a s
a p l an t o r e qu i r e F r e n chmen t o c a l l b a c k t h e i r g o l d f r om Un i t e d
S t a t e s d e p o s i t o r i e s or f a c e c r im i n a l p e n a l t i e s . Th i s c a p i t a l - - - $ 4 b i l l i on
/0
a c c or d i ng t o M o r g a n t h a u - - - c o u l d t h e n f i n a n c e t h e a i r c r a f t p r o du c t i o n or
pu r ch a s e s .
B o t h B u l l i t t a n d Monne t we r e t a k e n w i t h t h e p l a n b u t
M o rg a n t h au w a r n e d t h a t D a l a d i e r wou l d n e e d gr e a t po l i t i c a l c o u r a g e t o
t a k e s u c h a s t ep b y d e c r e e ,
a powe r h e b ad o n l y u n t i l Nove mb e r 1 5 . ( 1 1 )
Monn e t m a d e p l a n s t o r e t u r n i mme d i a t e l y
Pr ime Mini s t e r to a c t .
On S u n d a y ,
to
F r a n c e t o c o nv i n c e t h e
t h e t w o v i s i t o r s f r om P a r i s r e t u r n ed t o
Morgan t h a u ' s h o m e t o c on t i n u e t h e d i s c u s s i on .
Monn e t b a d a l r e a d y i n qu i r e d
abou t a r e t u rn p a s s ag e . ( 1 2 )
Two w e e k s l a t e r Mo n n e t w a s b a c k i n P a r i s f o r a l o ng t e l e p h o n e
c o nv e r s a t i on w i t h Morg a n t h a u f r om t h e a p a r t m e n t o f a n Amer i c a n e mb a s s y
o f f i c e r whom Mor g a n t h a u h a d i n s t r u c t e d t o h e l p Monne t . M o rg a n t h a u w a s
c l e a r l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r a i n s o f pu t t i n g t h r o u g h a t o ugh
d e c r e e w a s p r e v e n t i ng a c t i o n by D a l ad i e r .
S e c r e t ar y ' s v i e w s ,
Monne t s u ppo r t ed t h e
wh i c h p ro mp t e d Morg a n t h a u t o a d d t o M e r l e C o c h r a n ,
f r om wh o s e a p a r t m e n t h e a n d Mon n e t w e r e s p e a k i ng ,
" I ' ve the gre a t e s t
c o n f i d e n c e i n Mr .
h e k n o w s wh a t t h i s i s
Monne t b e c a u s e he
a l l a b o u t a n d I f e e l t h a t h e and
I
i s a realis t ,
l o o k e y e t o e y e on t h i s ma t t e r . " ( 1 3 )
M o r g a n t h a u d i d n o t a l w a y s h a v e s u c h c on f i d e n c e i n Monne t .
He l a ter
t o l d t h e B r i t i s h Amb a s s a d o r L o r d H a l i f ax t h a t h e h a d oppo s e d Monn e t ' s
appo i n t m e n t t o W a s h i ng t o n i n 1 9 4 0 a s a memb e r o f
t h e B r i t i s h p u r c h a s i ng
m i s s i o n a n d i n 1 9 4 2 h e t r i e d t o g e t H a l i f a x t o f i r e Mon n e t f r o m t h e
W a s h i ng t o n m i s s i o n . ( 1 4 )
B u t t h e un e v e n j udgme n t o f Mor g a n t h a u
about
Monn e t d i d n o t pr e v e n t t h e i r c o ope r a t i on on s p e c i f i e pr o j e c t s t h r oug h o u t
t h e w a r a l t ho u gh n e i t h e r
a
t r u e f r i e nd s h i p o r e v e n w a rm f e e l i n g s e v e r
d e v e l op e d .
Monne t ,
i n h i s memo i r s ,
c a l l s Morganthau a d i f f i cu l t man t o work w i t h
a t t i m e s bu t a h a r d - wo r k i ng a n d l o y a l a i d e t o Ro o s e v e l t .
Sa i d ,
t h i s l oy a l t y w a s Mor g a n t h a u ' s m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,
In f ac t ,
Monne t
a j udgm e n t Monn e t
made l a t e i n l i f e when h e wa s b e t t e r aw a r e o f t h e e r r a t i c y e t t e n a n c i ous
m i nd of Morg a n t h a u .
B u t it w a s typi c a l that Monn e t d i d n o t f o c u s in h i s
memo i r s on t h e s c ur r i l i ous s i d e o f the T r e a s u r y S e c r e t a r y e v e n lL�e�·'-\! 1· t h i s
a s p e c t mu s t h ave even t u a l l y b e c ome v e r y c l e a r t o h i m .
l i k e w e r e i g n o r e d by Monn e t a s f a r a s pos s i b l e .
Morg a n t h au ,
P e opl e h e d i d n o t
In the c a s e o f
c l e a r l y r e c o gn i z e d f r om t h e s t a r t t h a t t h e two h a d t o w o r k
tog e t h e r i n Wa s h i ng t on .
l on g t e l e p h o n e
S ho r t l y a f t e r Monn e t and Morganthau h a d the i r
c onve r s a t i on ,
three bo t t l e s
of
the
f i n e s t a n d o l de s t
Monn e t c o g n a c w e r e d e l i ve r ed t o the S e c r e t a r y ' s o f f i c e a s a g e s t u r e o f
thanks . ( 1 5 ) .
P a r t o f M o r g a n t h a u ' s s u s p i c i ons c o n c e r n i ng
Monn e t s e emed to a r i s e
f r om t h e F r en chman ' s i n ab i l i ty t o behave l i k e a New D e a l D e m o c r a t .
Morg a n t h a u c o mp l a i n e d to B u l l i t t t h a t Mon ne t had u s e d S u l l i v an and
C r omwe l l ,
a l a rge l y Repub l i c an l aw f i rm ,
to p r e p a r e the p l a n to s e t up a
·. �
p r i v a t e c o r po r a t i on t o run the C a nad i a n a i r c r a f t p l a n t s .
" H e doe s n t s e em
to r e a l i z e t h e r e h a s b e e n a New D e a l o v e r h e r e , " M o r g a n t h a u s a i d . ( 1 6 )
I n D e c ember 1 9 3 8 ,
Monn e t w a s b a c k i n Wa s h i ng t on w i t h new bu t s e c r e t
au thor i t y f r om D a l ad i e r and L a C h ambr e to buy Ame r i c a n a i r c r a f t and
f
t o ont i nu e d i s cu s s i o n of t h e C a nad i an p r o j e c t .
Mo r g a n t h a u r e f u s e d to s e e
t h e m i s s i on un t i l the S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t agr e ed . The S e c r e t a r y o f the
T r e a s u r y w a s � p p � r e n t l y w o r r i e d abou t obj e c t i on s f rom C o rde l l Hu l l o r h i s
d e pu t y ,
Und e r s e c r e t a ry o f S t a t e S umner We l l e s about d e a l i ng w i th f or e i g n
governmen t s . When Morgan t h a u t o l d t h e P r e s i d en t ,
R o o s e ve l t c a l l e d We l l e s
who c a l l ed t h e T r e a s u r y S e c r e t a ry t o a pprove t h e s e c onve r s a t i o n s w i th t h e
Monn e t m i s s i on . ( 1 7 )
B u t t h i s w a s n o t the end o f M o r g a n t h a u ' s p r o b l em ;
a b o u t t h e Ne u tr a l i t y Ac t .
P e r h a p s i t wou l d be b e t t e r ,
he w a s wor r i ed t o o
Mor g a n t h a u a n d h i s
If
12
• s t a f f s ugge s t e d ,
to h av e t h e F r ench g o v e r nrne n t o p e n i t s own o f f i c e i n
C an a d a f o r a r ro s p r o c u r e rn e n t .
Monn e t s a i d t h a t t h i s w a s t o be a F r e n c h gove rnmen t c o r po r a t i on wh i ch
he w a s t r y i n g t o s t a r t i n C an a d a .
B u t h e a l s o i n s i s t e d t h a t h e p e r s on a l l y
wou l d b e r e ady t o i nve s t $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 a s w o u l d e a c h
member o f t h e
c o r por a t i o n ' s b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s . M o r g a n t h a u c o u l d n o t be l i ev e wh a t h e
w a s h e a r i ng .
" Mi g h t I a s k w h y you s h o u l d do i t
Monn e t r e p l i ed :
d o i ng .
[ i nve s t y o u r o w n money ] ?
" I do a l o t o f t h i ngS i n t h i s a f f a i r t h a t I s h ou l d n o t be
I h a v e b e e n t h e i n s t rument thr ough wh i c h this t h i ng is b e i ng
wor ke d o u t and i f I f i nd no o t h e r s o l u t i o n . .
.
.
" (18)
Morga n t h a u m a d e c l e a r h e w a s t r y i ng t o h e l p F r a n c e g e t t h e a r ro s i t
n e ed e d b u t h e s a w d i f f i c u l t i e s w i th t h e me t h o d s propo s e d .
Un i t ed S t a t e s Army w a s ob j e c t i ng ,
Morg an t h a u s a i d ,
Fur t h e r ,
the
t o any p l an t o s e l l
modern p l an e s t o t h e F r e n c h .
A Europ e a n s t y l e o f s e c r e c y w a s a l s o a prob l e m .
In January 1 9 3 9
Morganthau g a v e Monn e t an u l t i m a t um : The F r e n c h m i s s i o n c a n n e t v i s i t any
more U . S .
p l an e manu f a c t u r i ng p l a nt s u n t i l i t made a pub l i c announ c em e n t
a b o u t i t s p r e s en c e in t h e c o u n t r y . B u t Morgan t h a u r e a s s ur e d Monn e t th a t
�
h e w a s d e t e rm i n e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p r o g r a m o f e l p ing
F r a nc e . Monn e t ,
p r o b l em ,
appa r e n t l y in f u l l unde r s t an d i ng of t h e admi n i s t r a t i o n ' s
a g r e e d t o t r y t o p e r s uade P a r i s t o m a k e a
pub l i c
s t a tement . ( 1 9 ) .
The new y e a r w a s t o be a d e c i s i v e one f or Monn e t and h i s work . Whi l e
t h e p o l i t i c a l pr e s s u r e s bui l t i n Europe t o w a r d a s h owdown wi th H i t l e r ,
t h e f og o f i s o l a t i on s l ow l y l i f t ed f rom Amer i c a ,
s t a r t i ng i n t h e n a t i on ' s
c a p i t a l . At a m i d - J an u a r y me e t i ng i n t h e Whi t e Hous e ,
the P r e s ident made
expl i c i t t h a t " ev e r y e f f o r t be m a d e " t o g i v e t h e F r e n c h " a l l ava i l ab l e
pl anes ,
e qu i pm e n t a nd m o t o r s t o a s s i s t i ng i n bu i l d i ng u p t h e i r a i r
JJ
f o r c e . " H e s a i d t h i s i n t h e pre s e n c e o f Morgan t h a u ,
Wood r i ng ,
Arno l d ,
and t h e i r s e n i o r a id e s ,
s orne o f whom ,
S e c r e t ar y o f W a r
l i k e Gen e r a l H . H .
( " H ap " )
w e r e s t rong l y pro t e c t i v e o f t h e Army A i r C o r p s a i r c r a f t
deve l opme n t progra m and who d i d no t w a n t t o s h a r e t h e s e p l a n e s w i th
France . ( 2 0 )
Amb a s s ador B u l l i t t w a s a l s o p r e s en t ;
everyone i n t h e room
knew t h a t w i t h i n t h e hour t h e Amba s s ador w o u l d r epor t every d e t a i l of the
me e t i ng to the h e a d of t h e French m i s s i o n .
D i s cu s s i on s abou t a p r i v a t e c o r po r a t i on t o bu i l d a i r c r a f t f o r F r a n c e
e x t ended o v e r s e ve r a l m o n t h s un t i l e a r l y i n 1 9 3 9 .
abandone d ,
F i na l l y t h e y w e r e
p a r t l y a t Mo r g a n t h a u ' s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t i f t h e F r e n c h
g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d p a y promp t l y f or t h e p l an e s ,
pref erred . ( 2 1 )
B e f o r e t h e e nd o f J an u a r y ,
a p u r c h a s i ng m i s s i on wa s
M o r g a n t h a u and Monn e t w e r e
much mor e c o n c e rn e d a b o u t pub l i c and c ongr e s s i on a l r e a c t i on s to t h e p l an e
d e a l s t h a n w i th t h e i r l e g a l and f i n an c i a l m e c h a n i c s . O n J an u a r y 2 3 a
Doug l a s m i l i t ary p l a n e c r a s h e d i n C a l i f or n i a wh i l e on a t e s t f l i gh t .
The
p i l o t was k i l l e d b u t a p a s s enger who s u r v i v e d was f ound t o be a F r e n c h
o f f i c i a l o f t h e Monne t m i s s i on .
Whi l e M o r g a n t h a u ' s wor r i e s about t h e s e c r e cy o f t h e m i s s i o n now s e emed
j u s t i f ied ,
t h e c r a s h a c t u a l l y d i r e c t e d a t t en t i on to whe t h e r Ame r i c a n
m i l i t a r y s e c r e t s w e r e b e i ng g i v e n t o f o r e igne r s ,
especi a l ly in
a r r angme n t s w h i c h m i gh t comprom i s e o u r n e u t r a l i ty . A c ong r e s s i o n a l
i nq u i r y t r i e d t o g e t Morg a n t h a u t o s ay h e h a d
f l ight ,
a r r anged t h e demon s t r a t i o n
a s a r my w i t ne s s e s sugg e s t e d . H e r e f u s ed t o g i v e a n y de t a i l s o f
h i s c onv e r s a t i on s wi th t h e P r e s i d e n t who f i n a l l y t o o k r e s p on s i b i l i ty
h i m s e l f . Wh i l e pub l i c o p i n i on s e emed t o s uppo r t m i l i t a r y s a l e s t o F r a n c e
and B r i ta i n ,
i t w a s s t rong l y o pp o s e d t o a n y Ame r i c a n i nv o l ve m e n t i n
a n o t h e r E u r o p e a n war . T h e D o ug l a s c r a s h s e emed t o f oc u s t h e s e popu l a r
f e a r s t o o e a r l y and t o o d r a ma t i c a l l y . ( 2 2 )
B y M a r c h 1 9 3 9 t h e s ub j e c t w a s s t i l l how F r a n c e c o u l d a f f ord to r e arm .
B u l l i t t w r o t e t h e P r e s i de n t t h a t Monn e t w a s t h e r i gh t p e r s on t o s end b a c k
t o Wa s h i ng t o n f o r d i s c us s i o n s on r e l i ev i ng t h e F r e n c h e x t e r n a l debt . Two
w e e k s l a t e r B u l l i t t t o l d Roo s e ve l t t h a t he h a d j u s t l u n c h e d w i th P r i me
Mi n i s t e r D a l ad i e r ,
that debt . ( 2 3 )
F i na n c e M i n i s t e r R e ynaud and Monn e t on ways t o reduce
B e f o r e Monn e t c o u l d r e t u r n to W a s h i ng t on ,
f am i l y and p e r s on a l bu s i n e s s
p r o b l e m s a r o s e . H i s f a t h e r h ad a s t ro k e i n e a r l y Apr i l i n C ogn a c . Monn e t
�M
w e n t home f o r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r who h a d b e en a n i mpo r t a n t g u i d e
f rom c h i l dhood e v e n though h e n o t a l ways a good bu s i n e s sman . Y e a r s l a t e r
�
a c l o s e f r i end s a i d t h a t t h e d e a th o f t h e f a th e r w a s a mo s t s e v e r e b l ow
to Monne t ,
and e v e n g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f h i s m o t h e r . ( 2 4 )
Anne L i ndbergh ,
�e
who a t t en d e d a Monn e t f am i l y d i nn e r wi th the f a t h e r j u s t mon t h s b e f o r e
h i s f inal i l lnes s ,
wr o t e o f Monne � on t h e o c c a s i on :
�
. . . A wond e r f u l o l d rnan- - - qu i c k , gay , f u l l o f l i f e and hurnor . Mu ch j o k i ng
be twe e n h i m and J e a n . J e a n i s v e r y proud o f h i m . I l i ke h i m f or i t . He
is a l w a y s my s t e r i ous t h ough , i n a qui e t and c omp l e t e l y o r t h odox way .
I n te r r u p t e d by t e l ephone c a l l s , h a v i ng to l e av e f o r Eng l and o r Ame r i c a
o n s ome t h i ng f r i gh t f u l l y impor t a n t but n o o n e h a v i ng t h e s l i g h t e s t i d e a
wha t he i s d o i ng . I t w a s a n i c e e v e n i ng . H e w a s n o t t h e m a n o f the
wor l d t o n i g h t but
on l y a s imp l e , d e v o t e d , c h a rming , adm i r i ng s on . ( 2 5 ) .
Anne L i ndbe rgh and h e r h u s b and , C h a r l e s , w e r e a t a n o t h e r d i nn e r i n
Monne t ' s P a r i s a p a r tment s e v e r a l mon t h s e ar l i e r when t h e y me t Guy L a
C hambr e ,
t h e F r e nch M i n i s t e r f o r A i r . H e l a t e r i nv i t e d L i ndbergh t o
s e v e r a l m i n i s t r y m e e t i ng s abou t t h e C a n a d i a n f a c t o r y p l an .
But the f lyer-
h e r o w a s o u t o f s yrnp a thy wi th t h e i d e a o f r e a r m i ng F r a n c e a g a i n s t
Ge rrnany .
I n s t e ad h e h a d a n i d e a ,
c l e a r l y n a i v e i n h i nd s i gh t ,
tha t he
could p e r s u a d e t h e Gerrnans t o s e l l p l a n e s or at l e a s t a i r c r a f t eng i n e s to
t h e F r e n c h . Th i s wou l d ,
L i ndbergh be l i e ve ,
be twe en t h e t w o count r i e s .
r e d u c e t h e c on f r on t a t i o n
Monn e t w a s a l s o f e e l i ng p r e s s ed on p e r s on a l f i n an c i a l m a t t e r s ,
perhaps
b e c a u s e h e w a s d e v o t ing h i s t i me n e w a l mo s t e n t i r e l y t o work f or t h e
r e a rm i n g o f F r a n c e a n d y e t w a s a pp a r e n t l y n o t
be ing p a i d f o r t h e 1 9 3 8 -
3 9 work f or t h e Fr e n c h G o v e r nmen t . H e h a d r ed u c e d h i s s h a r e o f t h e
Monne t ,
M ur nane p a r t n e r s h i p i n c ome b e c a u s e h e w a s n o t c on t r i bu t i ng t o i t s
i n c ome wh i c h w a s i t s e l f d i s r u p t e d by w a r and i mm i n e n t w a r i n t h e F a r E a s t
and E u r o p e . To h e l p t h e p a r t n e r s h i p ,
h e wro t e h i s Hong Kong
r e pr e s e n t a t i v e on May 2 3 1 9 3 9 t h a t the C h i n a Deve l opme n t F i n a n c e
C o rp o r a t i on ,
wh i c h Monn e t h a d h e l
w h i c h Monne t ,
Hong Kong . ( 2 6 )
l a ter ,
1
� f ound ,
s h o u l d pay m o r e f o r t h e work
Murnane w a s new d o i ng in London and P a r i s a s we l l a s in
�
July Monne t wro t e t o
TV
C h i n a5 f i n a n c e and f o r e i gn m in i s t e r ,
S oong ,
h e a d of t h e C D F C ,
t h a t Monn e t ,
r e c e i ve d n o t h ing s i n c e 1 9 3 7 f or i t s c o n s i d e r a b l e work .
Murnane h a d
H e a l s o s ough t t h e
i n t e r c e s s i o n o f m u t u a l f r i e n d s to appro a c h S oong f o r sorne p aymen t .
O c t ober ,
i n a m o r e con c i l i a t o r y
l e t t e r t o S o ong ,
C h i ne s e f r i end o f m a n y y e a r s w i t h the s e wo rds : "
and
In
Monn e t t h a n k e d h i s
[ Whe n ]
we g e t r i d o f
t h e s e f ew governme n t s wh i c h h a v e m a d e l i f e unbe a r a b l e dur i ng t h e p a s t f ew
years ,
t h e r e w i l l be o p e n be f or e a l l o f u s a huge f i e l d o f a c t i o n and
many po s s i b i l i t i e s of i mp o r t an t and i n t e r e s t i ng work . " ( 2 7 )
B u l l i t t s u c c e eded i n s en d i ng Monne t t o W a s h i ng ton o n c e mor e ,
t o c o n c e n t r a t e on F r a n c e ' s f i nanc i a l p r ob l e m s .
s e e Monn e t wh i ch R o o s e v e l t d i d . . . . ( 2 8 )
t h i s t ime
He u r g e d t h e P r e s i d e n t t o
T h e F r e n c h government n e w t u r n e d
a w a y f r om buy i n g or b u i l d i ng a C an a d i a n f a c tory t o buy i n g mor e Ame r i c an
p l an e s and e ng i n e s a s s oon a s p o s s i b l e . The i mm i ne n c e o f w a r i n E u r ope
m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e r e was n o t ime to bu i l d new f a c to r i e s w i th f ro n t
c o rpor a t i on s .
1 6
By t h e f i r s t we e k o f S e p t ember ,
when t h e F r e n c h and B r i t i s h u l t i m a tum
t o H i t l e r o v e r i t s i n v a s i on of P o l and was f o l l owed by t h e i r d e c l a r a t i on
o f war ,
t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s g o v e r n m e n t h a d a l r e ady begun t o p l an f o r a i d t o
t h e A l l i ed power s und e r r e l axed ne u t r a l i ty l eg i s l a t i on . ( 2 9 )
13,
On S e p t ember
B u l l i t t wa s t o l d by D a l ad i e r t h a t he wou l d s oon propo s e a F r e n c h ­
B r i t i s h pu r c h a s i ng organ i z a t i on i n London t o P r ime Mi n i s t e r C h ambe r l a i n .
The s ame d a y B u l l i t t w r o t e R o o s eve l t t h a t D a l ad i e r w a n t e d Monn e t e i t h e r
t o t ak e t h e L o n d o n j ob or ,
if
the B r i t i s h r e s i s t e d h i s appo i n tmen t ,
s en d h i m t o W a s h i ng t o n a s F r e n c h amba s s ador .
t o o v a l u ab l e f o r mer e l y runn i n g an emb a s s y ,
But , Bul l i t t s a id ,
to
Mon n e t wa s
a h i n t o f the Amb a s s ador ' s
i mp a t i e n c e w i t h h i s own s t a t u s . ( 3 0 )
Even w i th the 6 mon t h h i a t u s known a s t h e
' ph ony war ' ,
the s t art o f the
war ch anged p e r s on a l p l an s c h a n g e d r a p i d l y .
F o r s orne ,
l i k e t h e L i ndberghs
who h a d h o p e d t o c o n t i nue l i v i ng in Europe ,
perhaps e v e n i n G e rmany ,
the
war m e a n t a r e turn h o m e wh e r e C h a r l e s b e c ame d i r e c t l y i n v o l v ed i n
oppo s i ng t h e R o o s e ve l t adm i n i s t r a t i on ' s p l a n s t o a i d t h e A l l i e s ;
others ,
l i k e Mon n e t s aw Ame r i c an a i d a s d e c i s i v e t o t h e d e f e a t o f H i t l e r who s e
v i c t o r y wou l d be c a t a s t r o ph i c f o r Europe .
L i ndbergh ' s wi f e ,
Anne Morrow L i ndbergh ,
Mon n e t ' s c l o s e s t f r i en d s ,
hero .
Dw i g h t Morrow ,
w a s t h e d augh t e r o f one o f
and now t h e w i f e o f a n a t i o n a l
S h e s e n s ed t h e t w o wor l d s b e tw e e n wh i c h s h e w a s now c augh t :
f a th e r ' s - - u r b a n e ,
o f s t r en g t h ,
i n t e rn a t i on a l ,
demo c r a t i e ;
s u sp i c i ou s o f d e m o c r a cy ,
her
h e r h u s band ' s - - r e s pe c t f u l
i ne xp e r i en c e d i n d i p l om a c y . Mon n e t
r e p r e s e n t e d h e r f a t he r ' s wo r l d and v a l u e s and mu s t h a v e a l s o s e n s ed wha t
Dwi g h t Morrow ' s daugh t e r w a s e ndur i n g . H e r d i a r y r e f l e c t s t h i s p e r s o n a l
tens ion ;
Monn e t ' s memo i r s ,
wr i t t e n t h i r t y y e a r s l a t e r ,
do no t .
( 31 )
tl
The Ame r i c an r o l e de f i n e d and d e e p e n e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s e
two m e n whom f a t e h a d brought t o g e t h e r through Anne L i ndbergh a n d h e r
f am i l y .
Th e i r r e s pe c t i v e v i ewpo i n t s s oon f ound r e s on a n c e i n Ame r i c a n
pub l i c o p i n i on
w e r e thos e ,
wh i ch gradu a l l y d i v i de d i n t o t w o gre a t s t r e ams :
l i k e L i ndbergh ,
i n one ,
who hoped Ame r i c a c o u l d s t ay out o f t h e w a r
and w h o s aw n e u t r a l i ty i n d e e d a n d though t a s e s s e n t i a l to t h a t g o a l ;
in the other ,
those l i ke
and
Monne t , w h o abho r r e d any k i n d o f n e u t r a l i t y
be twe e n H i t l e r and h i s enem i e s . Monne t ,
o f a l l Ame r i c a wa t c h e r s ,
mu s t
h a v e known h i s s i d e w a s s t i l l i n a m i no r i ty i n t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 3 9 - 4 0 .
Monne t ' s memo i r s d e s c r i b e h i s app o i n tme n t t o h e a d wh a t b e c ame t h e Ang l o
F r e n c h C oord in a t i ng Comm i t t e e
( AFCC ) .
He had d e c l ined D a l a d i e r ' s
i nv i t a t i o n f or a n o t h e r m i s s i on to W a s h i ng ton o n a i r c r a f t p u r c ha s e s .
He
t o l d s e n i or o f f i c i a i s t h a t R o o s e v e l t wou ld m o v e a s r a p i d l y a s he c o u l d on
p l an e s o n c e h e h a d d e t e r m i n e d t h e be s t way a r ound t h e n e u t r a l i t y a c t .
Meanwh i l e ,
Mon n e t c o n c e n t r a t e d on p e r s u a d i ng f i r s t t h e F r e n c h and t h e n
t h e B r i t i sh g o v e r nme n t s on j o i n t p u r c h a s e s and j o i n t s h i p p i n g exe c u t i ve s ,
a pp l y i n g t h e l e s s on s o f Wor l d W a r I whe r e Monn e t had c o n s i d e r a b l e
e xp e r i e n c e - - - n o t a l l o f i t p o s i t i ve - - - i n t r y i ng t o g e t B r i t a i n a nd F r an c e
t o c oope r a t e o n s hi p p i ng w a r supp l i e s . Now h e w e n t t o London a s an a l l i ed
o f f i c i a l w i t h a pur c h a s i ng t e am i n the Un i t e d S t a t e s b eh i nd h i m .
I n D e c embe r ,
B u l l i t t h a d Monne t ,
and Rene P l e v e n f or l u n c h .
Daladier ,
( 32)
A i r M i n i s t e r Guy L a Chambre
P l ev e n , who was Mon n e t ' s a s s i s t a n t in h i s new
j ob in t h e AFCC i n London w a s on h i s w a y t o W a s h i ng t o n and New Y o r k t o
s e e t h o s e i nv o l v e d i n t h e Nor th Ame r i c a n s i d e o f t h e a r m s p r o c u r e m e n t
ope r a t i on .
Ar t hur P u r v i s ,
a C an ad i an bu s i n e s sm a n w i t h good U . S .
exper i e n c e w a s i n c h a rge o f t h e U . S .
F r a nc o i s B l o c h - L a i n é ,
o f f i c e o f AFCC .
a F r e n c h g o v e r nm e n t o f f i c i a l .
H i s d e p u t y w a s J e an ­
B ul l i t t w r o t e t h e P r e s i d e n t abou t t h i s l u n c h and a s k e d h i m t o s e e
P l even who c o u l d g i v e a good f i r s t hand a c c ou n t o f F r e n c h - B r i t i s h
c o op e r a t i on .
B u l l i t t a l s o g a v e a s e cond h i n t t h a t he wou l d p r e f e r to c ome
b a c k t o W a s h i n g t on wh e r e he m i g h t be more va l ua b l e .
The P r e s i d e nt ,
who
l i ke d to k e e p in c l o s e and p e r s ona l t o u c h w i t h a f ew amba s s ad o r s he
e s pe c i a l l y t r u s t e d , w r o t e b a c k t h a t B u l l i t t had b e t t e r s t ay in P a r i s f o r
a wh i l e . ( 3 3 )
P e rh a p s B u l l i t t ne eded t h e s t e ad i e r j udgm e n t o f Monne t i n t h e s e
matters .
Monne t had wo r k e d f r an t i c a l l y a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l i n London i n
Novemb e r 1 9 3 9 t o c o ord i n a t e war m a t e r i a l s b u t a l s o t o bo l s t e r t h e F r e n c h
r e s i s t e n c e t o the e nd em i e d e f e a t i s m wh i ch m a r k e d t h e u p p e r l e ve l s o f h i s ,
governmen t ,
e s pe c i a l l y t h e s e n i or m i l i t a r y s t a f f .
I t w a s d i f f i c u l t work
f or Monn e t s i n c e b o t h t h e B r i t i s h and F r e nch g o v e r nme n t s we r e t o t t e r ing
t ow a r d c o l l ap s e .
Monne t w a s i n c o n s t a n t d a ng e r of b e i ng und e r c u t by t h e
t r ad i t i on a l o f f i c i a l s in b o t h governme n t s a s a n o t e b y S i r F r e d e r i c k
P h i l l i p s o f t h e B r i t i s h Tr e a s u r y i nd i c a t e d w h e n he s t a t ed d r y l y t h a t sorne
peopl e ,
i n c l ud i ng s orne i n t h e F r ench M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e and t h e Un i t ed
S t a t e s Tr e a s ury did not t ru s t Monn e t ,
11
and I am among t h em . "
( 34 ) .
Mon n e t ' s p r o b l ems wi t h one p a r t o f t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s governmen t
impr oved e v e n b e f o r e h e a r r i ved i n Wa s h i ng t on when H e n r y L S t i m s o n w a s
named W a r S e c r e t a ry .
H e r e p l a c e d H e n r y H Woodr i ng w h o had r e s i s t e d
Morgan t h a u ' s a t t emp t s t o o v e r r i d e t h e m i l i t a r y c h i e f s '
f o r e ign a i r c r a f t p u r c h a s e s .
oppo s i t i o n t o
Mon ne t h a d known StL��oN i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s
when h e wa s S e c r e t a ry o f S t a t e und e r P r e s i d e n t Hoove r .
B u l l i t t and Monn e t w e r e now s e p a r a t ed by t h e Eng l i s h c h a nn e l b u t a l s o
by t h e enormous gu l f b e t w e e n t h e d e f e a t i sm o f F r a n c e and t h e gr i t ty
r e s o l v e o f t h e B r i t i s h wh i c h produc e d i n May 1 9 4 0 t h e C h u r c h i l l
govern me n t .
B u l l i t t b o t h a b s o r bed t h e F r e n c h p e s s i mi sm and c ommun
i c a t ed
i t t o Wa s h i ng t on . R o o s ev e l t c o mp l a i n e d once t o Mor
ganthau that Bu l l i t t
wou l d c a b l e a buoya n t m e s s age i n t h e morn i ng and t h e
n c o n t r ad i c t i t a f t e r
h a v i ng l un c h e d w i t h a F r e n c h o f f i c i a l .
H e a l s o f a u l t e d Bu l l i t t f o r
r e t u r n i ng t o t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r P e t a i n b e c ame h e a d
o f t h e Vi chy
gove rnme n t and pr a i s i n g t h e old gen e r a l a s a n a t i on
a l h e r o . Roo s e ve l t s a w
P e t a i n a s a s l y t r a i te r . ( 3 5}
A f t e r t h e G e r m a n b r e a k t h o ugh i n May 1 9 4 0 t hrough N e t h e r l ands and
B e l g i um a n d a c r o s s F r a n c e ,
London ,
Monne t tr i ed ,
w i th de G au l l e ,
who w a s a l s o i n
t o suppo r t a u n i on o f the F r e n c h a n d B r i t i sh p e op l e s t o k e e p up
the r e s i s t e n c e to the Na z i s .
( 3�
t h e governme n t o f P a u l Reynaud ,
When t h i s f a i l e d thr ough t h e f a l l o f
D a l ad i e r ' s s u c c e s s o r ,
Monn e t
r e s o l ve d t o
c o n t i nue t h e s t rugg l e b u t n o t wi t h t h e h i s t r i o n i c s o f B u l l i t t w h o s t ay e d
i n P ar i s ,
a g a i n s t o r d e r s f r om W a s h i ng t on ,
to demons t r a t e ,
h e be l i ev e d ,
more p l u c k t h a n t h e Reynaud governmen t wh i ch h a d a l r e ady f l e d P a r i s f o r
B orde aux whe r e i t y i e l ded to the c o l l abo r a t i on i s t r e g i m e o f P e t a i n .
Monn e t s aw t h e s u c c e s s o r P e t a i n r eg ime a s t h e e nd o f a b a t t l e but n o t
o f the w a r a g a i n s t H i t l e r .
H e c h o s e to go t o W a s h i ng t on a s a m e m b e r o f
t h e B r i t i s h P u r c h a s i ng C ommi s s i o n ,
France ' s f a l l ,
s u p e r v i s e d f r om London . ( 3 7 }
From t h e B r i t i s h v i ewpo i n t ,
dec i s ion ,
und e r Ar t h u r P u r v i s whom h e h ad ,
un t i l
t h i s w a s a h i gh - l ev e l and an unu s u a l
e v e n i n w a r t ime . Monne t w a s a p a i d F r e n ch governme n t o f f i c i a l
w i t h a F r e n c h d i p l oma t i e p a s s p or t .
C h u r c h i l l e ndor s e d t h e p a s s po r t f o r
Monn e t t o t r av e l to W a s h i ng t on in a s t i l l - unde f i ned r o l e w i t h P u r v i s on
t h e s ame s u p p l y p r o b l e m s Monn e t h a d ove r s e e n f r om London un t i l F r a n c e
fell .
C h u r c h i l l c o n s u l t e d on t h e Monne t app o i n t m e n t w i t h A r t h u r
G r e enwood ,
M i n i s t e r wi t h o u t P o r t f o l i o i n t h e W a r C a b i n e t a n d f ormer
Labo ur P a r t y l e ad e r i n C ommo ns ,
an i nd i c a t i on t h a t the Monn e t a s s i gnme n
t
w a s f a r f r om r ou t i n e . G r e enwo od t h e n
wr o t e Monn e t t h a t h i s e xa c t du t i e s
i n W a s h i n g t on wou l d have t o awa i t h i
s conve r s a t i ons w i th P u r v i s b u t t h a t
Mon n e t s hou l d br i ng wi th h i rn a l l t h e
p e r t i n e n t p a p e r s f r om t h e Ang l o F r e n c h C o o r d i n a t i on C o mm i s s i on work i nvo l v
ing c u r r e n t s up p l y
p r o b l e rn s . ( 3 7 )
The f a l l o f F r a n c e i n May 1 9 4 0 w a
s rnorne n t o u s f o r the n a t i on ,
n a t i on a l s e v e rywh e r e ,
for i t s a l l ies .
for i t s
The nom i n a t i on o f Knox and S t i rn s on
a t t h e s ame t i rne r e f l e c t ed R o o s e ve l
t ' s impa t i e n c e w i th cornp l a c e n c y i n t h
e
War D e p a r t rn e n t und e r Woodr i ng . The a
r r i v a l o f Monn e t t h e r e a f ew rn o n t h s
l a t e r r e f l e c t ed C h u r c h i l l ' s d e t e r m i n a
t i on t h a t a l l rn e a n s mu s t be u s e d t o
g a i n r a p i d a c c e s s t o t h e Arne r i c a n a r s e n
a l . As s orne i n L o n d o n qu e s t i oned
s e nd i ng a s ornew h a t mys t e r i ou s F r e n chrna n
to r e p r e s e n t B r i t a i n i n
W a s h i ng t o n ,
s orne i n Ame r i c a c yn i c a l l y s aw t h e appo i n tm
e n t o f two
R e pub l i c an s in Roo s e ve l t ' s c a b i n e t as
an a t t ern p t t o p r e e m p t t h e
oppo s i t i on i n an e l e c t i on y e a r .
I n t h e c our s e o f 1 9 4 0 ,
t h e P r e s i d e n t m a d e e th e r d e c i s i on s r e f l e c t i ng
t h e h e i gh t en e d s e n s e o f d a n g e r o f a B r i t a i n s t an d i ng a l on e a g a i n s t
H i t l er .
H e d e c i de d t o pr e s s f o r c h an g e s i n t h e l aw t o rn a k e a s s i s t an c e t o
B r i t ai n e a s i e r even a f t e r t h e d e s t r oye r - f or - b a s e s d e a l h a d p r o c e eded
under an i ng e n i o u s i n t e r pr e t a t i on o f e x i s t i ng l aw f i r s t p r o p o s e d a s a
l e t t e r t o t h e e d i t e r i n t h e New Y o r k T i m e s on Augu s t l l 1 9 4 0 by f ou r
d i s t ingu i s h e d i n t e r na t i on a l 1 awy e r s ,
c . B ur l i ngham ,
1· nc l ud ing D e an A c h e s on ,
G e o r g e Rub l e e and Thom a s D . Th a t c h e r .
C h ar l e s
( Two o f t h e f ou r - -
Ache s on and R ub l e e - -w e r e Monn e t f r 1· en d s whom h e wou l d s o on b e s e e i ng
again ) .
A l t ho ugh t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s w a s p e r c e i v ed i n th i s c o u n t r y t o h a v e
r e c e iv e d t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f t h e d e a l by g a i n i ng u s e f u l b a s e s f or
herni s p h e r i c d e f e n s e 1· n e x c h ange f o r aged wa r s h i p s ,
R o o s e v e l t knew t h a t t h e t r a n s a c t 1· on ,
b a t h C h u r ch i l l and
t o g e t h e r w i t h an e ar l i e r r e l ax a t i on
· o f the n eu t r a l i t y l eg i s l a t i o n ,
a c t iv e war r o l e .
brough t t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s c l o s e r to an
( 38)
Thu s , by t h e t ime Monn e t a r r i v ed i n Augu s t 1 9 4 0 o n i nd e f i n i t e Wa s h i ng t on
duty ,
h e w a s h a d we l l - p l a c e d a c q u a i n t an c e s ,
Treasury team ,
l i k e M o r g a n t h au and h i s
and g e n u i n e f r i en d s l i k e Mc C l oy and D e a n A c h e s o n
...ç� .... �\ ...,
whom h e h a d known f o r many y e a r s b e fo r e t h e w a r .
E l l e n b e c ame e s p e c i a l l y c l o s e to t h e Monn e t
both o f
Mc C l oy and h i s wi f e
when Monn e t w a s i n A l g i e r s
�
f o r 8 mon ths i n 1 9 4 3 . Now h e added e t h e r i mpor t a n t Roo s e v e l t a i d e s ,
i n c l ud i ng F r a nk f u r t e r and ,
s omewh a t l a t e r ,
H a r r y Hopk i n s .
H i s new j ob had
e xc e e d i n g l y d i f f i c u l t e l emen t s b u t he d i d n o t h a v e to s t a r t at t h e bo t t om
i n h i s s e a r c h f o r i n f l u e n c e i n war t ime W a s h i ng ton .
N o t l ong a f t e r h e a r r i v e d Monn e t m e t F e l i x F r a n k f ur t e r .
The b r i gh t ,
a r t i cu l a t e and i m ag i n a t i v e f r i end o f t h e P r e s i de n t f ound a k i nd r e d s o u l
i n J e an Monn e t whom h e h e l pe d e s c o r t a r o und t own to m e e t p e op l e . T h e two
men w e r e s o on " un i t e d by d e e p f r i e n d s h i p
d i ne d toge t h e r ,
w i t h t he i r w i v e s ,
[ and ]
c ommon i d e a l s . " T h e y o f t e n
e s p e c i a l l y i n Monn e t ' s h o m e whe r e t h e
F r a n k f u r t e r s deve l oped a g r e a t a f f e c t i on f or t h e exc e l l en t bourge o i s
k i t ch e n and d i n i ng s ty l e o f Ame l i e
d ' ho t e l ,
and Andr e Harr e ,
c o o k and m a i t r e
whom t h e Monn e t s h a d brought w i t h t h e m f r om P a r i s a n d London .
( 3 9 ).
I t w a s i n one o f t h e s e e v e n i ng c o n v e r s a t i on s w i th t h e S up r e m e C o u r t
J u s t i c e i n D e c ember 1 9 4 0 t h a t Monn e t u s ed t h e phr a s e " ar s e n a l o f
d e mo c r a c y "
t o d e s c r i b e t h e v i t a l b u t non - c omb a t an t r o l e h e s aw f o r t h e
Un i t e d S t a t e s .
F r an k f u r t e r wor k e d t h e phr a s e i n t o a Roo s ev e l t s p e e c h .
g r e a t a dm i r a t i on f o r t h e P r e s i den t ,
In
Mon n e t wr o t e Roo s e v e l t a n o t e
p r a i s i ng t h e " f i r e s i d e c ha t " a n d r em i nd i ng t h e P r e s i d e n t t h a t h e w a s now
in Wa s h i ng ton wor k i ng w i th P u r v i s on B r i t i sh s u p p l y p r o b l e m s . ( 4 0 )
Monn e t ' s n o t e may have b e e n mo t i v a t ed by s orne anxi e t y a b o u t h i s own
r o l e in W a s h i ng t on .
When appo i n t e d by Chu r ch i l l in J u l y 1 9 4 0 to a
W a s h i ng ton p o s t a t the B r i t i s h P u r c h a s i ng C ommi s s i on ,
there was eviden t l y
l i t t l e d e t a i l l ed c ons i d e r a t i on o f wh a t Monn e t wou l d a c tu a l l y do i n t h e
new j ob . Monne t ' s p a y s t a t u s w a s a l s o n o t c l e a r ; he h a d b e e n p a i d j o i n t l y
b y t h e F r e n c h and B r i t i sh governme n t s a s c h a i rman o f t h e Ang l o F r e n c h
C o o r d i n a t i ng C ommi t t e e .
Monn e t ' s p a y a s c h a i rman o f AFCC w a s 2 0 0 pounds a mon th ,
l e t t e r h e wr o t e i n l a t e 1 9 3 9 t o h i s bu s i n e s s p a r t n e r ,
add i t i on t o i n c ome f rom t h e p a r t n e r s h i p .
a c c o r d i ng t o a
G e orge Murnane i n
Now a s a B r i t i s h gove r n m e n t
emp l oy e e , Monne t h a d t o b e p a i d thr ough s orne m i n i s t r y . A d e c i s i on w a s
appar e n t l y m a d e t h a t he wou l d g e t t h e s am e approx i m a t e s a l ar y h e h a d
r e c e i ve d a s AFCC c h a i rman and t h a t t h e Mi n i s t r y o f S u p p l y wou l d p a y h i m ,
a d e c i s i o n m a d e known t o t h a t M i n i s t r y o n l y a f t e r t h e f a c t .
Morganthau
l a t e r t o l d t h e B r i t i sh Amb a s s a dor t h a t Monn e t g o t no p a y f r om t he B r i t i s h
governrnent s in c e h e n e v e r w a n t e d i t s a i d i n F r an c e a f t e r t h e w a r t h a t h e
w a s i n t h e p a y o f t h e B r i t i s h . Whe r e e xa c t l y t h e T r e a s ur y S e c r e t a r y h e a r d
t h i s i s n o t m a d e c l e a r b u t h e a t tr i bu t e s t h e s t a t em e n t t o Mon n e t h i m s e l f .
( 4 1 >.
S i n c e Mor g a n t h au l a t e r i nd i c a t e d t o Lord H a l i f ax t h a t h e had t r i ed
b e f o r e Monne t ' s i n i t i a l a s s i gnme n t t o b l o c k h i s a r r i v a ! i n W a s h i ng t on ,
it
i s p o s s i b l e t h a t Monn e t k n ew o f Morga n t h au ' s o ppo s i t i on f r om t h e s t a r t o f
h i s t ime i n W a s h i ng t o n . Th i s awar e ne s s may h a v e added t o a n i n i t i a l
u n c e r t a i n t y o f Monne t ' s a b o u t h i s r o l e i n t h e c ap i t a l . H e w a s a n a t i on a l
o f a d e f e a t ed a l l y o f B r i t a in and h e c e r t a i n l y h a d no c l a i m t o a j ob i n
e i t h e r London or W a s h i ng t on w i t h B r i t i s h s u p p l y m a t t e r s ,
e s pe c i a l l y i f
o n e o f Roo s e ve l t ' s s e n i or C a b i n e t rnember w a s d i s tr u s t f u l o f h i rn .
It is a
·
t r ibute t o the B r i t i sh ,
i n c l u d i n g C h ur ch i l l who had t o agr e e u l t i m a t e l y ,
t h a t t h e y ove r c ame b o t h i n t e r n a l and Ame r i c an m i s g i v i ng s a nd i n s t e ad
f ound i n Monn e t a u n i q u e c omb i n a t i on o f exp e r i en c e w i t h b o t h s u p p l y
m a t t e r s and the po l i t i c a l s i t u a t i on i n t h e Uni t e d S t a t e s ,
a s we l l a s a
r e a d i ne s s t o a c c ep t wha t e v e r r o l e B r i t a i n m i g h t i nd i c a t e f o r h i m i n i t s
i s o l a t e d s t r ugg l e f o r s u r v i v a l .
S oon a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l ,
Monn e t a l s o m e t S t i ms on who r e c a l l ed know ing
t h e F r e n c hman when h e w a s a f i n a n c i e r and i nv e s tment b a n k e r d u r i ng t h e
Hoov e r admi n i s t r a t i on . N o w h e w a s v e r y i mpr e s s e d w i t h Monne t ' s a c c ou n t o f
t h e F r e n c h s i t u a t i on i n c l ud i ng t h e d e G au l l e - G i raud c ompe t i t i on to l e ad
the Free French f o r c e s .
S t i m s o n c a l l ed Monn e t ' s l un c heon p r e s e n t a t i on i n
l a t e 1 9 4 0 " one o f t h e mo s t i n t e r e s t i ng I h a v e e v e r h a d . . . . [ Monne t ]
gave
me a mo s t c l e a r a n d pen e t r a t i ng a n a l y s i s o f t h e s i tu a t i on i n F r a n c e and
o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s i nvo l ve d and wh a t was m o r e impor t a n t he had s orne
c o n s t r u c t i v e sugge s t i on s of � ��...t:" t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s c ou l d do . " Monne t , who
h a d o n l y r e c e n t l y a r r i ved in W a s h i ng t on ,
ou t l i ne d f or S t i m s on s t e p s to
p r e v e n t F r a n c e f r om b e i ng i n c o r por a t ed i n t o H i t l e r ' s " New Europe " and t o
b l o c k t h e Na z i o c cupa t i on o f F r e n c h Nor th A f r i c a . T h e W a r S e c r e t a r y
g a v e a c opy o f Monn e t ' s memo
to Col .
W i l l i am Donovan ,
l a t e r t o b e c ome the h e a d o f t h e O f f i c e o f S t r a t e g i e S e r v i c e s
w a s g o i ng to E u r o p e the n e x t d a y . ( 4 2 )
( OS S ) , who
W i t h S t i m s on ' s t en u r e c am e an o l d
Monn e t f r i end f rom i n t e r w a r bus i n e s s d e a l i ng s ,
J ohn J Mc C l oy ,
as
As s i s t a n t S e c r e t ary o f W a r .
Monne t i nd i c a t e d ,
Tommy B r and ,
howeve r ,
in an i n t e r e s t i n g exchange i n 1 9 4 1 w i th
a n o l d and c l o s e B r i t i sh f r i end ,
t h a t h i s f i r s t f ew mon t h s
ô1l\ l
i n W a s h i ng ton w e r e d i f f i cu l t . T h e r e w a s appar e n t l y r e s i s t e n c e i n b o t h
"
London and W a s h i ng t on t o Monne t ' s r o l e on t h e B r i t i s h P u r c h a s i ng
C omm i s s i o n wh i ch by e a r l y 1 9 4 1 wa s expand ing r a p i d l y i n to many d i f f e r e n t
pur c h a s ing o f f i c e s und e r a new '' ro o f " o r g a n i z a t i on .
o r two " i n t h e U . S .
adm i n i s t r a t i on
[ wh o ]
Br and r e f e r s t o '' one
'' had t o a c c e p t you a s one o f us
and at f i r s t t h e y w e r e c r i t i c a l o f your i n c l u s i o n . '' I n London ,
F o r e i gn O f f i c e ,
among e th e r d e p a r tmen t s ,
W a s h i n g t o n a s s ignrnen t ,
B r and g o e s on ,
the
a l s o r e s e n t ed Monne t ' s
B r and s a id .
i n t h i s J an u a r y 1 5 1 9 4 1 l e t t e r ,
t o s t a t e t h a t Monn e t
h a s now p r o v e d h i ms e l f t o t h e comp l e t e s a t i s f a c t i on o f t h e London
d e p a r tmen t s i nvo lved . Monn e t wou l d ,
t h e B r i t i s h S u p p l y Coun c i l ( B S C )
B r and s a i d ,
s oon b e c ome a rnernb e r o f
wh i ch wou l d s up e r v i s e a 1 1 B r i t i s h
p r o c ur e m en t ope r a t i o n s i n W a s h i n g t on .
A l t hough Monn e t w a s wor k i ng v e r y
h a rd t hr ougho u t 1 9 4 1 i n prodd ing Ame r i c an o f f i c i a l s t o o r g a n i z e a m a j o r
m i l i t a r y p r oduc t i o n e f f o r t ,
end o f t h e y e a r ,
i t w a s d i f f i c u l t and f ru s t r a t i ng work . A t t h e
B r and wro t e t h a t h e had h e a r d t h a t Monne t w a s " depr e s s ed
and p e s s im i s t i c " wh i ch B r and hoped w a s o n l y due t o t h e W a s h i ng t on
we a th e r ,
b u t probabl y knew w a s n o t the who l e e xp l an a t i on . ( 4 3 )
I f 1 9 4 0 m a r k e d a y e a r o f g r e a t ch ange i n Monne t ' s p e r s o n a ! l i f e wi t h
h i s rnove f r om London t o Wa s h i ng t on ,
t h e n e x t 1 2 mon t h s b e c ame t h e
c r i t i c a l p e r i od when t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s moved f r om a r e lu c t an t and
h e s i t a n t s u p p l i e r of m i 1 i t a ry goods to a be l e ag u e r e d B r i t a i n ,
c ommi t t ed ( i f s t i l l m i l i t a r i l y f e e b l e )
to a f u l l y
c omba t a n t r e ady t o w o r k w i t h b e t h
B r i t a i n a nd t h e S ov i e t U n i o n t o de f e a t G e r rn a n y and J a p an .
Monn e t w a s pr e s en t f o r t h i s t r a n s f o r ma t i o n ,
h a v i ng a r r i v e d n o t l ong
b e f o r e the de s t ro y e r s - f or -ba s e s d e a l w i t h B r i t a i n wh i c h rn a r k e d t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f a m o r e a c t i v e b u t s t i l l r e s t r a i n e d a i d f or B r i t a i n .
in 1 9 4 1 ,
Early
t h e adm i n i s t r a t i on p r o p o s e d l eg i s l a t i o n t o g i v e m i l i t a ry
e q u i p m e n t to Br i t a i n und e r the c o n c e p t of a l e an of i t ems wh i ch our
f r i ends n e e d e d and wh i c h wou l d e v e n tu a l l y be r e t u r n e d .
R o o s e v e l t wa s a t
h i s be s t i n exp l a i n i ng t h e L e n d - L e a s e A c t i n t e rms o f h e l p i ng t h e
2-5
n e i ghbor s .
The F r e n chman wa s
gave r e a l hope t o B r i t a i n ,
new c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e new Ame r i c a n c o ur s e
and t o o c cu p i e d F r a n c e ,
new i n t h e
d a r k e s t p e r i od o f t h e w a r . T h e i mmed i a t e p r o b l em : h o w t o g e t c a l c u l a t e
e x a c t l y wh a t B r i t a i n n e eded and how Ame r i c a c o u l d p r odu c e i t . ( 4 4 )
As Monn e t moved i n to t h e new e r a o f Lend L e a s e ,
r e p l a c ing t h e s omewh a t
f u r t i v e a i d t o F r a n c e and B r i t a i n o f t h e 1 9 3 8 - 4 0 p e r i o d ,
H e n r y Morgan t h a u
w a s ge t t ing o u t o f t h e m i l i t a r y s up p l y bus i n e s s . H a r r y Hop k i n s ,
b e en S e c r e t ary o f C omme r c e f r o m 1 9 3 8 - 4 0 ,
L e a s e Adm i n i s t r a t i on ,
powe r ,
who had
was new n amed head of t h e Lend
in e f f e c t d i s p l a c ing Morg a n t h au . Monne t ' s s e n s e f or
i t s s our c e s and i t s s h i f t s ,
d e t e c t e d t h a t Hop k i n s w a s new h i s
obj e c t .
F r om t h e v i ewpo i n t o f Monne t and h i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,
t h e ch ange f rom
Morgan t h a u to Hopk i n s was c r u c i a l . A l t hough he d i d n o t know Hop k i n s we l l
a t t h e s t a r t o f t h i s c r uc i a l y e a r o f 1 9 4 1 , h e s oon c ame t oge t h e r w i t h h i m
w i t h t h e a i d o f F r a nk f ur t e r .
Hopk i n s , i n an t i c i p a t i on o f h i s work
c o o rd i n a t i n g l e n d - l e a s e s h i p m e n t s ,
e s t ab l i s h arms p r i o r i t i e s .
w a s s en t by R o o s e v e l t to London to
F r a nk f u r t e r a g a i n w a s
-rl e
�
a g e n t f or b r i n g i ng
Monn e t a t t h e r i g h t mom e n t t o t h e r i gh t p e r s o n . A t a l un c h e on i n
Fr ank f u r t e r ' s home , Monn e t g a v e Hopk i n s t h i s adv i c e :
C h u r c h i l l who r u n s t h e w a r c ab i ne t .
concentrate on
Hopk i n s l e f t Wa s h i n g t o n s k ep t i c a l o f
t h i s adv i c e bu t r e t u r n e d c o n v i n c e d o f b e t h C h u r c h i l l ' s c e n t r a l r o l e and
of
the d e t e rm i n a t i on of Engl and t o f i g h t w i t h t e n a c i ty to f i n a l v i c to r y
over H i t l e r . ( 4 5 ) .
F r ank f u r t e r a l s o s e n t t h e p r e s i d e n t a long memor andum Monn e t wr o t e on
the dang e r s of H i t l er ' s
' New Orde r " and the n e e d f or the Un i t ed S t a t e s t o
p r e v e n t F r a n c e f rom b e i ng i nc or p o r a t ed i n t o i t .
c ov e r n o t e ,
H e p r a i s ed Monne t ,
a s " ex t r ao r d i n a r i l y we l l i n f orme d " on F r a n c e and t h e
s i tu a t i on i n Nor t h A f r i c a .
( 46 )
Monn e t hoped t o h a v e t h e s e t h e m e s
in a
m e n t i o n e d a t l e a s t i n the S t a t e o f t h e Un i
o n addr e s s but h e d i d n o t
s u c c e e d t h i s t i me ,·
F r e edoms " )
t h e P r e s 1" d e n t c on c e n t r a t e d on g l ob a l t h e m
es
and n a t i on a l u r ge n c i e s
aga i n s t t h e Ax i s power � .
{ th e
' Four
{ r e armam ent and e c onom i e war f a r e
Monn e t ' s p l e a f o r s pe c i a l p r om i n e n c e f o r
F r a n c e ' s p l i g h t a p p a r e n t l y f e l l be tween t h e s
e macro- themes .
(Y\o P Al(!.T
JrN
c o r r e s pond e n c e wi th Tommy B r and
and A r t hur S a l t e r i n l a t e 1 9 4 0 i n d i c a t a:l1 t h a t
11
h 1"s
s t atus in
W a s h i ng t o n h a d t o be g i v e n a " l abe l " - - - s o f a r d e n i ed- - - i n o r d e r f o r h i m
t o f unc t i o n .
B u t in a l ong l e t t e r to S a l t e r ,
whom Monne t k n e w f r om Wor l d
War I w h e n b o t h w o r k e d on A l l :i e d s up p l y m a t t e r s ,
he c on c e n t r a t e d o n t h e
c o n c e p t u a l p r o b l ems w i t h i n t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t a s he n o w v i ewed them
f r om W a s h i ng t on ,
three months a f t e r h i s a r r i v a ! t h e r e . Monne t n o t ed t h a t
t h e c o n t i nu i ng d e l ays i n ge t t ing Ame r i c a n a r m s produc t i on b e h i nd t h e
B r i t i s h w a r e f f o r t w a s b a s ed o n an und e r e s t i m a t ion o f t h e Ame r i c an r o l e
and t o t h e f a c t t h e r e " wa s no c l e a r e u t C a b i n e t d e c i s i on a s t o wh a t a i ms
were to a c h i eved and no p r e c i s e m a nd a t e t o c a r r y
[ them ]
out .
The r e a l i z a t i on [ he c on t i nu e d ] . . . t h a t we a r e d e p e nd i ng on t h e U S A f or
tha t v i t a l
c on t r i bu t i on w a s e i t h e r n o t und e r s t o od o r s h i r k e d away f r om .
Are w e now g o i ng t o r e m a i n c o n t e n t w i th t h e s e a c h i e vmen t s , c ou n t t h e
d o l l a r s a t G r e a t B r i t a i n ' s d i s po s a ! , a n d s ha p e our f u t u r e
c our s e . . . a c c or d i ng l y or a r e w e t o t h i nk i n t e rms o f wha t add i t i o n a l
a rmamen t s and s h i p s G r e a t B r i t a i n n e e d s t o s u r e l y w i n t h e w a r
.? I
s u gge s t t h a t t h i s s e cond cour s e i s t he o n e t o t a k e . . . .
I t m e a n s t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e l a id b e f o r e t h e P r e s i d e n t a s t a t em e n t o f wh a t
p l ane s , and a rmamen t s , m e r c h a n t s h i p s . . . G r e a t B r i t a i n r eq u i r e s . . . t o w i n
the war .
( L a t e r ] The de f en s e o f Eng l and i s f o r t h i s p e o p l e [ th e Amer i c an s ] t h e
d e f e n s e o f Amer i c a . They t he r e f or e w i l l be w i l l ing t o do wha t ev e r Engl and
r e qu i r e s them to do . They wi l l no t , howeve r , f or t h e mom e n t go t o w a r - - - i n
t i me t h e y may- - - I p e r s on a l l y be l i ev e t h e y w i l l s om e t i m e n e x t y e a r b u t t h e
G ov e rnment i s g o i ng t o t r y n o t t o
a n d i n d e e d i f t h i s w a r c o u l d b e won by
G r e a t B r i t a i n w i th a l l the m a t e r i a l h e l p f r om the Un i t ed S t a t e s bu �
i t s a c t i ve w a r p a r t i c i p a t i on , t h e n i t wou l d be t h e gr e a t e s t p o 1 . 1t c� i
t r i umph FDR c o u l d w i n . { 4 7 )
.
S oon a f t e r t h i s l e t te r t o S a l t e r w a s wr i t t e n ,
of the new B r i t i sh S u pp l y C o u n c i l { B S C ) ,
Monne t b e c ame a
.
.•
1ember
aN o r g an i z a t i on to c o o r d i n a t e a l l
B r i t i sh p u r c h a s ing m i s s i o n s i n W a s h i ng t on . Ar thur Pur v i s h e aded t h e B S C ;
Mor r i s W i l s o n w a s h i s depu ty
. I n t a ndem in London w i th t h e B S C wa s a
mi n i s t e r i a l c ommi t t e e c h a i r ed by Andr e w Dun c an ,
i n c l u d i ng L o r d B e a v e r b r o o k ,
A l exande r ,
M in i s t e r o f S u p p l y and
M i n i s t e r of A i r c r a f t P r odu c t i on and A . V .
t h e F i r s t L o r d o f Admi r a l ty .
\h e s e
c h an g e s p r e p a r e d
t h e B r i t i s h governm ent t o d e a l b e t t e r wi th s u p p l y que s t i on s ,
e s pe c i a l l y
t h o s e i n v o l v ing t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s
l abe l '' h e h a d
Monne t ' s appo i nt m e n t t o t h e s u p p l y c ounc i l p r o v i d e d t h e "
ughout 1 9 4 1 - 4 2
l a c k e d b u t i t d i d n o t a l t e r h i s p r e c a r i o u s po s i t i on t h r o
thau haras sment .
when h i s t en u r e wa s k e p t i n j e opardy by t h e c o n t i nu e d Morgan
I n t h e m i d s t o f h i s f i r s t e xc i t i ng mon t h s i n Wa s h i ng t on ,
Mon n e t may n o t
e v e n h a v e b e e n a w a r e o f s orne o f t h e s e a t t i t u d e s c o n c e r n ing h i s r o l e .
Even
h i s s e l f -d i s c i p l i n e d i r e c t e d h i m t o c on c e n t r a t e on t h e
i f h e w e r e awar e ,
i mmed i a t e p r o b l em . H i s p e r s o n a ! s t a tu s w a s impor t a n t o n l y i f i t h e l ped
a c comp l i sh the arming o f B r i t a i n .
Morgan t h au ' s mo t i ve s i n t h e s e mov e s aga i n s t Monne t a r e n o t
entirely c lear .
The Tr e a s u r y S e c r e t a r y w a s f o r e mo s t a p o l i t i c a l a l l y o f
Roo s ev e l t a n d one w h o r e s ponded t o t h e popu l i s t s t r a i n o f t h e P r e s i de n t ' s
f ir s t term .
Morgan t h a u ' s d i a r i e s a r e p e p p e r e d w i th s k ep t i c a l ,
r e m a r k s aga i n s t " W a l l S tr e e t , "
of L a z ard Frere s ,
London ,
'' i n t e rn a t i on a l b a nk e r s , " and ,
even b i t ter
in the c a s e
r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e B r i t i s h c l a s s s t r u c t u r e and
i t s bu s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s . H e wa s a l s o a f e r v i d New D e a l Demo c r a t who was
a r o u s e d by J e an Monne t ' s u s e of a Repub l i c a n l aw f i rm in p l ann i ng the
C a n a d i a n a i r c r a f t p l a n t . Morg a n t h a u was p r o b a b l y unawar e t h a t Monne t h a d
a l ong r e l a t i on w i th a s e n i o r m e m b e r o f t h a t f i rm ,
whom h e f i r s t me t
�\
John P o s t e r Du l l e s ,
the V e r s a i l l e s p e a c e c on f e r e nc e .
I f h e h a d known ,
i t m i g h t on l y have c on f i rm e d h i s s u s p i c i o n s a b o u t Monne t who s e bu s i ne s s
deal ings a l s o involved L a z ard Frere s '
par tner ,
G e o r g e Murnane ,
London and P a r i s o f f i c e s and who s e
e v e n tu a l l y b e c ame a L a z a rd p a r t n e r i n New York .
Monn e t w a s t h u s d e e p l y i n v o l ved i n a n e twork o f f in an c i e r s ,
b a nk e r s and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l adv i s er s of e x a c t l y the k i nd M o r g a n t h a u mo s t s u s pe c t e d t o
be opp o s e d t o R o o s e v e l t and h i s admi n i s t r a t i on .
Th i s a s p e c t o f r e s t r a i n ed b u t p e r s i s t e n t h o s t i l i ty on t h e S e c r e t ar y ' s
p e r s on a l i t y mu s t a l s o be p u t i n p e r s pe c t i v e .
oppo s i t i on
i n s t e ad ,
to
H i s w a s n o t m e r e l y a f an a t i c
t h e moneyed c l a s s e s wh i c h b l inded h i m t o a l l e l s e . H e w a s ,
a devo t e d f o l l ow e r o f t h e P r e s id e n t whom h e had known s i n c e t h e y
w e r e n e i gh b o r s i n rur a l N e w York s t a t e .
H e s a w the Wa l l S t r e e t and
i n t er n a t i o n a l c i r c l e s as
the R o o s e ve l t admi n i s t r a t i on
the enemi e s of
e sp e c i a l l y i n i t s f i r s t t e rm ,
mak ing ,
p e r h a p s unwi s e l y ,
no d i s t i nc t i on
be t w e e n dome s t i c and f or e i g n p o l i c i e s .
H i s ,:. s;� 1.44 11 6.-.s
abou t Monne t and ,
l a t e r abou t Robe r t and Thom a s B r and ,
wh i l e c l e a r l y i n t ended t o r e p l a c e t h e s e p e op l e by e t h e r s l e s s c l o s e l y
a s s o c i a t ed wi th i n t e r n a t i on a l f i n a n c e, d i d n o t de f l e c t Morg an t h au f r om h i s
f i r s t du t y t o R o o s e ve l t :
h e l p t h e A l l i ed war e f f o r t b y a r m i n g i t w i t h
Ame r i c an we apons .
By 1 9 4 1 ,
Mo r g a n t h a u ' s r o l e i n t h e e f f e c t wa s s l ow l y be i n g r e p l a c ed by
t h e L end L e a s e Admi n i s t r a t i on who s e l eg i s l a t i on whi ch w e n t i n t o e f f e c t i n
e a r l y M a r c h . T h e anom a l y o f t h e T r e a s u r y D e p a r t m e n t buy i n g m i l i t a ry
equ i pme n t f o r 1 5 o r 20 f o r e i gn c oun t r i e s c e a s e d ; Morgan t h a u ,
r e f l e c t i o n on t h e ope r a t i o n ,
i n a c andid
said :
A l l t h e h e a r t a c h e s t h a t I h a v e h a d h a v e b e e n c ompen s a t e d f o r by
the f a c t t h a t I h av e b e e n a b l e to be of s orne a s s i s t a n c e to t h e s e
D emoc r a t i e c o u n t r i e s who h a v e b e en f i g h t i n g f o r Demo c r a t i e
pr i nc i p l e s and by encour agi nq them i n t h e i r pur c ha s e s , we w e r e a b l e t o
put our a i rpl ane manu f a c t u r e r s on a pr odu c t i o n ba s i s a n d ga i n
v a l u a b l e t ime . [ Empha s i s add e d ] ( 4 8 )
l)
Th i s l a s t c l a u s e s hows c l e a r l y Morgan t h au ' s p e r c e p t i on of t h e k e y prob l ern
t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s f a c ed f rom 1 9 3 8 - 4 1 and on wh i c h the T r e a s u r y S e c r e t a ry and
Monn e t were in f u l l e s t a g r e e m en t :
how to g e t the Arne r i c an indus t r i a l s y s t em
f u l l y engaged i n w a r produc t i on when t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s w a s n o t y e t i n v o l v e d i n
the war .
I n f a c t Monne t ' s w o r k ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i r s t y e a r a f t e r he a r r i v e d
i n W a s h i ng t on w a s prodding t h e n a s c e n t U . S .
wa r t irne e s t a b l i s hmen t t o do mor e ,
f a s t e r and w i t h g r e a t e r u r g e n c y .
B ob Na t h a n ,
who wo r k ed c l o s e l y wi t h Monne t i n t h e s e d a y s l e a d i ng up t o t h e
" V i c t o r y P r og r arn " wh i c h w a s announced by t h e P r e s i de n t s ho r t l y a f t e r P e a r l
arbor ,
r e c a l l s th a t :
Monn e t w a s an imp a t i en t man b e c a u s e h e knew b e t t e r t h an mo s t t h e
g r a v e j e opardy o f G r e a t B r i t a i n . He wou l d n o t w a s t e p r e c i ou s
t i rne w i t h srna l l t a l k or s o c i a l i z ing . H e w a s anx i ou s t o rne e t a n d
t a l k w i t h a nyone who c o u l d h e l p . H e had an unu s u a l abi l i t y t o
s p o t e f f e c t i v e ope r a t o r s and q u i c k l y d i s c a rd t h o s e w h o w e r e n o t
in a pos i t i on t o h e l p . H e was p e r s i s t en t w h e n h e s e n s e d an
oppor t un i ty t o r e c r u i t a n e f f e c t i v e suppor t e r . But h e had no
t irne o r ene rgy for i ne f f e c t u a l or phony p e r s ans . ( 4 9 )
Monn e t a l s o e arned a r ep u t a t i on f o r s i ng l e -rn i ndedne s s wh i c h s orne rn i g h t
rn i s t a k e f o r d e v i o u s ne s s .
N a t h a n g i v e s an exarnp l e :
I r ernernber Monne t t e l l i n g me many t im e s a b o u t p r e p a r ing a
s p e c i f i e c ab l e t o be s e n t f r om C hur c h i l l t o R o o s eve l t and t h e n
pr e p a r i ng the a n s we r s f or t r an s rn i t t a l t o Chur c h i l l . E a c h s i de
knew wh a t Monn e t w a s do i ng b u t b o t h w e r e s o irnpr e s s e d by hirn and
so s u p p o r t i v e o f h i s ob j e c t i ve s , t h a t they went a l ong w i t h h i s
unu s u a l t a c t i c s .
N a t h a n a l s o rn a k e s c l e a r t h a t Monn e t w a s i n v o l ved i n o n l y one s i de o f
t h e b a r g a i n ing i n v o l v e d i n s e t t i ng produ c t i on goa l s :
t h e s i de o f
dernan d i ng l a rger and l ar g e r p r odu c t i v e c ap a c i t y i n Ame r i c a '
indus t r i e s .
Monne t w a s n o t p a t i en t ,
a r rn s
f or exarnpl e , w h e n Na t h an expr e s s ed t o
h i rn
" my g r a v e c on c e r n s t h a t h i gh l y ex c e s s i v e go a l s wo u l d a lrn o s t
c e r t a i n l y r e s u l t i n c h a o s i n t h e a r rnarnen t s indu s t r i e s . We wou l d
e n d produ c i ng l e s s t h a n t h e o p t imum nurnbe r o f p l a n e s , s h i p s ,
t an k s guns a nd arnrnun i t i o n . He l i s t ened b u t he p r e f e r r e d t o t a k e
3o
a r i s k by s e e k ing h i g h e r a rm s p r o du c t i on r a th e r t h an s e t t l ing
for a l owe r , mor e s e c u r e numb e r by be ing more c a u t i o u s . ( 5 �.
S t a r t ing l a t e i n 1 9 4 1 Monn e t had t o d e f end h i s s t a t u s i n W a s h i ng t on
f rom the mo s t s e r i ous of M o r g a n t h a u ' s a t t a c k s on h i s i n t eg r i t y and
l o ya l ty .
H e n r y Morgan t h a u t o l d Lord H a l i f ax ,
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e ve l t ,
partner ,
the B r i t i s h Amba s s ador ,
and
among o t he r s , t h a t Monn e t and h i s Ame r i c a n bu s i n e s s
G e o r g e Murnan e ,
engaged i n v a r i ou s t r an s a c t i on s w i t h G e r m a n
f i rm s i n c l u d i ng e f f o r t s t o s h i e l d the t rue G e r m a n own e r s h i p o f f i r m s f rom
t h e Ame r i c a n governmen t . The a c c u s a t i on s r e l a t ed t o an e p i s od e in Wor l d
W a r I when t h e U . S . governme n t t o o k o v e r s u c h Ame r i c a n s ub s i d i a r i e s unde r
t h e A l i en P r o p e r t y l eg i s l a t i on . Now a t t h e s t a r t o f Wor l d W a r I I ,
Murnane ,
a c c o r d i ng t o t h e T r e a sury D e p a r t me n t ,
t ak e o v e r s t h r ough t h e c r e a t i on o f
Monne t ,
w a s t r y ing t o p r e v e n t s u c h
" v o t i ng t r u s t s . "
�
r th e rmore ,
Morgan t h au s a i d t h e T r e a s u ry D e p a r t m e n t " ma y h av e a c r im i n a l c a s e a g a i n s t
Monn e t o n h i s t ax r e t u r n s " b u t h e d i d n o t t e l l H a l i f a x t h i s b e c au s e " I
.----
wou l d n o t t e l l h i m a n y t h i n g I d i d n o t w a n t r e pe a t ed . .
'--- Morgan t h a u.
.�
t h e n added " . . . i t wi l l s e rv e the s e
E ng l i sh b i g bu s i n e s smen and h i gh nob i l i ty ,
h a v i ng w a r n e d t h em abo u t Monne t ,
.
l i k e H a l i f ax ,
r i gh t i f e v e r ,
t h i s c r im i n a l c a s e br e a k s . "
( 51 )
The s e a l l e g a t i ons n a tur a l l y ups e t t h e B r i t i s h Amb a s s ador who made
i n qu i r i e s i n W a s h i ng ton a b o u t Monne t .
Among t h o s e a s k e d for an o p i n i on
w a s S upr eme C ou r t A s s o c i a t e J u s t i c e F e l i x F r a nk f u r t e r who s e de t a i l ed and
l engh t y r e s po n s e ,
Monne t ' s w o r k .
''
on Nov 1 4 1 9 4 1 ,
was a n unqua l i f i ed e ndo r s em e n t of
. . . I have h e ard n o h i g h e r pr a i s e o f any o f f i c i a l
e n t ru s t ed w i t h B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s t h a t wh a t h a s b e en a c c orded Monne t by
men c h ar g e d w i th u l t i l m a t e r e s pons i b i l i ty .
S e c r e t ar y S t im s on ,
. . -- - ·
· - � - --
I h a v e h e a r d H a r r y Hopk i n s ,
t h e two A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r i e s o f W a r ,
M c C l oy and
3 1
Love t t ,
l e a d i ng men i n t h e Army ,
i n t h e Lend L e a s e Adm i n i s t r a t i on ,
and i n
O P M s p e a k o f Monn e t i n t e r m s o f t h e h i g h e s t e s t e e m and adm i r a t i o n . "
two s i ng l e s p a c e d page s ,
W a s h i ng t on .
For
F r a nk f u r t er g a v e d e t a i l s o f Monne t ' s work in
It w a s c l e a r that the J u s t i c e t o o k s e r i ou s l y t h e r eque s t f r om
t h e B r i t i s h Amba s s ador .
a n d Monn e t b y l a t e 1 9 4 1 ,
C on s i d e r i ng the c l o s e r e l a t i on s of F r a n k f u r t e r
i t i s a l mo s t c e r t a i n t h a t Monn e t knew o f the
H a l i f ax r eque s t and t h e j us t i c e ' s r e s p o n s e
.
.
( 52 )
Why d i d H a l i f ax a s k F r a n k f u r t e r and who e l s e r e c e i v ed s u c h i nq u i r i e s ?
W e d o n o t y e t know f o r c e r t a i n but H a l i f ax h a d o n l y a r r i v e d i n W a s h i ng t on
a f ew mon t h s e ar l i e r .
government
D e s p i t e h i s c o n s i d e r a b l e expe r i e n c e i n B r i t i sh
( he h a d b e e n f or e ign m i n i s t e r under C h ambe r l a i n )
have g i v e n h i m d i r e c t knowl edge o f Monne t ,
Ha l i f ax may h a v e b e e n up s e t t o
s t a r t h i s k e y w a r t ime a s s i g n m e n t b y d e a l i ng w i th
s ugge s t i o n s ,
wh i ch mu s t
Mo r g a n t h a u ' s
c l e a r l y made t o a numbe r o f p e o p l e over s e v e r a l y e a r s ,
that
Monn e t w a s n o t t o b e t r u s t e d .
The s e M o r g a n t h a u s u s p i c i o n s w e r e n e i t h e r c a s u a l nor u n e xp l o r e d .
t h e c o nv er s a t i ons w i th H a l i f ax i n June 1 9 4 2 ,
e v e n t s wh i c h c a u s e d t h e F r ank f u r t e r l e t t e r ,
c o n f r o n t e d Monn e t d i r e c t l y .
and af ter the l ate 1 9 4 1
t h e T r e a sury S e c r e t a ry
Twi c e i n May 1 9 4 2 ,
Monn e t abou t t h e Ame r i c a n B o s ch c o r p o r a t i on ,
B e f or e
Morga n thau i n t e r v i ewed
wh i c h h a d been owned by the
p a r e n t German c ompany of the s ame n ame . A f t e r t h e f i r s t t a l k ,
Monn e t s a i d
h e wou l d d i s cu s s t h e m a t t e r w i t h Murnane b u t Monn e t wa s c e r t a i n t h a t h i s
p a r t n e r b a d no k now l edge t h a t any G e r m a n c o n t r o l o v e r s h a r e s o f t h e
Ame r i c a n B o s ch c ompany w a s s t i l l exe r c i s ed .
S ev e r a l d a y s l a t e r ,
Monn e t c o n f i rm e d t h i s i mpr e s s i o n i n h i s s e c ond
m e e t i n g w i t h Mor g a n t h a u .
The T r e a s ur y S e c r e t a r y was not c o nv i n c e d " t h a t
Monn e t w a s t e l l ing a l l t h a t h e k n ew . " Morgan t h a u s umm ar i z e d t h e s e
c onve r s a t i o n s i n a memo t o t h e P r e s i d e n t whi c h a l s o i n c l ud e d a r e s pon s e
t o a que s t i on R o o s e v e l t appar e n t l y r a i s e d abo u t whe t h e r d i v i d e nds o f the
Ame r i c a n B o s ch f i rm cou l d ,
owne r s .
in f a c t ,
s t i l l r e a c h t h e pu t a t i ve German
H e a l s o t o l d R o o s e v e l t t h a t Monn e t i nd i c a t ed that " un t i l t h e
l a t t e r part of 1 9 3 8 ,
h e w a s a be l i e v e r i n r appr o a c hm e n t be twe e n F r a n c e
a n d G ermany . " Th i s f i n a l i n s i nu a t i o n f l a v o r e d t h e M o r g a n t h a u s u s p i c i on s
w h i c h p r e v i ou s l y w e r e b a s ed on on l y c omme r c i a l i n t e r e s t s ; n o w h e
sugge s t e d t h a t mi s g u i d e d p o l i t i c a l j udgmen t s ,
i nv o l ve d .
at least .
were a l s o
S u c h w e r e t h e though t s on Monn e t p l a n t e d by Morg a n t h a u i n the
minds of t h e two h i ghe s t o f f i c i a l s of t h e Arne r i c a n and B r i t i s h
governrnen t s i n W a s h i ng ton .
( 53 )
How rouch d i d Monn e t know o f t h e s e mov e s ,
a s i d e f r om t h e two m e e t i n g s h e
h a d w i t h Mor g a n t h a u h i rns e l f ? H e c e r t a i n l y h e a r d t h e s ub s t an c e o f t h e
a l l eg a t i on s f r om
O l i ve r Ly t t l e ton ,
t h e B r i t i sh M i n i s t e r o f P r oduc t i on ,
who w a s v i s i t ing Wa s h i ng t o n and who a t t e nded t h e June 1 7 1 9 4 2 m e e t ing
w i t h H a l i f ax ,
,
and probab l y f r om F r a nk f u r t e r a l s o . Mo rgan t h a u w a s
u p s e b e c a u s e Lyt t l e ton h a d t a l k e d w i t h Monn e t about t h e c h a r g e s wi t h o u t
s e e k ing M o r g a n t h a u ' s appr ov a l .
A t t h e J u n e 2 3 m e e t i n g wi th H a l i f ax ,
Morg a n t h a u c o mp l a i ne d a b o u t Lyt t l e t o n ' s i nd i s c r e t i on wh i ch h a d r e s u l t e d
i n an u r g e n t c a l l t h a t d a y f r om Arnb a s s ador B u l l i t t w h o wan � t o s e e t h e
S e c r e t ar y r i g h t away . Morg a n t h a u w a s c e r t a i n t h a t Mon n e t h a d c a l l ed
B u l l i t t t o i n t e r c ed e on h i s b e h a l f .
A f t e r Morg a n t h a u ' s May 7 m e mo t o t h e P r e s i d e n t b u t b e f o r e t h e June
m e e t i n g s w i t h H a l i f ax ,
t h e r e i s a l ong
Monn e t p r e p a r e d t o c o un t e r a t t a c k .
In h i s f i l e s
dr a f t l e t t e r o f May 1 4 1 9 4 2 wh i ch r ev i ews Monne t ' s
s e r v i c e on be h a l f o f t h e F r e n c h and B r i t i s h g ov e rnme n t s and h i s r o l e a t
t h e B r i t i s h P u r ch a s i ng C ommi s s i o n . The dr a f t c o n t i n ue s :
" Mr . Monne t i s a
c i t i z e n o f F r a n c e b e a r i ng a F r e n c h d i p l oma t i e p a s s por t . A t t h e s ame t i me
h e i s one of
the mo s t s en i o r B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s in the Un i t ed S t a t e s .
t h e exer c i s e o f h i s f un c t i ons h e i s r e spon s i b l e o n l y t o H i s Ma j e s t y
In
( sic)
G o v e r nm e n t who s e c on f i de n c e h E� c omp l e t e l y e n j oys .
" I n t h e d i f f i c u l t c i r cums t an c e s now p r e va i l i ng ,
uni que s i t u a t i on i n wh i c h Mr .
i t i s t hough t t h a t t h e
Monne t s t ands s h o u l d r e c e i v e a t l e a s t t h e
i n f orm a l r e c o gn i t i on o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s a n d B r i t i s h G o v e r nmen t s .
t he r e f or e ,
s ugge s t ed t h a t Mr .
It i s ,
Monn e t m i gh t be r eg a rded by t h e Un i t ed
S t a t e s Government in a l l r e s pe c t s a s an o f f i c i a l of
the B r i t i s h
g o v e r nm e n t and t h a t i n ma t t e r s c on c e r n i ng h i m t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t m i g h t
l ook t o H i s M a j e s ty ' s G o v e r n m e n t . " ( 5 4 )
W e r e t h e s e d i f f i c u l t c i r c ums t an c e s t h o s e c r e a ted by Mor g a n t h a u ? I t i s
n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e l e t t e r w a s e v e r s en t b u t i t s t o n e i nd i c a t e s Monn e t
t o o k s e r i ous l y t h e t hr e a t a n d w a s s e e k i n g w a y s t o u s e t h e pr e s t i g e o f t h e
B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t f o r h i s pr o t e c t i on f r om Morgan t h a u . Wh e th e r h e h e a r d
o f i t f rom F r an k f ur t e r ,
f r om Hopk i n s ,
Morgan t h au m e m o s t o t h e P r e s i d e n t )
( who mu s t h a ve known o f t h e
or f rom s om e o n e e l s e t o whom
Morg a n t h a n conveyed the s ame t h ough t s ,
is l e s s impo r t a n t t h a n t h a t Monne t
f e l t thr e a t e ned .
Howe v e r c on c e r n ed Monn e t w a s w i t h t he s e m a t t e r s ,
he n e v e r s e emed t o
d e v i a t e f r om h i s t a s k o f p r o d d i ng Ame r i c a n o f f i c i a i s t o i n c r e a s e d e f e n s e
produ c t i on . The words quo t e d by Fr ank f u r t e r on Monne t ' s b e h a l f - - - " a
t e a c h e r t o our D e f en s e e s t ab l i s hmen t " - - -m i gh t h a v e b e en p u t even s t ronger
by s orne . Monn e t w a s a s i n g l e - m i n d e d prod and ,
o c c a s i on a l l y ,
a s c o l d to
t ho s e w h o s e emed l e s s d r i v e n t h an h im s e l f on d e f en s e produ c t i o n ma t t e r s ,
a s Rob e r t N a t h a n ' s t e s t i mony s hows .
\
The s c a l e o f t h e work a t t h e B r i t i s h S u p p l y C oun c i l
( BSC )
i s sugge s t ed
by Mo r g a n t h a u ' s t e s t i rnony in e a r l y 1 9 4 1 at t h e Lend L e a s e l eg i s l a t i on
hear ings .
B r i t a i n had ,
s i n c e t h e w a r began i n S ep t ernber 1 9 3 9 ,
and t a k e n d e l i ve r y o f $ 1 . 3 b i l l i on i n s up p l i e s .
$1 . 4 bi l l ion ,
the Treasury S ecretary said . ( 5 5 )
p a i d f or
I t h a d on o r d e r ano t h e r
Th i s t o t a l o f n e a r l y
t h r e e b i l l i o n d o l l a r s o f B r i t i s h o r d e r s i n 1 8 mon t h s o f w a r c omp a r e s wi t h
a t o t a l U . S . gove rnrnen t budge t i n o u t l a y s i n f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 4 0 - 4 1 o f $ 1 4
b i l l i on . ( 5 6 )
o r d er s ,
Monne t w a s g r e a t l y i nv o l ved i n t h i s i rnpr e s s i v e v o l ume o f
e s pe c i a 1 1 y i n h i s n i n e! rn o n t h s i n London a s h e a d o f A F C C i n 1 9 3 9 -
4 0 and i n h i s f i r s t y e a r i n W a s h i ng t on .
By l a t e 1 9 4 1 ,
slï l l
and e s p e c i a l l y by rn i d - 1 9 4 2 the B S C work w a s h e c t i c
A
but r ou t i ne and rnuch o f i t d i d n o t d i r e c t l y i nvo l v e Monn e t . One o f h i s
many s e c r e t a r i e s a t the s u p p l y c oun c i l r e c a l l s t h a t h i s w o r k s e erned t o
have l i t t l e t o d o w i th t h i s r o u t i n e . H e w a s s ornewh a t my s t e r i ou s ,
recal led ;
h e k e p t h i s i nn e r d o o r s c l o s e d ,
she
made h i s o w n appo i n t me n t s ,
k e p t h i s f i l e s l o c k e d wh e n e v e r he l e f t the r o orn .
and
H e had a f e w v i s i t o r s ,
rnos t l y f r i e nds f rom e a r l i e r d a y s and a n o c c a s i on a l F r e n c h j ou r n a l i s t .
Mu c h o f t h e t i me h e w a s o u t o f t h e o f f i c e b u t w i t h o u t t e l l i ng h i s
s e c r e t a r y whe r e h e w a s .
B o b N a t h an r e c a l l s t h a t Monne t a lw a y s c arne t o h i s o f f i c e o r h e v i s i t e d
Monn e t a t h i s home on Foxh a l l Road .
f
N a t h a n w a s n o t e v e n a w a r e Monn e t h ad
h i s own o f f i c e i n t h e W i l l a r d H o t e l wh e r e t h e B S C w a s h o u s e d .
t h e y w a l k ed t og e t h e r i n R o c k C r e e k P ar k b e f or e b r e ak f a s t ,
a l r ea dy we l l e s t ab l i s hed
S orne t i m e s
a pat tern
i n Monn e t ' s l i f e . ( 5 7 )
Monne t h ad a c om f o r t a b l e h o u s e on an a t t r a c t i v e s t r e e t o n t h e end o f
the c i ty .
H e h a d a sma l l s t a f f t o h e l p w i t h t h e h o u s e ,
e n t e r t a i n i ng a t d i nner ,
and t o d r i v e ,
i n c l ud i ng f r e q u e n t
a s k i l l Monn e t n e v e r a t t em p t e d t o
a cq u i r e .
H i s wi f e S i l v i a ,
m a r r i age ,
w i t h h e r 1 0 y e a r o l d d a ugh t e r f r om h e r f i r s t
s p e n t a qui e t f i r s t y e a r i n 1 9 4 0 - 4 1 mo s t 1 y a t home i n
Wa s h i ng t on .
S h e w a s expe c t i ng t h e Monne t ' s f i r s t c h i 1 d ,
born i n November 1 9 4 1 .
Th e r e a f t e r S i l v i a ,
a painter ,
Ma r i anne ,
who wa s
b e c ame a c t i v e l y
i n v o l v e d i n v o l un t e e r wor k i n W a s h i ng t on , i ni t i a l l y w i t h E l l en M c C l oy .
Monn e t appar e n t l y l i v e d we l l beyond h i s 2 0 0 pound mont h l y s a l a ry f r om
t h e B r i t i s h governme n t i n m a i n t a i n i ng t h i s hou s e h o l d in t h e s ty l e he
n e e de d f o r h i s work .
E v e n when conve r t e d i n t o do l l a r s ,
h i s s a 1 a r y wa s t h e
equ i v a l e n t o f about $ 1 1 , 0 0 0 - - -m o r e t h a n a member o f Congr e s s i n 1 9 4 0 but
l e s s t h a n a c a b i n e t memb e r .
��
Monne t ,
In t h e T r e a s u r y D e pa r tm e n t i n ve s t i ga t i on o f
h i s 1 9 4 0 g r o s s i n c ome was r e p o r t e d a t $ 5 4 , 0 0 0 ,
cons iderably more
t h a n $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 c a b i n e t s a l a r y b u t l e s s t h an t h e $ 7 5 , 0 0 0 t h e P r e s i d e n t
A
e a r n e d . Mo s t o f h i s i n come mus t h ave be e n f r om
p a r t ne r s h i p and
i nv e s t m e n t s ou r c e s . Monne t ' s �7i l l i ngne s s t o s p e nd money on a hou s e h o l d
s t a f f wh i c h wa s c e r t a i n l y l a r g e b y Ame r i c a n w a r t ime s t an d a rd s ,
sub s t a n t i a l hou s e i n a b e t t e r W a s h i n g t on ne i ghborhood ,
h i s l i f e l ong a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d money .
clothes ,
amp l e hou s i n g ,
and for a
i s c o n s i s t e n t w i th
H e w a n t e d the qua l i t y t h i ng s - - g o o d
f i r s t c l a s s t r ave l - - -wh i ch money c o u l d buy .
s p e n t f r e e l y f or t h e s e good s .
He
But h e n e v e r s e emed t o c l o s e f r i ends t o be
e xc e s s i v e l y c o n c e rn e d w i th m a k i ng money ,
or ups e t wh en h e l o s t i t ,
wh i ch
happened s e v e r a ! t i m e s i n h i s bu s i ne s s c a r e e r . ( 5 8 )
Monne t ' s f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i th H opk i n s appar e n t l y c ame a t t h e s t a r t o f
1 9 4 1 when t h e f ormer S e c r e t ar y o f C omme r c e h a d moved i n t o t h e Wh i t e
H ou s e and b e c ame t h e P r e s i de n t c 1 o s e s t p e r s o n a l adv i s e r and h i s s pe c i a l
a s s i s tant t o w i n the war .
I n a l un c h e on me e t i ng a t Fr ank f u r t e r ' s hou s e
j u s t be f or e Hopk i n s l e f t f or London ,
Monn e t t o l d h i m to c onc e n t r a t e on
C hur c h i l l . Hopk i n s s e emed to r e s e n t t h i s exc e s s i v e awe o v e r a l i v i ng
3
l e gend ,
p e r h a p s b e c a u s e he a l r e ady worked f o r a n o t h e r one . Wh e n h e s howed
h i s i mp a t i en c e ,
someone ,
probably Frank furter ,
t o l d h i m to " t a k e the c h i p
o f f h i s s h ou l d e r " and t r av e l w i t h an o p e n m i nd . ( 5 9 ) W h e n Hopk i n s r e t u r n e d
f r om L o n d o n he m a d e a p o i n t o f s e e ing Monne t ,
i n v i t i n g h i ms e l f f or an
e n t i r e e v e n i ng wi th the f am i l y . Monn e t mu s t h a ve f e l t s t r e n g t h e n e d w i t h
h i s s e c u r e r e l a t i on s h i p w i t h Hopk i n s who wa s now ,
cal led him ,
a s h i s b i ogr apher
deputy P r e s i d e n t of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s . ( 6 0 )
The y e a r 1 9 4 1 b e c ame a c ru c i a l o n e f o r b o th Monn e t and Hopk i n s .
a l s o a d i s m a l o n e f o r tho s e f i g h t i n g H i t l e r .
I t was
B o t h m e n w e r e mov i ng i n t o
new r e s pon s i b i l i t i e s wh i ch r e d e f i n e d t h e i r r e l a t i on s h i p s to t h e e n t i r e
w a r e f f o r t . Hopk i n s wen t t o London to r ep r e s e n t Roo s e ve l t ; o n h i s r e turn
h e b e c ame t h e admi n i s t r a t o r of Lend L e a s e ,
d i s p l a c ing t h e T r e a s u r y
S e c r e t a r y i n immed i a t e i n f l u e n c e on w a r s uppl i e s .
Later ,
Hopk i n s wou l d
h i ms e l f expe r i e n c e a s imi l a r d e c l i n e i n i n f l u e n c e and Morg a n t h a u ,
unr e l a t ed r e a s o n s ,
f or
wou l d bur s t ag a i n i n t o prom i n en c e and i n f l u e n c e wi th
h i s p l an for G e rmany .
Monne t ,
i n t h i s i mpo r t a n t y e a r ,
i n t e rmed i a t e l eve l s of
dev e l oped t i e s t o tho s e a t the top and
the Am er i c an gove rnmen t and b e c arne an
i n d i s p en s i b l e a d j u n c t t o the und e r s t and i ng of t h o s e l e ad e r s of wh a t w a s
h appen i ng i n Europe . As Monne t p u t i t ,
c on s u l t e d a s a F r e nchrna n ,
I
" Al t h o ugh I wa s n o t e s pe c i a l l y
w a s more r e ad i l y l i s te n e d t o o n E u r o p e a n
ma t t e r s t h a n my W a s h i ng to n c omp a t r i o t s .
�''()
" Mon n e t A s a w h i s j ob as h e l p i ng
t o r e a s s u r e t h o s e who f e l t i t w a s po s s ib l e t h a t H i t l e r m i g h t s u c c e ed .
( 61 )
B y t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s i n t o t h e war
r emoved a l l l eg a l obs t a c l e s t o f u l l c o op e r a t i o n wi th t h e B r i t i sh .
a l though t h e m i l i t a ry news w a s s t i l l bad ,
And
t h e f u l l f or c e o f t h e Ame r i c a n
6
n a t i on now m e a n t t h a t v i c t o ry w a s on l y a ma t t e r o f t i me .
Comp e t i t i on f or
supp l i e s h a d t o b e r e g u l a t e d b u t th i s t oo f e l l i n t o a r o u t i n e .
194 2 ,
t h e ma j or w o r k on produ c t i on go a l s wa s now compl e t ed .
By mid-
Monne t now
b e g an t o t h i n k m o r e abo u t F r an c e ' s r o l e in t h e war .
But at the s t art o f 1 9 4 2 ,
Monne t f e l t t h a t t h e V i c t o r y P r o g r a m w a s
u n d e r w a y and no l on g e r n e e d e d h i s a t t e n t i on .
But the succe s s of that
p r o g r am i t s e l f c r e a t e d n e w d i f f i cu l t i e s . T h e Ame r i c a n m i l i t ar y l e a d e r s h i p
w a s abou t t o r e c e i ve b o t h m i l i t ar y supp l i e s a n d m i l i t a r y r e s pons i b i l i t i e s
unima g i n ab 1 e i n t h e r e pu b 1 i c ' s 1 5 0 y e a r h i s t o r y .
Britain ,
t h e pr i n c i p a l a l l y ,
Sharing both with
wa s a t a s k t h a t h a d t o be l e a r n e d .
The r e
w e r e many m i s s t ep s a l on g t h i s p a t h o f coop e r a t i on s orne o f wh i c h Monne t
c o u l d an t i c i pa t e b e t t e r t h an o t he r s b e c a u s e o f h i s e xp e r i e n c e s i n London
i n 1 9 1 4 and 1 9 4 0 .
The c r e a t i o n o f t h e C omb i n e d Pr oduc t i on and R e s our c e s B o ard h e l p e d bu t
t h e p r e d om i n a n c e o f s t r ong Ame r i c an m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s i n W a s h i ng t on
r e q u i r e d o c c a s i on a l b a l an c i n g by s t rong B r i t i s h r e pr e s e n t a t i on .
1 9 4 2 O l i ve r L y t t l e t on ,
t h e B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r o f P r oduc t i on ,
W a s h i ng ton a t Monne t ' s i n s t i g a t i on t o
e f f or t s . ( 6 2 )
�
�
� 6o 1
Tw i c e i n
c am e t o
t h e Ame r i c a n and B r i t i s h w a r
The o t h e r m a j or t a s k Monn e t f a c e d i n 1 9 4 2 w a s t o r e f o c u s on t h e
p r ob l e m s o f F r an c e . T h e V i c h y g o v e r n m e n t und e r Mar s ha l l P e t a i n b e c ame
l e s s and l e s s p l au s i b l e a s a coun t e r - f o r c e to H i t l e r and rou c h more a s
h i s awkwa r d a c c om p l i c e . D e Ga u l l e ' s e f f o r t s i n London t o r a l l y t h e " Fr e e
F r e nc h '' a g a i n s t b o t h B e r l i n and V i c hy m a d e h i m a t r a i t e r t o P e t a i n .
Nor t h A f r i c a ,
s i t e o f i mpor t an t F r e n ch m i l i t ar y a s s e t s ,
s u c c e s s o r t o t h e mur d e r e d Admi r a i D ar l an ,
In
G e n e r a l G i r aud ,
w a s t r y i n g t o m a i n t a i n a t h i rd
F r e n c h pr e s en c e .
I t w a s i n t o t h i s th r e e - c o r n e r e d c o n t e s t t h a t Monn e t
d e s c e nd e d .
The c r u s t y S e c r e t ary o f S t a t e ,
C o r d e l l Hu l l ,
w a s the p r i n c i pa l
s uppor t e r i n W a s h i n g t o n o f M a r s h a l l P e t a i n ' s V i chy r e g i m e .
Hu l l s a w t h i s
s uppo r t und e r m i n e d b y Monn e t whom t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e b e l i e v e d an
agent of d e Ga u l l e .
H u l l r a i s e d t h i s mat t e r a t a me e t i n g w i t h Frank Knox ,
t h e S e c r e t ar y o f t h e Navy ,
and H e n r y L S t i m s on ,
t h e W a r S e c r e t a ry ,
in
D e c ember 1 9 4 2 a f t e r Monn e t h a d a c c ompa n i ed G e ne r a l B e thoua r t on h i s
W a s h i n g t o n r ounds .
Hu l l s a i d Be thouar t w a s t r y i ng t o ge t r e c o gn i t i on by
the adm i n i s t r a t i o n of d e Ga u l l e as
the " c i v i l l e ad e r of a l l o c c u p i e d
p r o v i n c e s o f F r a n c e a n d o f F r e n c h t e r r i t or i e s . " A c c o r d i ng t o Hu l l ,
Monn e t
c l a imed t h a t Ame r i c a n d i p l om a t Robe r t Murphy h a d m a d e s u c h an a g r e e m e n t
o v e r a y e a r b e f o r e on i n s t r u c t i on s f r om R o o s e v e l t .
Hu l l w a s u p s e t o n
h e a r ing o f t h i s bu t h i s d e p u t y S umne r We l l e s c ame i n t o t h e m e e t i n g w i t h a
me s s ag e t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t d e n i e d m a k i ng any s u c h a g r e eme n t .
S t im s o n r e a s s u r e d H u l l t h a t i n any c a s e Monne t w a s be ing t r e a t e d by
t he W a r D e p a r t m e n t " pu r e l y a s a n a g e n t h e r e t o pur c h a s e s u pp l i e s
[ and ]
t h a t h i s au t hor i t y and our au t hor i t y w a s l i m i t e d t o t h a t s ub j e c t i n a l l
our t a l k s . " ( 6 3 )
l i te r a l l y true ,
Th i s w a s p e r h a p s f or m a l l y t h e c a s e but i t w a s no t
s i n c e S t im s o n ,
who adm i r ed Monne t ,
i n f ormed b y h i m o f e v e n t s i n Nor th A f r i c a .
w a s b e i ng k e p t
S t im s o n d i n e d w i t h Monn e t and
m u t u a l f r i e n d s a numb e r of t i m e s and e n t e r t a i ne d S i l v i a Monne t when J e a n
w a s abs e n t i n A l g i e r s .
I f Hu l l e v e r unde r s t o od t h i s r e l a t i on i s
unknown ; but Hu l l n e v e r ov e r c ame t h i s d i s t r u s t o f Monn e t who i s n o t
me n t i on e d i n S e c r e t ar y o f S t a t e ' s vo l u m i n o u s memo i r s .
e v�N
Monne t ' s a t t i tude toward d e G au l l e w a s more c omp l i c a t e d t h a t Hu l l
imagined .
I n h i s Memo i r s ,
Monne t s ay s ,
h e m a i n t a i ned " good p e r s o n a l
��
r e l a t i on s " w i t h d e G a u l l e , w i t h whom he s p e n t s e v e r a l c r u c i a l w e e k s i n
London i n m i d- 1 9 4 0 .
But t h e s e two s t rong-w i l l ed men d e c i d e d t o t r a v e l
A
s e p a r a t e p a t h s i n suppor t i ng F r ench r e s i s t e n c e .
D e G au l l e i n s i s t e d on
h e a d i n g t h e London - b a s e d F r e nch Comm i t t e e of N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i o n
( FCNL ) ;
Monn e t r eq u e s t ed and r e c e i ve d f r om C h u r c h i l l a p o s i t i on i n W a s h i ng t on
wh i c h h e h a d t o c r e a t e f or h i m s e l f h e l p i ng o r g an i z e war supp l i e s f o r
Bri tain . ( 6 4 )
Monne t r e l a t i ons w i t h d e Gau l l e w e r e t o e n t e r ano t h e r c o n t e x t s o on .
l ate 1 9 4 2 ,
In
a f t e r Monn e t a n d Hopk i n s b e g a n t o d i s c u s s the A l l i ed s i tua t i on
more r e g u l a r l y ,
c r i t i c a l p e r i od .
t h e s i t u a t i on i n F r e nc h i n Nor t h A f r i c a e n t e r e d a
The Ang l o - Ame r i c a n m i l i t ary c ommand h a d d e c i d e d on a
l an d i ng i n Nor th A f r i c a a s t h e f i r s t A l l i ed i n i t i a t i v e toward r e g a i n i ng
c o n t r o l o f w e s t e r n Europe .
Nor th Af r i c a ,
howe ver ,
To put t ro o p s on t h e Med i t e r r an e an s ho r e s o f
r a i s e d immed i a t e l y t h e que s t i on o f w h e t h e r t h e
F r e n c h f or c e s t h e r e wou l d f i ght a l ong s i d e or aga i n s t t h e Ame r i c a n a n d
B r i t i sh forces .
Adm i r a ! D a r l an ,
w a s s t r o ng l y a n t i - B r i t i sh ,
t h e s e n i or F r e n c h c ommand e r i n t h e a r e a ,
mo s t r e c e n t l y
b e c a u s e o f wh a t h e c o n s i de r ed a
s e l f i s h B r i t i s h r e f u s a ! t o s u p p l y F r a n c e w i th f u l l m i l i t a r y s up p o r t i n
i t s f i n a l d a y s o f r e s i s t e n c e t o H i t l e r i n June 1 9 4 0 . H i s f e l l ow s e n i or
o f f i c e r s i n A l g i e r s s h a r e d s orne o f h i s a t t i tud e s .
The A l l i e d f o r c e s l anded i n N o r t h A f r i c a on November 8 1 9 4 2 ,
s orne s urpr i s ing r e s i s t e n c e f rom F r e n c h f o r c e s .
mee t i ng
Dar l an w a s a s s a s s i n a t ed
my s t e r i ou s l y j u s t b e f o r e Chr i s tm a s , l e av i ng t h e l o c a l l e ad e r s h i p in l e s s
f i r m h a nd s .
When R o o s e v e l t and Church i l l m � t i n C a s ab l anc a ,
J a nuary 1 9 4 3 t o p l an s t r a t egy ,
Mor o c c o ,
t h e c o n f u s ed s i tu a t i on i n F r e n c h Nor th
in
A f r i c a wa s on t h e i r rn i n d s .
I t w a s a l s o on Monne t ' s rn i nd a s he s h i f t e d
f rom w a r s upp l i e s t o F r e n c h un i ty i n t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t H i t l e r .
H e c o l l ab o r a t e d w i t h Hopk i n s ,
C a s ab l anc a ,
who wh i l e w i t h t h e P r e s i d e n t i n
s ugge s t e d t h a t t h e P r e s i de n t a s k f o r Monne t ' s p r e s e n c e i n
Nor th A f r i c a .
A m i dd l e w a y h a d t o be
rni l i t a r y l e ad e r w h o s u c c e ed e d D a r l an ,
f ound be tween G e n e r a l G i r aud ,
the
and de Gau l l e , w h o i n s i s t ed t h a t
t h e F C N L w a s t h e s u p r e rn e F r e n c h a u t h o r i t y i n r e s i s t i ng H i t l e r .
R o o s e ve l t
s e n t a l ong c a b l e t o Hu l l a s k i ng t h a t Monn e t b e s e n t t o g e t s orne c i v i l i an
s t r e n gp i n t o t h e " admi n i s t r a t i ve p i c t u r e h e r e . " The P r e s i d e n t d e s c r i b e d
Monn e t a s s orneone " who h a s k e p t h i s s k i r t s c l e a r o f p o l i t i c a l
e n t an g l e me n t s i n r e c e n t y e a r s and m y impr e s s i on o f h i rn i s v e r y
f av o r ab l e . " R o o s e ve l t ,
i n wh a t mus t be c on s i d e r e d p r e s i d en t i a l l i c en s e ,
added t h a t " I be l i ev e t h a t M o r g a n t h a u knows and tr u s t s Monne t . " B o t h t h e
T r e a s u r y S e c r e t a r y a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t k n e w e x a c t l y t h e oppo s i t e i n f a c t .
Hu l l t r i e d t o v e t o t h e s ugge s t i on ,
a n y o n e s u s p e c t ed " t o de G a u l l e .
s ay i ng Monn e t w a s " c l o s e r t h a n
B u t Hopk i n s wou l d n o t be s o e a s i l y
thwar t e d ; when h e r e t u r n e d t o Wa s h i ng t on wi th t h e P r e s i d e n t h e s e n t
Monn e t t o A l g i e r s o n b e h a l f o f t h e Mun i t i on s As s ignrn e n t B o a r d wh i ch h e
c h a i r e d s i n c e g i v i ng up t h e L e n d L e a s e Adm i n i s t r a t i on .
i n t o equ i p p i ng t h e F r e n c h t r o o p s in Nor t h A f r i c a ,
Monn e t w a s t o l ook
a cq u a i n t G e n e r a l G i r aud
w i t h the s i t u a t i on i n W a s h i ng t on and k e e p i n t ou c h w i th G e n e r a l
E i s enhower who s e h e adqu a r t e r s w a s now i n F r e n c h No r t h A f r i c a . ( 6 5 )
Roo s ev e l t c a b l ed E i s enhower about Monn e t and t h e n g av e Monn e t a l e t t e r
f or t h e g e ne r a l .
visit ,
In both ,
R o o s eve l t s a i d t h a t G i r aud h a d a s k ed Monne t to
a r e qu e s t wh i c h served t o r e i n f or c e t h e o r i g i n a l Hopk i n s r eque s t
wh i ch H u l l h a d d e l a y e d .
No annou n c e rn e n t w a s t o be made by E i s e nhower o f
t h e v i s i t wh i c h w a s t o be c o v e r e d i n W a s h i ng ton , th e P r e s i d e n t n o t e d ,
by
t h e " f o r rn a l r e a s on s " g i v e n i n Hopk i n s l e t t e r t o Monn e t about t h e
mun i t i on s b o a r d .
Roo s e v e l t added t h a t Monne t " un d e r s t ands my v i ews
c ornp l e t e l y , " a f ur t h e r ,
i f indirec t ,
i nd i c a t i o n t h a t Monn e t and Hopk i n s
w e r e i n c l o s e t o u c h on t h i s a s s i gnrne n t . { 6 6 )
Monn e t s p e n t n e a r l y e i gh t rnon t h s i n A l g i e r s whe r e h e w a s r e i n t egr a t e d
i n t o t h e F r e n c h po l i t i c a l s y s t em i n a more c omp l e t e way even t h a n when h e
r e pr e s e n t ed t h e F r e n c h governrnent i n London i n 1 9 3 9 - 4 0 .
H i s c l o s e work
w i th d e G a u l l e in b o th London and A l g i e r s undoub t e d l y p r e p a r e d t h e way
for t h e l a t e r c onve r s a t i on ,
a f t e r F r a n c e ' s l ib e r a t i on ,
when Monn e t w a s
a s ked t o p r e p a r e a p o s twar p l an f or t h e c ou n t r y ' s r e bui l d i ng .
In Algiers ,
Monn e t h e l pe d med i a t e t h e d i s p u t e b e tween d e G au l l e and
G i r aud and h e b e c arne c l o s e l y i nvo l ved w i th Robe r t Murphy ,
U . S . d i p l orn a t a s s i gn e d to E i s enhower ' s h e adquar t e r s ,
M a c Mi l l an ,
Mur phy ' s B r i t i s h c oun t e rp a r t ,
A l l i e d f i gur e s .
the
with Harold
a n d w i th many o t h e r impor t a n t
Th i s c h a p t e r c annot c ov e r t h i s A l g i e r s p e r i od o f
Monne t ' s l i f e wh i c h h a s b e e n we l l d e s c r i bed e l s ewhe r e . ( 6 7 )
H e r e i t mu s t
o n l y b e s a i d t h a t Monn e t appar e n t ly c ornrnun i c a t e d more r e g u l a r l y w i t h
Hopk i n s t h a n w i th anyone e l s e i n W a s h i ng t on dur i ng h i s e igh t rnon t h
absence .
E v e n w i th S i l v i a he o f t e n c ornrnun i c a t e d thr ough Hopk i n s
off ice . ( 6 8 )
A r e ve a l i ng c ommun i c a t i on about Monn e t i n A l g i e r s wh i c h t e l l s o f h i s
ope r a t i on s t h e r e w i t h h i n t s o f h i s f u t u r e p l a n s c arne i n a l e t t e r f r om
Murphy to Roo s e v e l t . He d e s c r i b e d Monne t ' s pr i n c i p a l ob j e c t i v e i n A l g i e r s
101 4 �
a s a c h i e v i ng F r e nc h p o l i t i c a l un i ty arnong r e s i s t en c e l e ad e r s .
" He
s u c c e e d e d , " Murphy n o t e d f l a t l y i n Ju l y , (\ add i ng " Monn e t r e s p e c t s t h e
Un i t ed S t a t e s a nd B r i t a i n and ,
I am s ur e ,
w i l l avo i d g i v i ng o f f e n s e t o us
b u t h e i s d e f i n i t e l y ou t t o gain e v e r y advan t age for t h e F r e nc h h e
pos s i bly can .
H e kn ows our me thods s o we l l t h a t h e wi l l p r o f i t by e v e r y
oppor t un i ty we o f f e r h i m t o s e i z e advan t age .
s uppo r t o f J a c k McC l oy a n d F e l i x F r a n k f u r t e r .
G i r aud nor d e G a u l l e ,
t e r m o b j e c t i ve ,
France ,
He c ou n t s gr e a t l y on t h e
Monne t i s l o y a l n e i t h e r to
but h e is l o y a l t o F r a n c e and t o Monn e t . . . . His l ong
a s i d e f r om p a r t i c i p a t ing in t h e f u t u r e government o f
i s t o r e pr e s e n t h i s c ou n t ry a t t h e p e a c e nego t i a t i o n s . " ( 6 9 )
Th i s l e t t e r und e r l i n e s t h e impo r t a n c e o f 1 9 4 3 f o r Monne t . Unt i l h e w e n t
to Algiers ,
hi s 1 i f e f rom 1 9 3 8 through 1 9 4 2 h a d b e e n d e v o t e d t o p r o c u r i ng
m i l i t a r y equ i pm e n t f o r F r a n c e and B r i t a i n .
b r o k e Monne t ' s l i f e p a t t e r n whi ch ,
Tho s e f i v e y e a r s ,
for his f i r s t 50 years ,
in turn ,
h a d b e en t h a t
o f a p r i v a t e bu s i n e s sman p r e s s ed i n t o e x t r a o r d i n a r y w a r a n d pos t -war
s e r v i c e . U n t i l 1 9 3 8 , Monn e t h ad s p e n t 2 5 o f h i s
p r i v a t e bus i n e s s ,
34 wor k i ng y e a r s i n
e i th e r h i s f a th e r ' s or h i s own .
For the r e s t o f h i s
l ong l i f e h e w a s t o c o n c en t r a t e on pub l i c i s s u e s , appa r e n t l y w i t h o u t any
t hought of r e t u r n i ng to p r i v a t e bu s i n e s s .
The e i gh t m o n t h s i n A 1 g i e r s m a r k s a n o t h e r t r an s i t i on f o r Monne t .
n o w t o d e v o t e h i s r ema i n ing d a y s i n W a s h i n g t o n to F r e n c h m a t t e r s ,
B r i t i s h S upp l y C ou n c i l . The V i c t o r y P r og r a m w a s underw ay ;
He w a s
no t t h e
a buge B r i t i s h
m i s s i o n w a s e s t ab 1 i s h e d i n W a s h i n g t on i n wh i c h Monn e t w a s an anoma l y :
F r e n c hman w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i v e t i t l e ,
a
c 1 e a r f unc t i on o r d e f i n i t e
a u t ho r i t y . H e w a s a t t h e c e n t e r o f a c om p 1 i c a t e d n e twork o f c on t a c t s
among t o p Ame r i c a n o f f i c i a l s y e t wha t h e d i d w a s n o t c l e a r i n t e rm s o f
e i t h e r t h e bur e au c r a c y o r t h e po l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f gove r nmen t .
Un t i l now ,
h i s w a r t i m e s e r v i c e c onc e n t r a t ed on h e l p i ng f i g h t t h e w a r
ag a i n s t N a z i G e rmany .
Gaul l e ,
Now ,
med i a t ing a d i s p u t e b e t w e e n G i r aud and d e
Monne t b e g a n to c o n c en t r a t e on Fr anc e i n t h e p o s twar w o r l d .
wa s c 1 e a r i n 1 9 4 3 t h a t t h e l ong- awa i t�
It
i nv a s i on o f we s t e r n E u r ope wou l d
c ome t h e n e x t y e a r . W i t h t h a t i nv a s i on w o u l d c ome the l i be r a t i on o f
F r an c e . Wha t w a s Monne t ' s r o l e i n h i s home c ou n t ry t o be ? Wha t w a s
F r a n c e ' s r o l e in Europe t o b e ?
O n Augu s t 5 i n A l g i e r s ,
Mon n e t wr o t e a l ong memor andum f o r t h e
C o mm i t t e e on N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i on r e f l e c t i ng o n t h e s e m a t t e r s .
�-----
________-/
F r a n c e i s a t t h e h e a r t o f Europe ,
i n w a y s d i f f e r e n t f r om B r i t a i n and Rus s i a ,
Monne t n o t e d ,
and f r om t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s .
It
h a s the r e f o r e b o t h a n oppo r t un i t y and r e s pons i b i l i ty t o m a k e a new and
d i f f e r e n t p e a c e f r om t h a t n eg a t i ve one wh i ch f o l l owed the f i r s t Wor l d
War .
Europe mu s t now s e e i t s e l f a s a l and l a r g e r t h an i t s n a t i on - s t a t e s . The
p r o t e c t i on i s m ,
t h e que s t f or n a t i o n a l s ov e r e i gn t y ,
Europe i n t o s m a l l ,
and t h e d i v i s i on o f
i ne f f i c i e n t n a t i o n a l m a r k e t s mu s t e n d . Whe t h e r t h e
r e p l a c e m e n t w i l l b e a " F e de r a t i on or a E u r o p e a n e n t i t y " w a s n o t c l e a r ,
said .
he
B u t i t mu s t be d i f f e r e n t f r om t h e p a s t .
The f i r s t s t e p ,
h e c o n t i nu e d , mus t be t h e i mmed i a t e c r e a t i on a t t h e e n d
o f t h e f i gh t i ng o f p r ov i s i on a l p o l i t i c a l pow e r s w i th a demo c r a t i e b a s i s
i n e a c h Europ e a n c oun t r y . The next s t e p i s a p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e wh i c h mu s t
c o n s i d e r " t h e p o l i t i c a l and e c onomi e r e c on s t r u c t i on o f E u r o p e . " Mon n e t
ends w i t h a l i s t o f i s s u e s wh i ch mus t b e c o v e r e d i n t h a t r e c o n s t r u c t i on
i n c l u d i ng t h e r o l e s o f B r i t a i n ,
o f G ermany ;
Rus s i a and t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s ;
the p l a c e
c on s t ruc t i on and c on t r o l o f a Euro p e a n h e avy m e t a l i n du s t r y
a n d a E u r o p e a n a i r c r a f t and a i r l i n e a u t h o r i t y ;
t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c onom i e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Europe a n d i t s r o l e i n a wor l d c oun c i l .
As compr e h en s i v e a s t h e s e t op i c s w e r e ,
t h e y c o n s t i t u t e d m o r e r andom
t hough t s of Monn e t t h a n any e l abor a t e d p l an of a p p r o a c h .
B u t the moveme n t
away f rom t h e n a t i on- s t a t e t oward a n e w wor l d mod e l l ed b y E u r o p e a n
r e c o n s t r u c t i on w a s c l e a r . ( 7 0 )
When Monn e t r e t u r n e d t o W a s h i n g t on i n Novemb e r 1 9 4 3 ,
h e w a s immed i a t e l y
imme r s ed i n t h e p r ob l ems o f t h e F r e nch r o l e i n f i n a l v i c t ory o v e r
G e rmany ,
a qu e s t i on wh i c h a l s o i n v o l v e d how e xa c t l y t h e l i b e r a t i o n w a s t o
p r o c e ed . The r e w a s proba b l y l i t t l e oppo r t un i t y f o r f u r t h e r d e v e l opment o f
t h e i d e a s o f t h e A lg i e r s memor andum ; Monn e t w a s bu s y w i th s h i pping
quot as ,
t h e f o rm of c u r r e n c y wh i c h A l l i e d f or c e s woul d impo s e i n
l ib e r a t ed F r an c e , w i th t h e t e n s e r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e R o o s e v e l t
admin i s t r a t i on and de G au l l e and w i t h h i s own s t a t u s a s a F r e n c h
government o f f i c i a l . ( 7 1 }
B u t i n t h e s umme r o f 1 9 4 4 ,
F o r tune m ag a z ine ,
wh i l e b e i ng i n t e r v i ewed f or a pr o f i l e i n
Monne t r e t ur n e d t o t h e que s t i o n o f p o s t w a r Europe . Now
G e rmany s e emed m o r e c l e a r l y the p r o b l em .
A c c o r d i ng to J ohn D a v enpor t ,
the
p ro f i l e ' s au thor , Monn e t " wo u l d l i k e t o s e e G e rmany s h o c k e d and s t r i pp e d
o f p a r t o f h e r i n du s t r i a l p o t e n t i a l ,
w i t h po s s i b l y t h e gr e a t R h i n e c o a l
a n d i ron f i e l d s r u n by a E u r o p e a n a u t ho r i t y f o r t h e b e ne f i t o f a l l
p ar t i c i p a t i ng n a t i on s ,
i n c l u d i ng e v e n t u a l l y ,
a demi l i t a r i z e d
G e rmany . " ( 7 2 )
I f t h i s s ounds mor e dr a s t i c t h a n t h e Monne t o f t h e S c human P l an ,
temper o f 1 9 4 4 mus t b e und e r s tood . H e n r y Morg a n t h au ,
v i go r o u s f o r e i gn p o l i cy p l a y e r ,
the
a g a i n b e c om i ng a
wa s p r e s s ing t h e P r e s i de n t t o m a k e c l e a r
t h a t Germany w a s to be s t r i p p e d o f h e r i nd u s t r i a l a s s e t s and d i v i d e d i n
s u c h a w a y a s t o m a k e a s i ngl e G e rman f o r c e a n imp o s s i b i l i ty on t h e
continent .
I t i s c l e a r t h a t Morgan t h a u d i d n o t s t and a l on e i n t h i s
45
matter ;
t h e P r e s i d e n t many t i m e s vo i c ed s t rong ,
p e r s on a l and s p e c i f i e
v i ews on m a k i ng t h e G e r m a n s c l e a r l y und e r s t and t h a t t h e y l o s t t h e
war .
Morgan t h a u ' s
perhaps even ,
" p l a n " w a s o n l y an embod i m e n t and f u l f i l l men t o f a s t r ong ,
m a i n s t r e am o f m i d -war thought i n Ame r i c a . ( 7 3 )
Monn e t w a s app a r e n t l y n o t s ymp a t h e t i c t o the e x t reme a s pe c t s o f
Morg a n t h a u who wan t e d ,
d e s t roy t h e f o r g e s of
among o t h e r t a c t i c s ,
t o f l ood t h e m i n e s and
the Ruhr and to o r d e r s e v e r a l thous and d e s i gn a t ed
G e r m a n mi l i t a r y and c i v i l i an l e ad e r s s h o t on s i ght by advan c i ng A l l i ed
t r o ops .
The S e c r e t a ry o f W a r q u o t e d Monne t ' s p l an on an i n t e r n a t i on a l
Ruhr f avor a b l y t o Morga n t h a u a s p a r t o f t h e l a r g e r S t i m s on s t r a tegy o f
b l o c k i ng t h e Morgan t h a u P l an t o m a k e a " p a s t or a l " G e rmany .
(74)
The r e i s no d i r e c t e v i d enc e o f Monn e t ' s v i e w o f the Mor g a n t h a u appro a c h
but i t mu s t c e r t a i n l y h a v e b e e n n e g a t i v e .
c r i t i c a l l y t o h i s own c omp a t r i o t s '
In h i s memo i r s ,
Monn e t r e f e r s
v i nd i c t i vene s s toward G e r m any a f t e r
b o t h the f i r s t a n d s e c ond Wor l d Wa r s .
H e c o u l d not h a v e b e e n l e s s
e x p l i c i t i n h i s c ondemna t i on o f the S e c r e t a r y o f the T r e a s u r y wh o ,
s uppo r t ed a t t i m e s by t h e P r e s i d e n t h i ms e l f ,
w o r k e d throughou t t h e s ummer
of 1 9 4 4 to c o un t e r a c t the pr agma t i c a p p r o a c h of S t i m s on and o t he r s in War
D e pa r tm e n t who s ough t only t h e qu i e s c e n c e of t h e Na z i e n e my a s A l l i ed
t r oops c l o s e d i n on Germany .
S t i m s on c omme n t e d t o McC l oy on t h e i n c ongru i t y o f be ing the man
r e spon s i b l e f or d i r e c t i ng t h e k i l l i n g of t h e en emy a s we l l a s the one
l e a s t i nc l i n ed t o v i nd i c t i v e n e s s .
He might have a l s o s a i d t h e s ame to
Monn e t w i t h whom S t i m s on c e r t a i n l y d i s c u s s e d the pos twar s t a t u s o f
Ge rmany ,
a s i nd i c a t ed b y h i s a c c o u n t o f Monn e t ' s v i ews wh i ch h e s uppl i ed
t o Morgan t h a u . ( 7 5 )
Monn e t ' s publ i c r o l e i n 1 9 4 3 - 4 5 a s a F r e n c h o f f i c i a l i n W a s h i ng t o n w a s
m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n h i s r o l e a s a member o f the B r i t i s h S u p p l y Coun c i l .
Even be f o r e t h e For tune a r t i c l e a pp e a r e d i n J u l y 1 9 4 4 ,
h e w a s b e c om i n g
r e c ogni z ed a s an i mpor t a n t s po k e sman f o r F r a n c e a n d a s a s omeone wi th a
v i s i on o f p o s twar Europe .
H e s po k e ,
f or examp l e ,
o v e r a n a t i on - w i d e r a d i o
n e two r k on w a r a i m s f r om a l a rge v i c t o ry r a l l y i n N e w Y o r k ' s Me t ropo l i t an
Ope r a Hou s e i n s p r i ng 1 9 4 4 .
P r e s s a c c o un t s o f t h e s p e e c h no t e d h i s v i e w
t h a t G e r m a n y w a s t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p r o b l em i n E u r o p e and mu s t a l s o be t h e
c e n t r a l i s s u e i n f i n d i n g a s o l u t i on t o E u r o p e a n t e n s i on . H e s pe k e o f a
n e e d t o " t r an s f orm " Germany " no t o n l y i n i t s gove rnme n t a l i n s t i t u t i on s
b u t a l s o i n i t s m i l i t ary t r adi t i o n s a n d i t s m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h . "
Monn e t w a s c i t e d e x t en s iv e l y i n news a c c oun t s i n 1 9 4 3 - 4 5 f r om A l g i e r s ,
i n W a s h i ng ton and e v e n tu a l l y ,
i n F r a nc e .
I n c on t r a s t h e i s n o t men t i oned
i n t h e s e news p a g e s i n h i s pr e c e d i ng t h r e e y e a r s i n W a s h i ng t on exc e p t
o n c e when h e me t S i r Ar thur S a l t e r a t t h e a i rpor t ( 7 6 ) .
Hopk i n s '
pr e c a r i o u s h e a l t h and o t h e r f a c to r s may have l im i t e d h i s
c o n t a c t s w i t h Monn e t i n t h e f i n a l y e a r o f t h e w a r . The " d e p u t y
pr e s i d en t "
and w a s ,
w a s s omewh a t r emoved f rom t h e i n n e r R o o s e ve l t c i r c l e by 1 9 4 5
i n f ac t ,
i n t h e Mayo C l i n i c i n M i nn e s o t a i n Apr i l 1 9 4 5 when
P r e s i d e n t Roo s e ve l t was f a t a l l y s t r i c k e n a t Warms S p r i ng s ,
t h i s t ime o f p e r s o n a l s t r e s s ,
r e tu r n i ng t o Europe ,
a s Monn e t w a s l o o k i ng f o rw a r d t o a
h e mu s t h a v e c omm i s e r a t e d w i th F r an k f u r t e r ,
o f the s e t h r e e R o o s e ve l t adv i s e r s ,
Morgan t h a u ,
G e o rg i a . A t
who w a s ,
now t o be t h e c l o s e s t t o Monne t .
w i th whom Monn e t h a s wor k e d t h e c l o s e s t over t h e l ong e s t
p e r i o d , w a s s t i l l " Mr .
S e c r e t ar y "
and h e w a s addr e s s e d ,
i n turn ,
a s " Mr .
Monn e t '' a s t h e y d i s c u s s e d t h e o r d e r t h e p r o v i s i on a l F r e n c h a u t h o r i t i e s
made f o r s c r i p t t o b e p r i n t ed w i th t h e F r e nc h t r i c o l o r b y the U . S .
Tr e a su r y D e p a r tmen t .
With Frank furter ,
f r om t h e s t a r t ,
( 77 )
who w a s F e l i x t o b o t h J e a n and S i l v i a Monne t a l mo s t
and wi th Hop k i n s ,
who w a s '' D e a r H a r r y "
t o Monne t a f t e r
they w o r k e d t og e t h e r , Monn e t h a s s u c c e e d e d i n br idg ing the g a p o f
i nd e p e n d e n t Fr enchman and t o p - l eve l p r e s i de n t i a l a d v i s e r s .
Morg a n t h a u ,
With
t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a pp r o a c h e s and t h e p e r s o n a ! c h e m i s t r i e s
d i f f e r e d s o rouch ,
t h a t e v e n t h e w a r t ime urge n c i e s o f c oo p e r a t i on w e r e
n e v e r s u f f i c i e n t t o c r e a t e a g enu i n e bond .
They w o r k e d t o g e t h e r but a t a
d i s t a n c e wh i ch probab l y wou l d h a v e b e en m a i n t a i ned e v e n i f Mor g a n thau had
not be come ob s e s s e d w i th Monn e t ' s a f f i l i a t i o n s w i th t h e h a t e d
interna t i onal bankers .
In 194 5 ,
w a s i mm i ne n t .
a s i t b e c ame c l e a r t h a t t o t a l v i c t ory o v e r t h e Ax i s Powe r s
Monn e t b e g a n m a k i ng p l an s f or h i s own f u t u r e .
He t a l ked
w i t h d e G au l l e a b o u t t h e n e e d f o r moder n i z i ng F r a n c e wh i ch , Monn e t s aw ,
wou l d n o t be come p r o s p e r o u s w i t h o u t h a r d work and s a c r i f i c e . The G e n e r a l
a s k ed Monn e t t o r e t u r n t o F r a n c e t o under t a k e t h i s p l a n n i ng t o r e bu i l d
France . ( 7 8 )
B u t t h e Ame r i c an war t i me expe r i en c e ,
t h e f l e x i b i l i t y and v i t a l i t y o f
Ame r i c an l i f e i n wa r t i m e and t h e f r i ends h e m a d e w e r e t o rema i n w i th h i m .
H e f ound ,
i n t h e s e v e n y e a r s when h e m a d e W a s h i ng t on h i s home ,
w a s s omehow p a r t l y Ame r i c a n ,
h i s p r a g ma t i sm . He w a s awa r e ,
at l e a s t in h i s o u t l ook ,
he n o t e d ,
h i s work h ab i t s and
t h a t as a young man h e f ound an
a f f i n i t y w i t h r ugged and d i r e c t exp e r i e n c e s o f
We s t e a r l y i n t h e c e n t ury .
t h a t he
the C a n ad i an and Ame r i c an
H e a l s o adm i r ed t h e l a rgen e s s o f purp o s e o f
t h e p e op l e h e m e t t h e r e and w i t h t h e s e n s e o f c h a l l enge o f t h o s e o n o r
n e a r t h e f ro n t i e r .
Now h i s W a s h i ng t on exper i en c e w o u l d c o n d i t i on h i m f or
a n o t h e r t h r e e de c a d e s o f work i n E u r o p e .
*
*
Monn e t o n c e s a i d he h a d o n l y one i d e a i n h i s who l e l i f e b u t h e d i d no t
s ay wh a t i t w a s . ( 7 8 )
L o o k i n g b a c k f r om t h e end o f Monn e t ' s l ong l i f e ,
l i k e l o o k ing b a c k t h r ough t h e wrong e nd o f a t e l e s c op e ,
c a n one i d en t i f y
t h i s one ,
c omma n d i ng i d e a ?
Howe v e r expr e s s e d ,
t h i s o n e Monn e t i d e a h a d t o d e a l wi t h t h e
wor l d
w a r s wh i c h twi c e d i s ru p t e d a n d t r a n s f ormed h i s l i f e a n d t o the tende n c i e s
o f t h e n a t i on - s t a t e toward dom i n a t i on o f e t h e r s wh i c h had i nd u c e d t h e s e
conf l i c t s .
As h e l e f t W a s h i n g t o n f o r h i s new j ob in P a r i s ,
d i d Monn e t r e c ogn i z e
t h a t h e w a s b e g i n n i ng t h e f i n a l p r e pa r a t i o n f o r t h i s ch a l l enge o f a
l i f e t i me :
how t o t r a n s f orm Europe f r om a c o l l e c t i o n o f n a t i o n - s t a t e s ,
p r o n e to c on f l i c t ,
to a new e n t e r p r i s e l a rge e nough to e n c omp a s s a l l
p e op l e s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t and y e t c ompa c t enough t o a c t and t h i n k a s one
c ommu n i t y ? P e r h a ps .
The mo s t we k now is t h a t t h i s d i s c i p l i n e d ,
p r a gma t i c
man o f 5 7 w a s r e ady f o r new c h a l l enge s c l o s e r t o h i s roo t s t h a t h e had
been been s i nc e h e l e f t C o gn a c at age 1 6 .
H i s W a s h i ng t on y e a r s w e r e h i s p r e p a r a t i on f or t h i s f i n a l and mo s t
p r odu c t i v e p e r i od . W a s h i n g t on b e c ame t h e b a s e c amp b u i l t o n t h e p l a t e au
o f t h e d e s t r u c t i on o f two wor l d w a r s . Monne t ,
i n t r o s pe c t i v e man ,
n o t an obv i ou s l y
had r e f l e c t e d i n t h e A l g i e r s memor andum o n wh a t a po s t­
w a r Europe m i g h t be l i k e .
The For tune i n t e r v i ew ,
i n Ame r i c a o v e r t h e Morgan t h au P l an ,
and p e r h a p s the t e n s i ons
we r e o c c a s i on s for an a c u t e
r e c o n s i d e r a t i on o f t h e r e f l e c t i ons o f A l g i e r s .
First ,
h e h a d t o d e vo t e
h i ms e l f t o t h e r e bu i l d i ng o f Franc e ; i n t h a t r e bu i l d i ng ,
h e wou l d f a c e
o n c e a g a i n t h a t s e a r c h f o r n a t i o n a l domi n a t i on a s h i s own c ou n t r y groped
for a w a y to c o n t r o l Germany .
c ome , i n t h e s pr i ng o f 1 9 5 0 ,
a lw a y s b e r ememb e r e d .
I n t h a t c h amb e r o f i n t e n s e f o r c e s wou l d
t h e i n s i gh t a n d t h e a c t f or whi ch Monn e t wi l l
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Je n'étais pas membre du comité RUEFF, mais1.j'espère
que Jean-Marcel JEA.NNENEY s'en souvient, j 'y ai été auditionné.
Je crois que mon intervention n'a pas été tout-à-fait dépourvue
d'importance puisque M. Jacques RUEFF m'a fait revenir une
seconde fois et j 'ai � es témoignages de la contribution que
.,
!,
. apportee.
J avrus
Nos souvenirs ne coïncident pas tout-à-fait. J'avais présenté un
programme en cinq points o � et en particulier il y avait le
l
budget, bien sûr, il y avait un certain nombre de choses sur la
fiscalité qui n'allaient pas encore aussi loin que les projets que j 'ai
présentés plus tard, il y avait le crédit ebj ..1ois ijfti«-le 2:i'ftRE
�" mrmr I abit �à, en particulier sur u n point qui risquait
vraiment d'être très inflationniste, c'est-à-dire le réescompte du
moyen-terme.
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M. LE PRESIDENT. -
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On en a parlé.
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M. URI. - A.lors-iron,
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paree lfft'C tout-à-l'heure on disait que l'on
s'était limité aux finances publiques , lWais nous sommes d'accord
sur cette r�� ?_ation, oe n'est-pas-veus-qui-Pavez-àit, on GR a en
effet parlé {etjel'ai fait également de mon côté e me rappelle qu 'à
l'époque je n'étais plus fonctionnaire français) j 'étais encore
fonctionnaire international pour quelque! temps" donc -'UI le crédit
,
.
. Je crois que le point essentiel, je ne dis pas
que J fèMaiS
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•
" 1 d e mon
-u
apport était l'accent mis sur le li�nJ!ntre une opération monétaire
et une opération de libératio
p�ulier, j ' avais c�é l'erreur
qu'avait commise GAILLARD( quand il a fait une semi-éÎaluation
un peu compliquéet 'de n'avoir prévu de libérer ces échanges que
sur une période de 1 8 mois. J'avais au contraire insisté sur l'idée
'}_ C{ L /:_-protection et qu'il
que du moment que l'on dévaluait, on (i_a�;l.ltune
ne fallait pas � cumuler.
ft
.
·
'
J
·
·
·
.
.
/
�.(E�c
·
47
/
/
�
d abv·zJ
Ce qui portait d"m:P-eôté sur les contingents, e.i:::ciel a Îl é.tai• '}l!estio n
de tenir nos engagements tels qu'ils avaient été pris 1 et je l'ai écrit :
"L'honneur de DE GAULLE c'est que l'on n'a pas eu à recourir aux
1
clauses de sauvegarde qui avaient été habilement négociées par
Maurice FAURE mais en désespoir de cause;�t il s'agissait de s'err
.sot•tn
.
"
;
'!
'
<Ltf 1\ tl tr. i s.
o.,y·0tL�--�-
"
d(j ttA' ..e.t/
lien, i l s'Qiit pa:ssé , ft je terminai, alors c'est là que j'étais surpris.Jf
•
d ans l e comite lUl-�_m e ,_ entre mem b res du
que l' on n.en rut,
� (t\. tf 1 s \'!"' ['"
comité, parlé que le dernier jour, j�s ctit et naturellement .:!fle
franc lourd". On ne peut pas continuer à avoir une monnaie qui
� f. �a:. li� .S.lM ��
0
représente, par rapport à utjiu a'lmi, des fractions de centimes,.ét
c'était ce lien entre la politique commerciale et la dévaluation, à la
.,0
condition de l�.Jfaire ensemble et non pas d'étalerGun
� qui était
probablement le point sur lequel mon insistance était la plus forte.
RUEFF m'a demandé de revenir parce qu'il avait une hésitation
c�
sur -\:Hl pmnt-et
...c'Qi;t ft83g:z:::atFreux�
.
.
,, . a
' se dêinan:n t·��ans
1\
1a
conversation que j'avais eue avec lui quand il m'avait demandé de
venir, je lui avais dit 'je suis keynésien, vous ne l'êtes pas 1 mais
comme nous sommes en plein emploi il n'y a pas de différence
entre nous".
( C'(;t parf
ment fondé, il-n!y-a-pas de diffétence entre-naH-& et en
effet les mesures que je proposais étaient parfaitement rigoureuses�
puisqu'il y en avait même sur la politique salariale et la politique
de la sécurité sociale.
Il m'a fait revenir pru·ce qu'il avait prévu de frein Î r l�s "
investissements publics et il craignait d'aller trop loin et d' .fwri��� C\.
effet récessionniste0
\ Il m'a fait revenir sur ce point-là et je lui ai dit "Mais si vous
coupez les investissements publics 1 vous allez avoir cet effet
récessionniste et par conséquent ce n'est pas la peine de prévoir de
1
revenir à des investissements un peu plus forts1 parce que je peux
vous dire d'avance qpe vous en aurez besoin". C'est comme cela
que l'on a évité un �ih/ �tr lequel il avait hésité r et je dis que
.
à ce
curieusement il était un peu keynésien sans s'en douter.
Le
«.
·
.r
'
·
"
o2.-
l'
œ:
1
�
1p
�
48
1 '
que je peux ajouter au récit qui a été fait, c'est un complément et je
ne crois pas qu'il soit contredit*'
is en revanche je peux vous
raconter l 'effort que nous avons fait Jean MONNET et moi-même,
1
pour que le gouvemement soit unanime.
Je n'étais pas membre du parti socialiste mais j'avais de bonnes
relations avec des dirigeants socialistes et par conséquent c'est moi
1
.
t- � · ··
que l'on a envoyé à cette mission. J'ai eu une rencontre avec les t L
. , ministres socialistes dans le bureau de Guy MOLLET, c'était1 �
ri: f"�-{IU. MOLLET , Max LEJEUNE dont je peux vous dire qu'il n'est pas
resté socialiste et d'ailleurs que ce jour-là il n'a rien dit et un autre
(
qui était a:�J..xeonoaier un homme tout-à-fait remarquable et pour
lequel j'ai gardé le plus grand respect, André BOULLOCHE. André
BOULLOCHE me suivait, il me suivait d'autant plus que j 'avais pu
dire � "Vous savez le projet que vous avez reçu . il n'est pas
1
LL
. l
� A(éontrmre
.
, . l ement d e d rmte
. ou de gauche .��fln:Ml
Je vou d rms
spec1a
1
insister sur cette idée politique qu'à cette péri9de-là tout l� monde
travaillait ensemble, c'était ce que l'on�ppel� plus tard; l'état de
grace. ((
BOULLOCHE me suivait très bien, Guy MOLLET me dit "Mo� je ne
crois pas qu 'on puisse arrêter l'inflation tant qu 'il y aura la gt!err�
�
d'Algérie". Et je llli ai immédiatement répondu "Ecoutez, je ��
que vous connaiss�z mal DE GAULLE et son talent de manoeuvrierp
Voulez-vous prendre le pari que lorsque la guerre d' 8.lgérie, sera
œ lw: zt:, t:<rk e�
vi:) �\ �� � �
terminée 1DE GAULLE pettrra garder avec lui l'armée, augmentera
rrJ. es dépenses mUilrures au� ce qu'elles sont pendant cette
gue �e� et c'est exactement ce qui s'est produ it. Elles ont été
_
réduites ? Ah bon ... Alors là je peux me tromper, mais enfin elles
n'ont pas été réduites dans la mesure du co� ae la guerre. Q'l:!'f!md
après,il m 'a dit "Veus aviez-raison". Alors- ce
j
cj v VJ �l m'a dit tout simplement et cette phrase n'est pas brillante "De
fr' v \U,r toute façon on m'envoie le p }pier à 1 1 heures du matin 1a réunion
1
est à 2 heures, je trouve que l'on me traite très mal et je
démissionne"• h comme il démissionnait, les deux autres,- -··Y
!l i .
compris BOULLOCHE, ont démissionné, alors que ce qui avait ' été
�
.
"
....
�
�
$
[
�-=rem�':ans-
' o, l ;
49
préparé c'était que je leur proposais un véritable amendement. Ma
. , . .e.z�
l f.i>.. <:< I1 J .,
. ,
'
,
riJ a
pratique q-ae J avais negocie�
et traitE3 c est que 1 orsque,..
�
t
quelqu�Jn qai change une virgule, à partir de ce moment-là le texte
est le sien ,iÎlors je voulais plus que changer une vigule, je voulais
proposer aux socialistes qu'ils ajoutent que J puisque nous
dévaluions, il fallait réduire le taux des droits ad valorem ,&
quand on dévalue 1 automatiquement� les droits de douane; · nd ·-· valorem se trouvent relevés et o nj fait des choses contradictoires, fit
si on dévaluait de 1 5 %, c /était l'ordre de grandeur que j'avais en
tête, en le couvrant de la création d'un franc lourd, je pensais
même que l'époque était dépassée et qu'il aurait fallu le faire
j'avais déjà pensé au franc lourd et j'avais essayé de le proposer au
moment où le franc français aurait être pu être fait égal au franc
suisse� %. c'était trop tard, il a fallu que le franc suisse vaille 1
franc 20, il en vaut aujourd'hui presque 4,� ma proposition aurait
été faite par les socialistes i c'est ce que j 'appelais un vrai
amendement et je crois que s'il avait été adopté la hausse des prix
1
n'aurait pas été de 6 % la première année, elle aurait pu être par
exemple de 2 %. Vous pensez que cela n'aurait pas fait de
différence ?
•
E \'\
.Q
� .e�
plu� k"l-
1
•
�
M. LE PRESIDENf.
Si , cela aurait fait une différence, là je suis
d'accord avec vous, mais pas de cette ampleur étant donné la faible
part des importations dans le PNB à l'époque.
M. URI.
Tl.
-
tl "- 9:- S I
- �t .il étaitÇéntendu que j 'aurais le soutien de M. COUVE
DE MURVILLE que j 'ai vu ,be�ucoup pendant cette période parce
17'-i: J
,
. . ,
, tout de meinetkdr!:
que l''d
I ee
auerr o.lç-unammite d u gouvernement etmt
importante4 !ious avions des conversations très libres dans un
langage qui m'a d'ailleurs surpris de lui ,étant donné les mots
d'argot qu'il employait, Tffallait vraiment que �ous parlions dans
l'intimité , parce que ee n'est pas comme cela que moi j 'imaginais
ou que les autres peuvent imaginer C O UVE DE MURVILLE.
.
"
��'-
tt p� � (lt '-' ��
50
•
entendu
était
Il
par ailleurs
que
RUEFF
convaincrait
Â
PIN Y
d'accepter aussi ces amendements que les socialistes présenteraient
1
pour que le plan apparaisse un peu comme étant le leur. Mais
11
rétexte,- Guy
parce que le document arrivait trop tard, c'était
p
MOLLET m'a dit deux ans après que c' était moi qui avaiJ raison et
qu'il s'était trompé.
*�
... .
connns
.
ministre socialiste qui a démissionné,. Jen sais sen . Il était ministiC
-
n ancien élève, .
un
classe
de
,
Il y avait
l Thomas,
'
mat
atheux et
politique.
directeur
ême d'int ' ê
ette remarque qui
e
c'était sur
secondaire, je
d
traite, on m'envoie le papier trop
investiss ments et qui
e récession, d'une
n'aime pas la fa
tard je démissi
nt on a voulu
nee dans l' éc
51
l
(
dit
M. URI.
-
Ce que vous venez de dire introduit très bien ma
remarque ,.,1ans ce programme il n'y a pas d'analyse de la politique
fiscale,
on
parle
de
politique
budgétaire
et
on
en
parle
essentiellement pour savoir si l ' on est en excédent ou en déficit,
cela m'a touj ours paru une analyse un peu trop sommaire, je crois
que le contenu du budget . . .
M . D E LA1TRE. -
Non Q
.(ï
vous
lisez
la
communication
de
M. Renaud DE LA GENIERE, hélas il n'est pas là pour la défendre
mais il ne se borne pas à dire si on est en excédent ou en déficit.
M. URI. - Neft, je parle du programme tel que je l ' ai sous les yeux "
l!t
le fait est que la politique fiscale n'est pas mentionnée
4ft
dans
mon esprit les mesures fiscales qui ont été prises à partir de 1 9 5 9
sont parmi les choses que j e mettrais au débit de l a période. Je
pense qu ' elles ont été extrêmement injustes et qu ' elles ont encore
aujourd ' hui de très graves conséquences.
M. LE PRESIDENT. - Vous pensez à quoi en particulier ?
M. URI.
-
}
Vous voulez qu e je vous donne la liste j e commence par
la réévaluation des bilans uniquement à l'actif et pas au passif, ce
qui
est une mesure anti-économique puisqu e l ' on a poussé à
emprunter au lieu de développer les fonds propres 1 et ce qui
deuxièmement signifiait que l'on sanctifiait et que l'on consacrait
�euxième mesure,.. désastreuse, j ' ai
la spoliation des prêteurs. �
pu en suivre les conséquences sur la gestion des entreprises, la
réforme des droits de succession par un secrétaire d '
s'appelait Valé
rt Giscard d'Estaing.
Qtland· tout d'an
ltat
q1:1 i.
eotlp� \� cf
ns une réforme qui divisait les successions par pa.ry·
-e{-<Xi. t- q�s av:ie
d - r·v,' me paraissait juste , alors qu 'auparavant on avait, d'une-p-afi--u-ne
,r
Ct
1 �1
..
rr- AA'�
u�
ft l{;� V-.- .
•
...-{
Il. (,{
r-" " y· ; ,.-. v .,..
(
i. l;"\
ÙL. Y' o
V\
r-
t
{J i l/t h (;. J-
le
�'
C' • l .e
litaiS
.
. 1 5 o/o .avec des
J
<.u
a:a
,_,
0-rl V �,)
cj?c ��
· successoralel'êt =-- part ..... e;....;.;•., par
:r
.
,
,
�
russe tout d-un coup,... o n est remonte apres,.r abaisse a
�
taxation d
�
·
·
·
4).)..:::-
abattements à la base�des taux intermédiaires en
9 -Jet 6 5 o/o dans les autres li�esp("est le
�
c
�
v::z:.
·
� système
même
s
encains se demandent �
avec un
ligne directe, en gardant 6
,
contraire
pareil,
esprit
·
�.tg
wu�oi nous avons des droits de
�" e..(....
�
"" \�
t
pour redistribuer: c:lfffiS cette
[
succession: dans leur
mesure-là
contraire p� figer la fortune dans les dynasties et
� '�!f_eA- €A t-auO:esR'ai�
�t:te�pêcher
la transmission des entreprises aux gens les plus capables. J'ai pu ,
je suis assez ancien pour cela, voir la dégradation qui en est résulté�
dans la gestion des entreprises.
Troisième mesure, que je mentionnerai encore, nous sommes le
pays
qui
occupants
a
supprimé
alors
jusqu'en 1 966�·
qu 'il
le loyer imputé
existe . partout,
�upprimat"t
pour
qu'il
les
propriétaires
existait
en
France
du même coup les déductions sur
travaux, sauf à vous donner, même qu and vous ne payez pas
d'impôt sur le revenu réel que constitue l ' absence de loyer, une
déduction sur vos autres revenus pour votre ravalement ,. 8't
tn
nma�aohe � est une mesure particulièrement favorable aux revenus
'
fait qu on ait en contrepartie supprimé
les plus importants, puisque leur revenu réel n'est pas taxé dans la
tranche la plus élevée
Jt le
la déduction des travaux, sa,u:f à--faire le cadeau d'un crédit pour le
ravalement à des gens qui
�fpaient pas
d ' impôt sur le revenu qui
constitue l ' absence de loyer, a pesé sur les gens qui s' achètent une
masure, sont obligés de la retaper et se gardent les travaux sur les
re1ns.
Ce sont des mesures qui me paraissent parfaitement injustes et que
nous n'avons pas encore corrigées malgré toutes les propositions de
/
réforme
fiscalej qui
avaient
été
élaborées
économistes européens de tous bords.
avec
Je viens d ' écrire là-dessus, parce qu'il faut tout de
rappeler périodiquement , et 11 y
et- 11 y
rg�e un
de
article dans
grands
même
le
"lib ération ..
manque malheureusement l de mes propositions, j e vais tout
:'è 'est la réforme de l 'impôt
c' �'J)- /0-. 'u'r � d '1-A;�z-
de même demander qu ' on les reprenne
i\
.so
( c.. � Ç. s / lM
1
i .,_,
'4
� Zf en
agricole, l 'imposition de l'agricult u
France 't'li est totalement
ridicule, même les agriculteurs intelligents se demandent si on les
prend pour des débilesR en supposant qu ' ils ne tiennent pas leu:r:_ç
comptej et d'autre part une réforme de la fiscalité locale, mais pour
1
l'amour du c1el, pas celle de M . Edmond HERVE .
•
M. DE LATfRE. - Tout cela est vrai mais ce n'est pas spécifique à
la période de DE GAULLE, au crédit de laquelle on peut mettre . . .
nous n'avons pas mis effectivement d e politique fiscale à débattre
mais il y a eu tout de même pas mal de modernisation dans cette
époqu e , dont celle de la TVA qui est tout de même quelque chose
de très très important. . .
M. URI.
.)!_"-
Ce n' est pas de ma faute si l�el TVA n'a pas été
généralis�quand j 'en ai fait le projet le premier en 1 946, elle était
-
générale. (rires) .
Intervenant.
-
Si
je
comprends bien l'intervention de M. URI, il
reproche au Général et
socialistes. (rires) .
tl< fù1
-
M. URI. -
à
ses collaborateurs de ne pas avoir été
Non , non, pardonnez-moi c'est d'avoir accrû l'injustice
sociale par la voie de la fiscalité . le n' est pas la même chose que
rrêtre
M.
soci aliste .
-
�� �-�-
HARMA . de
o
ent il ne la
de la fiscalité fr
ou
on
çaise, certains
e l'impôt sur le reve u comme étant
une suppressi
anti-économique, il y a quand même des controverses
81