The EAAP series is published under the direction of Siem Korver

The EAAP series ispublished under thedirection of Siem Korverand
Jean Boyazoglu
lUROp.f
Production ofhides, skins,wool and hair
Symposium organizedby:
European Association forAnimal Production (EAAP)
International Center forAdvanced Mediterranean Studies (CIHEAM)
European Community (EC)
University ofÇukurova, Faculty ofAgriculture (ÇUZF)
General Directorate ofProjects and Implementation - Turkish Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and
RuralAffairs (MAFRA)
The European Association for Animal Production
wishes to express itsappreciation tothe
Ministero Agricoltura eForeste,
Associazione Italiana Allevatori
and
Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Bovini Razza Frisona Italiana
for ther valuable support of its activities
/ & / £)CK\/Uw
o
v.-^o., ^ ••:-,,o \
Production of hides,skins,
wool and hair
Proceedings of the joint EAAP-CIHEAM-EC-ÇUZF-MAFRA Symposium
Adana,Turkey,2 - 6 November 1991
(EAAP Publication No.56)
O. Güney,O. Biçer & M.S. Ranieri (Compilers)
Pudoc Scientific Publishers
Wageningen, 1993
yj^^mA
As these proceedings w e r e being finalized,w e w e r e informed of the untimely passing away of o u r
colleague and good friend Professor YALÇIN. W e want t o dedicate this issue t o his memory, in
recognition of his loyal and unselfish action in favour of the Mediterranean Small Ruminant Sector.
Jean Boyazoglu and Jean-Claude Flamant
Ist June 1992
BlbLlU'lHiLkjsi
rwoßouwuNrvERsiTKi*.
CIP-data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag
ISBN 90-220-1067-8
NUGI 835
ISSN 0071-2477
© Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (Pudoc), Wageningen, Netherlands, 1993.
All rights reserved. Nothing from this publication may be reproduced, stored in a computerized system or
published in any form or any manner, including electronic, mechanical, reprographic or photographic,
without prior written permission from the publisher, Pudoc, P.O. Box 4,6700A A Wageningen, Netherlands.
The individual contributions in this publication and any liabilities arising from them remain the responsibility
of the authors.
Insofar asphotocopies from this publication are permitted bythe Copyright Act 1912,Article 16Band Royal
Netherlands Decree of 20June 1974(Staatsblad 351) asamended inRoyal Netherlands Decree of 23 August
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should be transferred to the Stichting Reprorecht (P.O. Box 882, 1180A W Amstelveen, Netherlands). For
reproduction of parts of this publication incompilations suchasanthologies or readers (Copyright Act 1912,
Article 16), permission must be obtained from the publisher.
Printed in the Netherlands
Contents
Preface— M.Özsan
1
Introduction —/.Boyazoglu,J.C.Flamant
3
Introductivesession
Chairman:O.Tekinel;Co-chairman:J.L.Tisserand
Aworldreviewof hides,skins,woolandhairproduction andmarketing—
W.Krostitz
Sheepproduction inTurkey—E.Pekel,B.C.Yalçin, O. Güney, O.Biçer, O. Torun
7
25
Session 1.Hides,skinsandleatherproduction
Chairman:M.VailsOrtiz;Co-chairman:E.Pekel.
Anisotrophy ofphysicalcharacteristic functions of sheepleather—M. Eskolin,
M.Marjoniemi, E.Mäntysalo
Effects ofdiseasesontheproductin ofhides,skinsandanimalfibres *—
L.Blajan
Effects of abattoirprocedures onthequalityof hidesandskins *—L. Blajan
Theuseof hidesinMorocco,characteristicsof thesector*—A. Eddebbarh,
B.Jabrane,N. Chraibi
Problems andpossibilities oftheTurkishprivateleatherindustry *—T.Kosar
TheTurkishLeather Industry,itsfuture andpossibilities,thecompetitionwiththe
industryintheEuropean Community—U.E.Artan
33
/
38
43
47
52
59
Session2. Environmental problemsassociatedtotheleatherindustry
Chairman:R.Février;Co-chairman:O.Öztürkcan
Scientific andtechnicalinnovations for controlling theenvironmentandthewater
wastequalityoftheleatherindustry *—A. Simoncini, E.Miriani
Possibility ofreduction andre-usingthewastesofTurkish leatherindustry that
causeenvironmental pollution—Ö. Sari,AN. Yapici
Useof thebiomasses andtheby-productsof theleatherindustry inagriculture—
S.Silva,C.Baffi
67
74
11
Session3. Breedingandfeeding inwoolandhairproduction
Chairman:V. Timon;Co-chairman:A.Eliçin
Physiological basisand geneticsof woolandhairproduction insmallruminants
andrabbits *—D.Allain,R.G.Thébault,H.deRochambeau
Producing desired woolcharacteristics duringfleece growth—ML. Ryder
Nutritionalcharacteristics andfeeding strategiesfor Angoragoats *—
P. Morand-Fehr
Comparison ofTurkishangoragoatswithAmerican xTurkish crossbred
generations inbodyweight andmohairtraits—B.C.Yalçin, P. Horst, H.Günes
85
92
97
108
Session4. Angoraandcashmeregoats
Chairman:R.Sonniez;Co-chairman:H.Aliko
Woolandmohairproduction inTurkey—A. Eligin,N.Akman,SM. Yener
Mohairproduction inFrance:valorizingfleeces bydirectsales*— A . Billant,
M.Joly
Cashmereproduction inChina—ML. Ryder
Opportunitiesfor cashmereproduction—R.C.Couchman,E.Tuncel
Breedingobjectives for Australian cashmeregoats—R.W. Ponzoni,D.R.Gifford
Phenotypic andgeneticparameters forproduction characteristicsof Australian
cashmeregoats—D.R. Gifford,R.W. Ponzoni,N.J.SimonEllis,
F.C.R.Levinge,ML. Milne
115
118
123
128
135
147
Session5. Woolandfleececharacteristics
Chairman:T.Treacher;Co-chairman:E.Tuncel
Woolassociated toothersheepproductsindifferent production systemsand
breedingprogrammes inEurope—S. Jankowski
Objective measurements of wool:stateoftheart—C. Sergent
Colorimetric analysis andmelanins quantitative determination inthehairofgoats
withdifferent pigmentation genotypes *—C.Renieri,L.Ramunno,
N.Montemurro, V.M. Moretti,M.TrabahaMarinucci
Carpetwool,production andrequirements—RA. Guirgis
Investigations onthesuitability of wool,for textileproduct andcarpets,obtained
from improved sheepinWesternTurkey—N. Erdem, M.Kaymakçi,R.Sönmez
Camelhairandhides;areview *—J.L. Tisserand
Fleececharacteristics ofMoroccan breedsof sheep—M.Bourfia,A.Abdelali,
M.S.Laidouni, MM. ElHmamsi
157
162
170
175
181
185
190
Session 6. Carpet andrug production
Chairman:B.Markotic;Co-chairman:H.Ipek
Thehistory andpresent situationofTurkishcarpetindustry—O.Aslanapa
Thecarpetproduction andpossibilities ofimprovingproduction inEastern
Anatolia—N.S.Tellioglu
Thepreservation of thetraditional characteristics ofhand-wovenTurkish carpets
andtheimportanceofnaturaldyes—G.Paksoy
Research anddevelopment of thenaturaldyesusedfor traditionalcarpetsinthe
Aegeanregion"Dobagproject"—M.Aslier
Thestate'sroleintheTurkishcarpet sector—LH. Güngör
Production andlocaltransformation ofwoolinAlgeria*— A . Ayachi,
M.T.Benyoucef
197
202
204
208
212
215
Discussion pannel and conclusion
Chairman:J.Boyazoglu;Co-chairman:K.Dogan
Theextenttowhich wool,hair,hideandskinproduction areprofitable for
farmers; anintroduction tothediscussion *—J.P.Boutonnet, J.C.Flamant
225
Poster presentations
Coordinator: O.Biçer
Geneticanalysis of greasyfleeceweightandewelambgrowthof theGentiledi
Puglia sheepbreed *—C.Renieri,C. Pieramati, S.Dell'Aquila,L. Taibi
Postnataldevelopment of woolfollicles ofPramenkasheepbreed—M. Vegara
Heredity ofwoolfineness ofdifferent sheepbreedsandtheircrosses—
Z.Causevic,B.Markotic, M.Vegara,A.Smajic, H.Omanovic
Thecomparative studyof woolfollicles ofPramenka,Merinolandschaf and
Romanoff sheepbreeds andtheircrosses—B. Markotic, Z.Causevic,
M. Vegara,A.Smajic,H.Omanovic
Useandproduction of AngorarabbithairinItaly—C.Lazzaroni,I.Zoccarato,
G. PaganoToscano,A.Bosticco, MJ.Auxilia
Mohairproduction districts andconsumption ofmohairinTurkey—
Y. Yazicioglu,Z. Yildirim
Aresearch onsomephysicalproperties andprincipalutilization of mohairs
producedinAnkara andBoludistricts—Y. Yazicioglu, Z.Yildirim
Cashmerefibreproduction from Australasian andSiberian (GornoAltai)goats
inacrossbreedingprogramme—L.C.Roger,A. Waterhouse,N. Wray,
M.Gallagher,S.Scanlan
AngoragoatsbreedinginItaly:preliminary data—S.Misiti,M.Antonini,
F. Carnevali,F. Castrignan, E.Stella
Ovulation rateof maiden andmatureSouthAustraliancashmeredoes—
D.O.Kleemann,D.R.Gifford, TL Grosser, CL. Trengove, F.C.R. Levinge
Therelation between aptitudefor transhumance andfleece characteristics in
sevenFrench sheepgenetictypes—J.F. Hocquette, M.Vermorel,J.Bouix
Phenotypic correlations andproductive wooltraitsof AustralianMerinoand
Polwarth breedsraisedinBrazil—E.R.Siqueira, P.F. Vieira, S.B.Pons
Repeatability of woolcharacteristics andbody shornweightinewesof five
breeds,raisedinintensivegrazing system—E.R.Siqueira, P.F. Vieira,
S.B.Pons
TheSarda sheepbreed andthelocalcarpetindustry—S.Casu, P. Cappai,
M.Atzori
Present situation andfuture of handwovenwoolcarpets—M.Arli,F.Ilgaz,
N.Kayabasi
Designcharacteristics inAnatoliancarpets—LH.Güngör
233
236
239
242
245
247
249
251
/
254
257
259
263
266
269
21A
276
Summaryandconclusions
Summary of symposium sessions—0. Kaftanoglu
Conclusions *—/. Boyazoglu,J.C.Flamant
*textinFrench
281
290
Preface
DearColleagues,
Itisagreatpleasurefor mehavingyouhereforthe"International SymposiumonProduction
ofHides,Skins,WoolandHair:Evaluation andFutureRoleinTheMediterraneanBasinand
TheMiddleEast"whichisjointlyorganisedbyEuropeanAssociationforAnimalProduction
(EAAP),International Centerfor Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (QHEAM),
theEuropean Community (EC),Çukurova University and The Ministry of Agriculture and
RuralAffairs inÇukurovaUniversitycampusonNovember 2-6,1991.
OuryoungUniversity with apasthistory ofonly 17yearsis situatedon2000hectaresof
landoverlookingtheSeyhanRiverLake,inthefourthlargestcityofTurkey,Adana,thecenter
oftextileindustry andmajor producerofcotton andcitrusfruits. Duringthesymposium,you
willbehavingscientific andtechnicaldiscussionswithyourcolleaguesonmanysubjectsand
willexchanges ideas and information as well.Besides,you willalso have thechance to see
ourhistoricalandnaturalbeauties.ThechurchofSt.PetersinAntakyaandtheearlyChristian
settlement of Cappadoccia and their natural beauty and historical sites will attract your
attention.
Yourshort stayinIstanbul onyourarrivaloronyourdeparture,willgiveyouachanceto
observetheminglingofthecultures,historiesandartsoftheEastandtheWest.Repeatingmy
earnest desire of having you at the Symposium and visiting our University, I would like to
expressmyregards toyouall.
Prof.Dr.M.Özsan
RectorUniversity of Çukurova
Introduction
TheMediterraneanbasinandtheneighbouringregionshavealong-standinghistoryofsheep
andgoatraising.Therearevariousproductionsystems;however,extensivesystemspredominate. Recent changes had aconsiderable effect on the evolution of the traditional chainsof
smallruminantproduction,andalsoontheprocessingandmarketingofproducts,inparticular
undertheeconomicinfluence ofintensiveproductionmodelsoftheNorthEuropeancountries
whichprovidethemarketwithmassproducedmilkandmeatproducts.
This symposium is one among a series of Mediterranean symposia organized every year
byEAAPand the CIHEAMincooperation withFAO and theEC.Acommon feature isthe
searchfor alternativestointensiveproductionmodels,basedonimprovingindividual performances of animals, which are usually proposed by livestock science for meat and milk
production. Thesubject of this symposiumshows such aconcern:what aretheprospects for
theproduction ofhides,skins,woolandhairintheMediterraneanregionand surroundings?
Actuallybesidemeatandmilk,animalhusbandryproducesalsoby-products,textiles,leatherandhides,intended notonlyfor marketingasrawmaterialatinternational level,butalso
forlocalprocessingintospecializedproducts.Farmers'attentionshouldbedrawntotheimportance of the secondary products particularly whenever the economic relevance of themain
products diminishes.Itcouldbe apossible specialized orientation for the animal husbandry
intheMediterranean basin.This wastheissueofthisinternational symposium.
Itistruethatrecenttechnicalandeconomicevolutionsaswellasmodernmarketingpatterns
tendedtoignore'therelevant importance oftheseproducts.This symposium highlighted the
fact that this was and still is more amatter of choosing theeasy and sometimes convenient
way of voluntary marginalizing their importance,rather than developing the more intricate
themeof thepotential highcommercial valuein their specificity andtheirtraditional importanceinthecontextoflocaldomesticindustrieslinkedtoregionalproduction andprocessing
patterns,asit shouldbe.
In anutshell, thevalorization oftheseso-called "by-products"will allow thereductionof
the global production costs of the sheep and goat industries in our region and can help its
development.
Atthispointitisimportanttorememberthatwhatcanbecalledthehidesandskinssubsector
concernshere,overandabovethesmallruminants,alsothecattleandevencameland buffalo
productions. From a general standpoint, all theseproducts of the animal sector represent a
noteworthy potentialof thelivestockincome.
It seemsnormal thatthenational andregionalagriculturalpolicies (including thoseofthe
EC.)shouldgivemoreattentiontotheseproducts,particularly sinceacompetition,notalways
fair, has developed inrecent yearsfrom far-off, low costproducing areasof the world. The
relevantprocessingindustriesinEuropeandintheMediterraneanregionareanimportantlink
within theruralchain anditisthusindispensable toevaluatethefuture possiblepathwaysof
development through research and technological information. This symposium can helpin
thisdirection.
At production level, the fundamental problem could be the improvement of production
technicsofthesesecondaryproducts,particularlyinthemoredifficult andmarginalextensive
production areas with specialreference to thelocal animal genetic resources.It seems tous
that wemust aim atlinking the obvious aspects of specificity and quality of these products
with theconceptof acertain degreeof modernization ofproduction technics and with some
form ofdynamiccollection andmarketing.
Textiles,leather and hidesrequireagreatdealofprocessingandmarketingefforts before
they become afinished product that can bepurchased by the consumer. Procedure analysis
showsthat,iffarmers wanttomakegoodprofitsfrom theseproducts,theymustintegratepart
of theadded value,particularly bypersonalizing theproductrange.However,inthiscase,it
isamatterof"small series"thatcannotpretendtoreach arunofcustomers.
In thefield of transformation, itisprobably theupdating andmodernization oftheprocessingstructuresandmachinerythatwemustlookat.Theyaremostlytoodispersedandscatteredoverlargeareasandtheir technological levelisprimitive.Thismeans high production
and transformation costs, squandering valuable available resources, and even insufficient
qualityofthemarketedproducts.Settinguplargecentralizedprocessingfacilitiesisnotnecessarilytheanswertothisproblem;instead,weshouldratherthinkintermsofdevelopingmedium-sizedunitsensuringadequatetechnicsandbettereconomicprospects.Obviouslyanup-todategradingprocess andminimumstandardsoftheproductsareabsolutelynecessary.Inany
case,long-termviewscanonlyleadtosomeactiveawarenessregardingenvironmentalprotection.
Fromthemarketingpoint ofview,itseemsthatthegoldenroad lies somewhere between
specializedproductions offering high added valueandaplanned diversification andnovelty
oftheproducts.Inallcases,alongterm strategycanonlybethatthey arecomplementaryto
oneanother;therefore,alsofrom theinvestmentpointofview,theremustbeaplannedcooperation between production andtransformation zones,andprivate andpublic sectorinvolvementisnecessary.
WewouldliketothankourTurkishcolleagueshereformakingthismostimportantmeeting
possible, the Ministry of Agriculture, thelocal authorities andtheleather, hair and carpet
industries.Wewouldliketomentioninparticular,notonlythosefriends from Adanabutalso
from Ankara,Istanbul,Bursa andIzmir,butthislistwouldbetoolong.Though,inthename
of allofuswewanttothanktheRector,Prof.Özsan,andthroughhimtheDeanoftheAgricultural Faculty,Prof. Tekinel, andtheDirector oftheDepartment ofAnimal Science,Prof.
Pekel,who,intrueTurkishtradition,receivedushereinthemostmoderncampuswhichthey
builtthemselveswithhardteamworkandtenacity,inarelativelyshorttime.Whenwestarted
planningthismeetingmorethanfiveyearsago,andourgoodfriends,ProfessorsElicin,Dogan,
Yalcin,Tuncel,etc.said:"letusgotothesouth", wehaddifficulty inunderstanding whyin
thebeginning.Weallknownowthattherewasaneedafter thefirst successful EAAPsymposiumwehadinAnkarain1983toconfirm that successinAdanaeightyearslater.
Last butnotleast a hearty word of thanks, personally andcordially, toourfriend Okan
Guney andallhiscolleagues for thehard work they putinthepreparation of the meeting;
withouttheirdevotion this wouldnothavebeenpossible.
In thename of theorganizers andof both CIHEAM andEAAPwewant toexpressour
appreciation to theEuropean Community andFAO's European Office without thehelpof
whichtheparticipationofmanyforeign scientiststothismeetingandthepublicationofthese
proceedings wouldnothavebeenpossible.
J. Boyazoglu,
J.C.Flamant
Introductivesession
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
O.Tekinel
J.L.Tisserand
Aworld reviewofhides,skins,wooland hair production and
marketing
W.Krostitz
EAAPConsultant,Berchtesgaden, Germany
Summary
Worldsupply,demandandparticularlypricesofhides,skins,woolandderivedproductshave
beensubjecttoconsiderablefluctuations overthepastquartercentury.By 1991pricesofboth
hidesandwoolfelltoratherlowlevelsasdemanddecreased,whereassuppliesincreased,with
wool stocks reaching an all-time high. In February 1991 Australia and other major wool
exportersdiscontinued theirpricestabilization schemes,allowingthewoolmarkettooperate
freely for thefirst timein 17years.Following theabolition ofprice stabilization schemesin
major exporting countries, and with theprogressive liberalization of wool markets in East
Europe,mostoftheworld'swoolisnowbeingproducedunderfreemarketconditions.Trade
inhidesandskinsremains subject toexportrestrictions bydevelopingcountries.
Thereduction in demand for consumer goods made from these raw materials has been
particularlypronouncedinEastEuropeandtheUSSR.Whilethedevelopingcountriesaccount
for the larger part of global population of ruminant animals, productivity in terms of such
products asmeat, milk, hides,skinsandwoolisgenerallymuchlowerthaninthedeveloped
countries.However, there has been a shift in theprocessing of hides, skins and wool tothe
developingcountries,notablyinEastAsiaandpartsofLatinAmericaandtheMediterranean
region. Although being increasingly dependent on shipments of hides, skins and wool from
theOECD area,aconsiderable numberofdevelopingcountrieshavebecomelargeexporters
ofleatherandleathergoods,aswellaswool-basedtextiles,inspiteofheavyimportprotection
inseveralindustrializedcountries.
The short-term outlook is for little change in demand and supply in general, although
demandforwoolshouldexperiencesomerecoveryduetothecurrentlowrelativepriceofthis
commodity.Inthelongerterm,successful conclusionoftheGATT'smultilateral negotiations
(UruguayRound)wouldnotonlyenabledevelopingcountriestocapitalizeontheircomparativeadvantagein theprocessing of hides,skins andwool,buttherecouldalsobe some shift
towards developing countries in milk and meat production, both for export and domestic
consumption.Theresultantincreaseinemploymentandincomewouldprobablyalsostimulate
domesticdemandforleathergoodsandtextilesinthedevelopingcountries,whichbytheyear
2000 will account for about four-fifths of global population. At present, average per caput
consumptionofleathershoes,forexample,inthedevelopingregionsasawholeisonlyabout
one pair in three years, as against 2-3 pairs ayear in West Europe and North America. In
contrast, if the Uruguay Round failed, growth in the world livestock and derived products
economywouldpresumablybesluggish,andthedifference inincomeandconsumptionlevels
between OECD countries and developing countries, especially those in Africa and Latin
America,mightwidenfurther, accompaniedbyadeclineinEastEuropeandtheSovietUnion.
Presentsituationandrecent developments
Production
Althoughthe numberofruminant animals whichprovide thehides and skins,wool and hair
discussedin thispaper(cattle,buffaloes, sheep,goatsandafew other species)hasincreased
overthepastquartercentury orso,growthhaslaggedbehindthatinhumanpopulation.This
reflects tosomeextentrisingproductivityperanimal,notablyintermsofmilkandmeat,but
alsointermsofhides,skins,woolandhair.Moreover,theriseindemandformilk,bovineand
sheepandgoatmeathasslowedorcometoahaltaltogetherinseveralpartsoftheworld,with
pig and poultry meat accounting for an increasing proportion of global meat consumpti'on.
Finally,competitionfromrawmaterialsofvegetableorigin,suchascottonandsyntheticshas
grown.
The developing countries keep the largerpart of globalpopulation of ruminant animals.
However, ascan beseenfrom Table 1,thedevelopedcountriesproducenotonlymoremeat
andmilkbutalsomorewool,whileoutputofhidesandskinsfrom bovineanimalsandsheep,
inquantitativeterms,isaboutthesameinthetwocategories.Onlytheoutputofgoat skinsis
concentratedinthedevelopingcountries.Milk,meatandwoolyieldsinthegroupofdeveloped
countries aregenerally higher, which is alsoreflected inlargeroutputof hidesand skinsper
animal. But unlike in the majority of developed countries, cattle and buffaloes in the developingregionsarestillused,toaconsiderableextent,forwork,whichwhileofgreatimportance to the overall economy of the countries tends todepress average yields of meat, milk
andhides aswellasthequalityof thelatter.
According to FAO (FAO, 2), since hides and skins account for only a relatively small
proportion of the total value of theanimals from which they areobtained, theproduction of
hides and skinsrarely forms theprincipal object of livestock breeding. Cattle and goats are
keptchiefly for theirmeatandmilk,andsheepmainlyfortheirmeatandwool.Itfollows that
their supply varies independently of changes inthedemandfor leather andleatherproducts.
The collection andmarketing of hides and skins inremote areas mayintensify when prices
risesufficiently tocovercostsof collection,handling andtransport,andslackenwhen falling
pricesrendercollection andmarketing unprofitable.
Table 1. Ruminantanimalnumbersandtheiroutput(late 1980s).
Cattleandbuffaloes (billionhead)
Sheep(billionhead)
Goats (billion head)
Beaf andveal (million tons)
Sheepandgoatmeat(milliontons)
Milk(allspecies) (million tons)
Hides andskins (fresh) (million tons)
ofwhich cattleand buffalo
sheep
goats
Wool(clean) (milliontons)
Source:FAOProduction Yearbooks (FAO,l).
World
Total
Developing
Countries
Developed
Countries
1.42
1.18
0.53
50.90
8.80
528
8.64
6.90
1.29
0.45
1.94
1.02
0.62
0.50
16.80
5.10
144
4.62
3.55
0.64
0.43
0.54
0.40
0.56
0.03
34.10
3.70
384
4.02
3.35
0.65
0.02
1.40
Morerecently,cattlenumbers andconsequently slaughteringandhidesandskinsoutputhave
decreased in almost all developed countries. In North America, the world's principal beef
producingregion,theshift indemandfromredmeattowhitemeathascurbedcattlefarming.
Current beef anddairy cattlenumbers arewell belowthelevelsregistered inthe 1970s,and
thehistorical cattle cycle hasvirtually disappeared. InWestEurope, where cattlefarming is
predominantlyorientedtowardsmilk,governmentshavetakenmeasurestoreducecattlepopulationsinviewoflargemilkandbeefsurpluses.Therehas,however,beensomechangeinthe
composition of WestEuropean cattle herds, with specialized beef breeds and their crosses
becoming moreimportant. In addition, theproportion of calves tototalcattle slaughterings
hasfallen and,inthevealsector,calveshavebeenfattenedtoheavierweights.TheUSSRand
EastEurope,wherecattlefarmingisalsomostlymilk-oriented,haveexperiencedacontraction
in cattle numbers since the late 1980s which has accelerated in 1990/91. The decline was
particularly sharp in theformer GermanDemocratic Republic when its agriculture andlivestocksectorhadtoadjusttoacompletelyneweconomicsituationandthecommonagricultural
policyoftheEuropeanCommunity.At116millioninearly 1991,theUSSRstillhadthelargest
cattlepopulationamongdevelopedcountries,althoughthiswas5percentlessthanatthe1986
peak.
Interms of beef and hides,however, theUScontinues tobethenumber oneproducerin
thedevelopedregions,inspiteofthefallincattlenumbersfrom arecordlevelof 132million
in 1975toslightly less than 100million bytheendof the 1980s,withonly asmallrecovery
inmostrecent years.Japan has been oneof thefew developed countries experiencing some
increaseincattlenumbers, although thecountryremains arelatively smallproducerofmilk,
beef andhides.Infact, withdemandfor beef anddairyproductsoutpacingdomesticproduction,Japan has gradually opened its market andraised imports.Thisin turn has encouraged
beef output inNorth America andOceania for export toJapan. Inthepast,developments of
the beef cattle population of Australia and New Zealand had largely paralleled those in the
US, themainoutletfor Oceanianbeef.Cattlefarming inAustralia,asintheUS,is basically
beef-oriented, while New Zealand is an important producer and exporter of beef and milk
products.
In the developing regions, China and other countries in East Asia have expanded cattle
numberswithaviewtosatisfying higherdemandfor beefandmilk.Indiacontinuestobethe
countrywiththelargestnumberofbovineanimalsintheworldbut,becauseofreligiouscreed,
slaughterings arelimited and thebulk ofhidesoutputisobtained from fallen animals.Inthe
easternMediterranean region Turkey isbyfar thebiggestproducer of beef andhides.While
Africa accounts for arelatively small proportion of global cattle population, Latin America
hastraditionally been amajor consumer andexporter ofbeef.However, the almost chronic
depression ofpricesininternationalbeeftradesincethemid-1970s, accompaniedbydecreasingdemandforbeefathome,hascurbedcattlefarminginmanycountriesofthisregion,most
notably in Argentina. By the late 1980s, cattle numbers in Argentina had fallen below 50
million from over 60million attheirpeakin 1977,although therehas been a slight increase
at the beginning of this decade.On average,in the developing countries the offtake ratein
cattlefarming is about 13 percentandbeefcarcassweight 161kg,comparedwith 36percent
and 242 kg respectively, in the developed countries. The resultant lower yields in terms of
hidesandskinsareoften accompaniedbylowerqualityoftheseby-products.Hence,overthe
pastoneandahalfdecadesorso,cattleandbuffalo numbershavetendedtoriseinthoseparts
oftheworldwherehidesproductivityandqualityarerelativelylow.Incontrast,cattlenumbers
havebeenreducedsharplyinsuchregionsasNorthAmerica,thelargestproducerandexporter
of cattle hides,and Scandinavia, thehides and skins of which areappreciated for their high
quality. However, the short term effect of measures tocurb excess milkproduction inWest
EuropeandthecontractionoflivestockindustriesinEastEuropehasbeenatemporaryincrease
incattleslaughterings andhide suppliesin 1990/91.
Goat farming has staged somerecovery in the developed regions,mainly for milk and hair
production, but, as canbe seenfrom Table 1,most goats continuetobekept in developing
countries,withAsiaandAfrica asthemostimportantregions.India,China,Pakistan,Iranand
Turkey have the largest goatpopulations.In a number of developing countries, notably in
Africa andLatinAmericawhereincomesandstandardsoflivinghavebeenfalling, therehas
beensomeshiftfromlargetosmallruminants,suchasgoatsandsheep,aswellasinconsumer
demand from beef to goat and sheepmeat.According toFAO (FAO,2), goat skinstend to
accountfor ahigherproportionofthegrosscarcassvaluethanskinsandhidesfrom sheepor
cattle.However,inquantitativeterms,globaloutputofgoatskinsismuchlower.
In thecase of sheep numbers and sheep skinoutput, developing anddeveloped countries
share about equally in the world total.In theformer category, Asia and Africa arethemost
importantregions,althoughtheproportionofLatinAmericaislargerthaninthecaseofgoats.
China, Turkey, India, Iran and Pakistan arethebiggestproducers of sheep skins in Asia.In
Africa, Nigeria and Ethiopia are the main producers, and in Latin America, Argentina and
Uruguay.Thelattertwocountrieskeepsheepprimarilyforwoolproduction. Chinaexpanded
sheepfarming duringthe 1980swithaviewtoraisingoutputofbothwoolandmeat,although
theexpansionseemstohavecometoahaltmostrecently.Sheepmilkisappreciatedinseveral
countriesofAsiaandAfrica, andsomesheepbreedsalsoprovidehair.
Among the developed countries, sheep milk is of some importance in Southern Europe.
However, lamb production is the main objective of sheepfarming in Western Europe, with
mutton,woolandskinsarisingasby-products.Supportgrantedtosheepmeatproducersunder
thecommon agriculturalpolicyresultedinasubstantialexpansioninEC sheepflocks inthe
1980s,althoughmeasureshaverecentlybeentakentocurtailthisincrease.InEastEuropeand
theUSSRahighdegreeofself-sufficiency inwoolwasoneoftheobjectivesoflivestockpoliciesuntilthelate 1980s.Nonetheless,sheepfarming intheUSSRhasexperiencedadecrease
since the second half of the 1980s,the contraction accelerating atthe beginning of thenew
decade.IntheformerGermanDemocraticRepublicthewool-orientedsheepsectorwasvirtually wiped out in 1990/91 during the rapid integration of East Germany into the European
Communitywhichprovidesnospecific supporttowoolgrowers.Removalofsupportcoupled
withliberalizationofwoolimportshasalsocurbedsheepfarminginseveralneighbouringEast
European countries,although greateremphasisisnow giventolambproduction. TheUSremainsoneofthefewdevelopedcountrieswheregovernmentgrantssupporttowoolgrowers,
butsheepfarming hasforalongtimebeenaninsignificant itemintheUSlivestockeconomy.
WhileNewZealandisanimportantproducerandexporteroflambandwool,sheepfarming
inAustraliaandSouthAfricaiswool-oriented.SheepnumbersroserapidlyinAustraliaduring
the second half of the 1980s, and the country has again become the world's biggest sheep
produceralthoughtheupwardtrendhasbeenreversedatthebeginningofthe1990s.In 1990
Australiakept some 173million sheep,40million more thanten years ago,prior tothestart
oftheexpansionaryphaseinthecurrentwoolcycle.Butflockshavebeensignificantlyreduced
by 1991.TheSouthAfrican sheeppopulationdecreasedbynearlyafifth duringthe1970sand
thefirst half of the 1980s although ithasrecovered somewhatmorerecently. Sheep farming
inNew Zealand hascontracted sincetheearly 1980s,with someshift towardsmerinowool
production.Whiletherehasbeenarapidincreaseinthenumberofothersmallruminants,such
as goats and deer, totalpopulation of deer and goats at about 2million accounted forjust 2
percentofNewZealandlivestockpopulation (intermsoflivestockunits)in 1990.Inventories
of farmed deer and other gameruminant animals have alsoincreased inAustralia andWest
Europe, reflecting growing demand for venison and policies to discourage dairy farming.
Overall,worldproduction of hides andskinsisestimated tohaveincreased byabout atenth
duringthepastdecade,withoutputofbovinehidesandskinsrisingataslowerpacethanthat
of sheep andgoatskins.
In global woolproduction, the developed countries' share is much larger than in thatof
sheepskins,asshowninTable1.Asamatteroffact,fivedevelopedcountries,Australia,New
10
Zealand, theUSSR,theUnitedKingdomand SouthAfrica, accountfor nearly two-thirdsof
world wool output. The first two,Australia and New Zealand, which are by far the largest
suppliersintheinternationalwoolmarket,aloneproduceover40percentoftheworld'swool.
IntheUK and elsewhere intheEC, supporttosheepmeatproducers has alsoresulted inan
increase inwool output. In New Zealand thecontraction of sheep farming and wool output
sincetheearly 1980sreflected, toalargeextent,thediscontinuationofgovernmentsubsidies
on sheep meat and wool, although the wool industry maintained its own price stabilization
scheme(introducedin 1952)untilearly 1991.Inearly 1991,woolboardsinNewZealandand
otherproducersandexportersinthesouthernhemisphereceasedsettingfloorprices,following
the suspension oftheAustralianWoolCorporation's reservepriceschemeinFebruary 1991.
ThepermanentabolitionofthatschemewasannouncedbytheAustralianGovernmentinMay
1991.
Inthedevelopingregions,Chinaexpandedwooloutputrapidlyduringthe1980s,becoming
theleadingproducerinthiscategory,althoughtherisehaslevelledoutmostrecently.Argentina
andUruguay arethenext mostimportantproducers, being alsothelargest exporters among
developingcountries.Othermajor producersarePakistan,Turkey,Morocco,IndiaandIran.
Overthepastdecadeworldwooloutputgrewbyalmostafifth. Theexpansion accelerated
during the secondhalf of the 1980s,chiefly reflecting thedevelopments inAustralia, China
andtoalesserextenttheEuropeanCommunity.AccordingtotheCommonwealth Secretariat
(1991),in 1990/91merinowool(ofwhichAustraliaisthebiggestproducer)accountedfor46
percent of worldraw wool output, crossbred wool (which is mainly usedfor carpets andof
whichNewZealandisthebiggestproducer)for25percentandotherwool(ofwhichtheUSSR
and Chinaarethebiggestproducers)for theremainder.
Hair, produced by suchruminant animals asgoats, some sheep breeds, alpaca or vicuna,
albeitimportantfor somecountries,amountstoonlyaverysmallfraction oftotal suppliesof
naturaltextilefibres andanevensmallerportionofthecombinedsuppliesofnaturalandmanmadetextilefibres, ascanbeseenfrom Table2.
Internationaltradeandprices
The proportion of world output of hides, skins and wool that enters international trade is
considerably higherthanisthecaseofotherproductsderivedfromruminantanimals,suchas
meatanddairyproducts.Aswithmeatanddairyproductsthedevelopingcountriesasagroup
havebeen netimporters of hides,skinsandwoolintherecentpast.However, sincemuchof
thefinalproductsmadefromtheserawmaterialsissoldtodevelopedcountries,thedeveloping
countries arenetexportersinoveralltradeinhides,skins,woolandtheirderivedproducts.
AccordingtoFAO(FAO2and5),theexpansionoftradeinbovinehidesandskinsduring
thepasttwodecadesreflectedexclusivelylargershipmentsfromdevelopedcountries,whereas
Table2. Worldoutputoftextilefibres (late 1980s).
1000tons
Total
Man-made
Natural
ofwhich: cotton
wool(clean)
mohair
38000
17 600
20400
17 500
1950
25
Percentshare
100
46
54
46
5
-
Source:Commonwealth Secretariat andFAO(FAO, 4).
11
exportsofdevelopingcountrieshavedecreasedsignificantly, ascanbeseenfromTable3.The
UScontinuestobetheleadingsupplierintheinternationalmarketofbovinehides,accounting
for overathirdoftotalexports.Thesharpriseincompetitively-priced hideexportsfrom the
USSRhadpropelledthiscountryintothesecondposition amongworldexportersduringthe
secondhalfofthe1980s,althoughthisgrowthhaslevelledoffinmostrecentyears.Incontrast
shipmentsfrom Australia, thethirdlargest supplier,haverecovered, inlinewithanupswing
inbeef output.
Exportablesuppliesfromdevelopingcountrieshaveremainedscarce,giventhewidespread
exportrestrictionsonrawhidesimposedtoensuresupplytotheexpandingtanningandleather
industries. Suchimportantproducers of hidesandskins asIndia,Pakistan andArgentina are
amongthosecountriesthathavebannedexportsofrawhidesaltogether.Exportsofsheepand
goatskinshaveincreasedless,although,asshowninTable3,therehasbeenasimilarchange
inthesharesof developedanddevelopingcountries asinthebovinesector.
Importpatternscontinue toreflect thesteady shift intanningactivitiesfrom developedto
developingcountries.Inrecentyears,theRepublicofKoreahasovertakenItalyasthelargest
buyerofcattlehides.ImportrequirementshavealsogrowninThailandandIndonesia,inorder
tosatisfy theneedsoftheirexpandingtanningsectors,ascapacitiesarebeingtransferred from
higher-costcountriesofEastAsia,notablytheRepublicofKorea,andTaiwan.Infact,import
requirements of Taiwan havedeclined inthewakeof thetransfer of tanningcapacity tothe
People'sRepublicofChinaandothercountriesoftheFarEast IntheNearEast,Turkeywhose
economy is experiencing oneof the highest growthrates intheworld, hasraised importsof
hidesandskins.WhereasinLatinAmerica,Argentina'sleatherindustrydependsondomestic
rawmaterials,Mexico'sexport-orientedleatherindustryhassubstantiallyincreasedpurchases
from abroad in recent years, but Brazil has bought less due to a we:4cdomestic economy.
AmongthedevelopedcountriesItalyandJapanremainthelargestimportersalthoughimports
have levelled off or decreased more recently as have imports of East European countries,
Table3. Exportsofrawhidesandskins^.
Bovine hides
Production
(10 3 tons)
Sheepandgoatskins
Production
(103tons)
Shareinworld trade
(%)
Share inworld trade
(%)
80's
Growth
60's
80's
60's
80's
Growth
60's
80's
1180.4 1830.4
World
Developed
countries
884.7 1683.5
Developing
295.7 147.0
countries:2
17.2
Latin America 199.8
4.8
18.7
NearEast3
Asia & Pacific
region
24.5
63.6
66.2
47.0
Africa
55.1
100.0
100.0
209.6
220.3
5.1
100.0
100.0
90.3
74.9
92.0
119.2
152.3
27.8
56.9
69.1
-50.3
-91.4
289.6
25.1
16.9
0.4
8.0
0.9
1.0
90.4
15.2
40.7
67.9
2.9
40.4
-24.9
-80.9
-0.7
43.1
7.2
19.4
30.8
1.3
18.3
159.6
-29.0
2.1
5.6
3.5
2.6
12.9
21.5
7.8
16.8
-39.5
-21.9
6.2
10.3
3.5
7.6
60's
1
2
3
Late60's andlate80's.
Figureshownmaybeslightlydifferent from thesum-totalduetoexistenceofsome
'otherdeveloping countries'not shown separately.
ExcludingEgypt,LibyaandSudanwhichwereincludedin Africa.
12
among which Czechoslovakia had become the largest buyer in the 1980s. Weaker import
demandoftheleatherindustriesinseveralOECDcountrieshasbeenduetoacombinationof
factors, such as rising labour costs, more stringent effluent control legislation and a mild
economic recession. However, in East Europe the demand has decreased more sharply, as
incomeshavefallen, subsidiesonbasicconsumergoodsbeenremovedandexportsofleather
shoestotheUSSR,themainoutletforEastEuropeanexporters,decreased.Inthis situation,
worldmarketpricesofhideshavefallen considerably sincethemiddleof 1990,asillustrated
inFigure 1.Thischartalsoshowsthehighdegreeofvolatilityofpricesininternationalhides
J3ade_qyerthepastthreedecades.
Thebulk of wool that enters international trade alsocomes from developed countries,in
particular Australia and NewZealand,followed by SouthAfrica. Inthedeveloping regions,
Argentina andUruguayhavetraditionallybeenthemainexporters,butasagroupthedevelopingcountrieshavealargenetimport.Asinthecaseofhidesandskins,processingcapacities
inthedevelopingcountrieshave grownfaster thaninthedeveloped regions,partly for shipmentof finished goodstodeveloped countries.China,Taiwan, theRepublic of Korea,India
andTurkeyhavebecomemajorimportersofrawwool,althoughinChinatherapidexpansion
oftextileproduction seenduringmostofthe 1980shasbeenreversedmostrecently.Overall,
however, the shift in woolprocessingfrom developed todeveloping countries has been less
pronounced thanin thehides and skins sector,partlyreflecting arelatively higher degreeof
protectionism.Infact, thedevelopedcountriesstillaccountfor thelargestpartofworldwool
imports, with theEC being thebiggestpurchaser, followed byJapan, theUSSR andtheUS
(Table4).
Intheinternationalwoolmarket,priceshavebeenunderdownwardpressureforaboutthree
years,asillustratedbyFigure2.Thisfollowed asharpincreaseduringtheperiod 1984to1988
whentheAustralianWoolCorporationraiseditssupportprice(inlocalcurrency)by85percent,
accompaniedbysimilarstepsinotherexportingcountries.(Itmaybeworthmentioningthat,
unlikethegovernment-financed agriculturalintervention schemesinWestEurope andNorth
America,thesestabilization schemesarelargelyfinanced bythewoolindustriesof thecountriesconcerned.)High supportpricesstimulatedoutput,notablyinAustralia,butdiscouraged
demand andeventually ledtotheaccumulation of largestocks,reaching arecordlevelof0.5
million tons,i.e. one-fourth of worldproduction at thebeginning of the 1990/91 marketing
year. Stocks rose further by 1991,with Australia alone holding more than 0.5 million tons
earlythisyear.Inthis situation thefloorpriceinAustraliawasreducedby20percentinJune
1990and,asmentioned intheprevious section,supportpurchasingwasdiscontinued altogetherinearly 1991.
According toUSDA, the recent decline in wool demand partly reflected a switch by the
textile industry to cotton and man-made fibres at a time when technical innovations in the
manufactureofman-madefibreandintheprocessingofcottonknitwearprovidedawiderange
oftexturechoices,enhancingsubstitution.Moreover,economicgrowthhasslowedinseveral
OECD countries,the principal wool consumers, which, together with thereaction torecord
woolprices,causedasignificantreductioninconsumption.However,thedecreaseindemand
was much more pronounced in East Europe and the USSR, for similar reasons to those
mentioned withregard tohides and skins,aswell asin China,ascountries suffered notonly
from an, at least temporary, contraction of demand, but also an acute shortage of foreign
exchangetobuyrawmaterialsintheinternationalmarket.EastEurope,theUSSR andChina
accountedfor nearly40percent ofworldconsumption of virgin wool (atthe spinning stage)
bythewooltextileindustryduringthesecondhalf ofthe1980s.
The collapse of wool prices in international markets has been accompanied by a sharp
reduction inprices of hair. According toLaniera (1991),prices of South African mohair,in
termsof ItalianLire,decreased byaboutathirdinthecourseof calendar year 1990.Current
pricesofPeruvianAlpacahairareonlyone-thirdofthelevelsofthreeyearsagoandnotmuch
higherthanwoolprices,accordingtoarecentreportintheFinancialTimes,(FinancialTimes,
13
Figure1. Cattlehideprices(US$per kg;Lightnative cowehides, Chicago)
US J/kg
12
10
g |
1
1960
I
I
1
1
I
1965
I
I
I
|
1_1
1970
I
I
|
I
L_l
1975
I
|
I
I
L_J
1980
|
'
I
1985
[_
1990
Figure2. Woolprices (US$per kg,c.i.f.London).
Table4. Trade inwool(late 1980s, thousandtons, clean).
World
Developingcountries
Developedcountries
Source:FAO(FAO,1)
14
Exports
Imports
420
70
350
400
150
250
15August 1991).Peru'sAlpacaindustryhasprogressivelymovedintomanufacturing,exportingcloth andknitsrather thanrawfibreortopswhich aremore susceptibleto international
pricefluctuations.PeruandBoliviakeepmostoftheworld'sAlpaca,althoughtherehasrecentlybeen someexportofliveanimals,atattractiveprices,todevelopedcountries,notablyNew
ZealandandtheUS.Chilehasbeenexpandingitspopulationofvicunasfortheproductionof
atypeofhairwhichissaidtobesofterthancashmere.ForcashmereChinahasrecentlyreduced
itsexportpricefrom US$95toUS$79perkg.
Processing
Fromtheendofthe18thcentury,i.e.,thebeginningoftheindustrialrevolution,untilwellinto
the20th century,therapidlyexpanding processing industries inEurope, and somewhat later
North America and Japan, conquered world markets, as aresult of which, especially in the
textilesector,muchoftheexistinglocalindustriesinwhatisnowcalledthedevelopingregions,
was virtually eliminated. From asmallnetimporter Europe turnedinto alarge net exporter.
However, during the second half of the20th century leather and textileindustries in thedevelopingcountries grewmuchfaster thaninthedevelopedregions.
AccordingtoFAO(FAO,5),therehasbeenadrastic shift intanning andleatherproducts
manufacturing capacitiesawayfromtheindustrializedcountries,particularlythosebelonging
totheOECD,tothedevelopingcountries.Overthepastquartercenturyorso,thedeveloping
countrieshavechangedfromanetexportertoanetimporterpositioninhidesandskinstrade.
Whileworldproduction oflightcattleleatherhasrisenbyaboutthreequarters'sincetheearly
1960s,that of developing countries has grown by over 150percent. Similarly, while global
leatherfootwear manufacturing roseby60percent, thatof thedevelopingcountries grewby
180percent, toaccountfor 40percentof all shoesproduced inthesecondhalf of the 1980s,
against20percent25yearsearlier.Bythesametoken,thepaceofgrowthinexportsofleather
and leather footwear from developing countries has been much faster than for developed
countries.Theformer group accounted for 40percentof leather shoesentering international
tradeinthelate 1980s,comparedwithmerely 8percentintheearly 1960s.However,growth
hasbeenuneven amongdevelopingcountries.Exportsof theAsiaandPacific region and,to
a lesser extentLatin America and theMediterranean region, grew fast but Africa's sharein
world tanning and manufacturing output and trade remained small. Although being major
producersofhidesandskins,countriesinsub-SaharanAfrica haveoften failed intheir efforts
toestablish localmanufacturing industries.
In the 1980s,theUSSR was by far the world's largestproducer of shoes.AmongOECD
countries,Italy,theUS,Spain andFranceremainedmajor producers,butoutput stagnatedor
declinedintheOECDareaaswellastheUSSRandEastEuropeduringthe 1980s.Incontrast,
shoeindustries incountries suchasChina,India,RepublicofKorea,Turkey andBrazilhave
experienced veryrapidgrowth.
High processing costs and increasingly stringent effluent control legislation have been
amongthefactorscausingtheshiftintanningandleatherindustriesfromOECDtodeveloping
countries.Morerecently,therehasalsobeenatransferfromseveralEastAsiancountrieswhere
costs havereached relatively high levels, such asTaiwan and the Republic of Korea, tothe
People'sRepublicofChinaandSouthEastandSouthAsia.WiththemainexceptionofJapan,
marketsofshoesandotherleathergoodsoftheOECDcountriesarerelatively open.TheUS,
for instance, has raised its net imports of shoes and leather products almost tenfold to over
US$10billionbetweenthemid-1970sand1990(USLeatherIndustriesStatistics).Otherlarge
markets_areGermany,France,theUKand,despiteitshugedomestic output, theUSSR.
AÎtKoughthedevelopedcountriesremainthelargestimporters ofrawwoolandmanufacturers of wooltextiles,there has alsobeen apronounced shift of fibre-processing capacities
1^ todeveloping countries.According toFAO(FAO4),in themid-1980s almost50percentof
alltextilefibreswerespuninthedevelopingcountries,asagainst37percentin 1975.Theex15
pansioninmillactivitywasaccompaniedbyasharpincreaseinexportsoftextilemanufactures
by developing countries, although the expansion was most pronounced in cotton and manmadefibre manufactures. Unlikeintheleathersector,Japan'smarketfor textilesisrelatively
open, withcapacities beingprogressively shifted towardsAsian developing countries where
costsarelower.ImportsintoWestEuropeandNorthAmericahavebeensubjecttosubstantial
restrictions under the Multi-Fibre Arrangement. Lithe developed regions, the USSR, Italy,
Japan, Germany and the UK are the largest processors of wool, while China is the biggest
manufacturer ofwooltextiles amongdevelopingcountries andtheworld's second largest.
Consumption
Although thedeveloped countries export a sizeableportion of theirproduction of hides and
skinsandwooltothedevelopingregions,muchofthiscomesbackintheformof semi-finished
orfinishedconsumergoods.Thus,percaputconsumptionofleatherandwoolinthedeveloped
regionsiswellabovethatinthedevelopingcountries,ascanbeseenfrom Tables5and6.
The wide differences may bepartly duetoclimate,but theprincipal factor is income.In
fact, largelyreflecting incomes,percaputconsumption levelsinthedevelopingregions differ
not only substantially from country to country but, within countries, also between income
groups.Onthewholeinthedevelopingcountries,notmuchimprovement hasoccurred over
thepast quartercentury or so.Inthis groupof countriestheproportion of leather goinginto
shoeshasbeengraduallyincreasing,whereasithasbeendecreasinginthedevelopedcountries.
Ontheworldlevel,probablysomewhatlessthanhalfoftotalleatheroutputisusedinfootwear
manufacture.
In Western Europe and North America per caputconsumption of shoes seems to benear
saturation pointlevel, although demand for otherleather goodsis stillrising.In quantitative
terms,percaput consumption ofleather shoes andwoolinEastEurope andtheUSSRinthe
1980swasaboutthesameasintheOECDarea,inspiteofgenerallylowerincomes.Thisreflected governmentpolicies tokeepretailpricesofbasicconsumer goodslow,usingmassive
subsidiestobridgethedifference betweenthecostsofproductionandthefinalconsumerprice.
However,withcountriesmovingtoamarketeconomy,consumptionhasfallen sharplybythe
beginningofthe 1990s.Intheformer GermanDemocraticRepublicmuchofthelocalleather
and textile industry was laid idle, when following the abrupt integration into the European
Communityin 1990,incomesdecreased, subsidieswereremovedandconsumersswitchedto
Table5. Apparentconsumption ofleathershoes(pairsper caputperyear).
World
Developing countries
LatinAmerica
Africa
NearEast
Asia and Pacific
Asiancentrallyplanned
Developed countries
NorthAmerica
WestEurope
EastEuropeandUSSR
Source:FAO(FAO,5)
16
Early 1960s
Mid 1980s
0.8
0.2
0.8
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.1
1.9
2.8
1.8
2.0
0.8
0.3
0.8
0.1
0.8
0.3
0.1
2.2
2.7
2.1
2.8
Table 6. Apparentannualconsumptionofwoolandtotalapparel fibres
(mid1980s,kgper caput).
r
World
Developingcountries
LatinAmerica
Africa
NearEast
AsiaandPacific
Asian centrallyplanned
Developed countries
NorthAmerica
WestEurope
EastEuropeandUSSR
ool
Total fibres
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.6
0.0
0.2
1.2
0.8
1.3
1.3
7.1
3.8
5.2
1.3
7.0
2.6
4.9
18.0
26.0
16.2
15.4
Source:FAO(FAO,4)
Table 7. ECImportsfrom thirdcountriesofwoolcarpets in1989(103ECU).
Carpetscomprising <350knots
permetreofwarpknotted
Totalimports
of which from Nepal
China
Morocco
India
Iran
Turkey
Carpetscomprising 300-500knots
Totalimports
ofwhich from Iran
India
Turkey
Afghanistan
China
Pakistan
USSR
Carpetscomprising>500knots
Totalimports
ofwhichfrom Pakistan
India
Iran
China
Turkey
USSR
TotalEC
W.Germany
264
68
54
46
44
15
6
182
54
24
43
33
7
3
397
214
63
45
19
17
14
11
283
156
56
29
16
8
4
8
206
71
56
40
19
9
5
132
33
44
30
16
7
5
Source:Eurostat.
17
westerngoods.Similarly,intheneighbouringcountriesofEastEurope,risingunemployment
andinflation,removalofsubsidiesandgradualliberalizationoftradehavecurbeddemandfor
and output of leather goods and textiles.This decline hasbeen reinforced byareduction of
exports tothe USSR while access to OECD markets has remained restricted. In the USSR,
following a 5percent decline in 1990,theoutput of textiles and footwear decreased by 11
percent eachinthefirst half of 1991, whileimportsof textiles andfootwear anddistribution
throughthestateandcooperativeretailnetworkfellevenmoresharply(EkomomikaiZhizn
No.30,July 1991).Inthesameperiod,productionofleatherfootweardeclinedby24percent
inPoland and 12percentinCzechoslovakia. Outputofwoollenfabrics wasdown23percent
inbothcountries.Hungary'stextileandleatherindustriesbothcontractedby24percentinthe
first halfof1991.
Next to textiles and clothing, carpets and other floor-coverings are probably the most
importantiteminworldwoolusage,especiallyinsofar ascoarsewoolisconcerned.Fluctuationsinpricesofcoarsewoolhavebeensmallerthaninthoseoffinewool.Also,international
tradeincarpets is subject tolessrestrictions than thatin textiles andclothing,with customs
tariffs beinglower.WestEurope isbyfar thechief outletfor carpetsmadeinthedeveloping
countries,notably in Asia andNorth Africa. Annualregistered purchases ofknotted carpets
byECandotherWestEuropeancountrieshaveexceededUS$ 1billioninrecentyears.
Table7showsimportsofthreecategoriesofcarpetsofwoolintotheEuropean Community
andWestGermany,thelargestbuyer(InternationalTradeCentre, 1980and 1981).Duringthe
second half of the 1980s,theofficially recorded valueofWestGermanimports oftheabove
typesofcarpetsroseatanannualrateof3percenttoreachDM 1.1billionin 1990.Thelarger
marketofunitedGermanyislikelytoexperiencefurther growthinthe 1990s.
Outlook
Short-term
Global supplies of hides and skins areunlikely tochangemuch during thenext yearortwo.
InEast Europe and theUSSR cattle and sheep numbers arestill decreasing. Themid-1991
census intheUSSR showed areduction in cattle and sheep (including goats)inventories on
stateandcollectivefarms by4and9percent,respectively,compared withJuly 1990.InWest
Europetheexpansioninsheepnumbersisslowing.Thecattlepopulation,althoughstillmilkoriented, is gradually changing towards increased beef output. Slaughterings of cattle inthe
ECareexpectedtorisesomewhatintheearly 1990s,partlyduetoefforts tocurbexcessmilk
output, but they should decline towards themid-1990s. There will alsobe someincreasein
slaughterings in North America, Oceania and Japan, with theproportion of intensively fed
animals rising further. In the developingregions China intends to expand its population of
ruminantanimalstomakebetteruseofitsvastareasofgrassland,butconsiderableefforts will
benecessary toimprovepastureproductivity. Although overall output of hides and skinsin
developing countries will probably grow only slowly, technological developments such as
morewidespread splittingof hidescouldaddtoleathersuppliesinthisgroupofcountries.
wooloutputisforecast tofall by4percentin 1991/92,following a1 percentdecline
in 1990/91, according totheInternational WoolTextileOrganization. Oceania,East Europe
!/ and theUSSR arelikely toaccount for mostof thereduction, with apossible smallincrease
in WestEurope and China. Australian production in 1991/92is forecast to decrease by 10
percent, with sheepnumbers inearly 1992expected tobe 155million, about20million less
thanin 1990.However,totalsuppliesfromcurrentproductionandstockswillprobablyexceed
theprevious year's levelbysome6percent, andthusremain wellabovetherequirementsof
theworldwooltextilemanufacturing industry.
18
Following a 13percent contraction in 1990,consumption of wool has started torecover in
recent months,arecovery which shouldcontinue into 1992,reflecting thepresent very low
relative price of wool, replenishment of traders' and manufacturers' stocks and somewhat
improved economic conditions in several OECD and developing countries, although the
recessionmaynotyethavebottomedoutintheUSSRandEastEurope.Withglobalsupplies
exceedingdemand,woolpriceswillremainrelativelylowintheshort-term.Infact,theAustralianBureauofAgriculturalandResourceEconomicsexpectsa30percentdecreaseinaverage
woolpricesinAustraliain 1991/92,althoughpricescouldincreaseslowlyoverthe following
fewyears.
Prospectsofdemandforleatheraresimilar.However,FAOexpects(FAO,2)thatdemand
forthedifferent enduseswillnotexpandatthesamerates.Demandforleatherfurniture,using
large quantities per unit produced, could continue to be the pace-setter for leather usage,
althoughthiswouldbelargelyconfinedtohigherqualitycattleleather.Otherfastgrowthareas
areleatherbagsandfashion accessories,whereasmoremoderateexpansionmightbeexpected
forleathershoesandleathergarmentsassomeclothingmarketsegmentsseemtohaveapproached saturation.
Acertainincreaseinpricescouldoccurinthelongerrun,notablyregardinghigherqualities.
Generally,demandfornaturallookingleatherwithfull grainisexpectedtogrow,whereasthat
for low-grade, corrected leathers is likely to decrease. However, price developments in the
shorttermmayvaryconsiderablyforhidesandskinsfromdifferent animals,fordifferent qualities from the sameanimal speciesandfor thedifferent typesof leather derived from them.
Hence,thevolatilityininternationalmarketconditionsandpricesexperiencedmrecentyears
isnotlikelytodisappear (FAO,2).
Longer-term
Looking ahead beyond theearly 1990s,thenumberofpotential consumers will continue to
rise, whereasprospectsforeffective demandaremixed.Worldpopulationisprojectedtoreach
some6.1billion bytheyear2000(asagainst5.2in 1990).Mostoftheincreasewilloccurin
thedevelopingcountries (from 4.0billionin 1990to4.8billionin2000).InEastEuropeand
theUSSR population isprojected tobeabout0.4 billion in 2000,but averageincomes may
continuetodecreasefor sometimetocome.Attheendof thedecadepercaput consumption
of animalproducts such as meat, milk, wool and leather may still belower than in the late
1980s.
Therich countries of OECD areprojected tohave apopulation of 0.9 billion in 2000 (as
against0.8billionin 1990),notassuming massivemigrationfrom theEastand theSouth.In
thisgroupofcountries,demandfortheproductsandby-productsfromruminantanimalsseems
tohave reached, and in some cases passed, saturation point level. While the trend towards
higher quality products is likely to bemaintained, there is a small, butrisingproportion of
consumers whoreject products from slaughtered animals, such asmeat and leather, atrend
whichhasalreadyhadadverseeffects onthefurindustry.Thiscouldstimulatesubstitutionby
synthetics or otherraw materials. In contrast, asregards wool, as M.J. Godfrey (Commonwealth Secretariat, 1991) has pointed out, re-substitution away from man-made fibres as a
resultoflowerwoolprices"couldbereinforcedbythe'green'trendinamoreenvironmentally
conscious society,for woolisecologically sound, beingnotonlynatural butalsorenewable
and biodegradable". Thus, once stocks of exporting countries have been worked down and
prices have recovered, world wool output may witness a new cyclical upswing later in the
currentdecade.
Regarding economicprospectsin thedevelopingregions,thereisgeneral agreement that
incomes will increase further in Asia, although perhaps not atthe samerapid pace asin the
1980s.In theyear2000,Asiawill accountfor overhalf ofglobalpopulation.ForAfrica and
Latin America, theWorldBankand theInternational MonetaryFundforecast arecovery of
19
incomes, following the contraction during the 1980s, whereas the United Nations is rather
sceptical,particularly insofar asAfrica isconcerned.
Economic,employment andincomeprospectswouldimproveinthedevelopingcountries
asaresultofsuccessful conclusionoftheGATT'smultilateralnegotiations(UruguayRound).
BetteraccesstoOECDmarketsforfood,textilesandleathergoods,coupledwiththeremoval
oftradedistortingsubsidiesonWestEuropeanandNorthAmericanagriculturalcommodities
wouldprobably also lead tomorerapid economicrecovery in theformer centrally planned
developed countries. Liberalization would not only enable these two groups of countries to
capitalizeontheircomparativeadvantageintheprocessingofhides,skinsandwoolbutthere
couldalsobesomeshift awayfromWestEuropeandNorthAmericainmilkandmeatproductionforbothdomesticconsumption andexport,addingtolocalsupplies,notablyofhides.The
resultant increase in employment and incomes would probably also stimulate domestic demandforleathergoodsandtextilesinthedevelopingcountries.Atthesametime,liberalization
of tradeinfood, leathergoodsandtextiles andremovalof supporttoagricultural production
in West Europe, North America and Japan would mean lower prices to consumers and a
reducedburdentotaxpayersin theseOECDcountries of thenorthern hemisphere.
However, complete liberalization of trade appears tobeaverydistant goal.In any event,
especiallyinthebeef anddairy sectors,following decadesofdepressedpricesinexportmarkets, it wouldprobably take sometimeuntilproducers andprocessors in low-cost countries
regain confidence and startinvesting again.If theUruguay Roundfails,growth in theworld
livestock andderivedproductseconomywouldpresumably besluggish andthedifference in
incomeandconsumptionlevelsbetweenOECDcountriesanddevelopingcountries,especially
those in Africa and Latin America, might widen further. Excessive cost of support policies
mayeventuallyresultinsomereductionofanimaloutputinWestEuropeandNorthAmerica,
but supply would continue to exceed effective demand, and world markets would remain
distorted. Tocopewiththeenvironmental problems,livestock industries mayconsiderhightech (and probably high-cost) solutions for processing and disposing of manurerather than
loweringoutputofanimalproducts.Manurewouldbeprocessedintodrypelletsandpossibly
marketedoverseas(Doornbos,1991).Suchplans,understandableastheymaybefromamicroeconomic viewpoint, wouldjust addtowhatProfessor H.Priebehascalled"Die subventionierteUnvernunft" — subsidized irrationality (Priebe, 1985).Inordertoutilizeitsexcessive
productionandprocessingcapacities,theWestEuropeanlivestockeconomycurrentlyimports
sizeable amounts of feed and disposes of, in external markets or as livestock feed, sizeable
amountsofmeat,dairyproductsandeggs,athugecosttotaxpayers.Driedmanurecouldthen
become another costly export item of theWest European livestock industry, possibly being
shippedtothesamecountriesfromwhichthefeedcomes.Fromamacro-economicviewpoint,
andin thecontext of optimumresource allocation atthe global level,it wouldof course be
muchmoresensibletoenableconversionoffeedintoanimalproductsdirectlyintheexporting
countrieswherethiswouldaddtoemployment, incomeandforeign exchangeearnings.
Acompromiseregarding agricultural trade,would bethediscontinuation ofexportsubsidies. Referring to the European Community's agricultural policy, the former West German
chancellor, Helmut Schmidt, at atimeofrisingworld petroleum prices,asked the question,
whyIranians,ArabsorVenezuelansshouldgetcheapEuropeancheese,meatandmilkpowder
whenEurope had topay highprices for theiroil.This was arhetoric question. Mr. Schmidt
knew,ofcourse,thatachiefopponenttoanyrationalizationoftheCommonAgriculturalPolicy
was the Minister of Food, Agriculture and Forestry in his own cabinet. In fact, ever since
Bismarckintroducedhiscorndutiesmorethanacenturyago,Germanministersofagriculture
havebeenamongthetoughest,and—fromtheirpointofview—mostsuccessful fighters for
protection in agricultural trade.Nevertheless,thisscenariohasmorerecently been discussed
atsomelength in severalquarters of theEuropean Community andelsewhere,andmightbe
acceptedbytraditionalexportingcountriesasasecondbestsolutioniffullliberalizationproves
unattainable.Forinstance,ProfessorWeinschenckofHohenheimUniversity,inarecentarticle
20
inAgrarwirtschaft (Weinschenck, 1991)hassuggestedacompromisebetweenecologists,who
callforareductionofanimaloutputtosavetheenvironment(Isermann,1990)andproponents
offree trade.Whileexportsubsidieswouldbephasedout,theECwouldmaintainarelatively
restrictiveimportpolicysoastoenableasustainable,moreecologicallyorientedcropandanimal agriculture. At theBerlin International Green WeekFairlastJanuary,Ialso heard from
Germanagriculturalpoliticiansandfarmers'representativesthatbetteruseofthemoneycould
bemadethan spendingiton subsidisation ofexportsanddepressing worldmarketprices.It
remainstobeseenwhetherothermembercountriesoftheEuropeanCommunitywhichdepend
moreonagriculturalexports thanGermanycangoalongwiththis.
InWestEurope,discontinuation of subsidies onagricultural products mightbe accompanied by certain concessions on imports of textiles and foods, which would benefit mainly
neighbouringcountriesinEastEuropeandtheMediterraneanregion,althoughseveralofthese
countriesmayeventuallyjoin theEuropean Communityanyhow.Similarly,underthisscenario, North America, South Africa and Japan might grant greater import concessions to and
enhance economic cooperation with developing countries in Latin America, sub-Saharan
Africa and Asia, respectively. However, this second best solution of a compartmentalized
worldeconomywouldfall far shortoftheexpectationsraisedwhentheUruguayRoundwas
launched atPuntadelEstein 1986.
Tentativeassessmentoftheimpactofprotectionistmeasuresoninternational
trade
Presenttradepolicies
Withthediscontinuation ofpricesupportschemesinmajor exportingcountriesinearly 1991
andtheprogressiveliberalization ofmarketsintheformer centrallyplanneddevelopedcountries,thebulkoftheworld'swoolisnowbeingproducedandtradedunderfree marketconditions.TheUSisoneof thefew developed countries thatcontinues toprovidedirect support
to wool growers. Indirectly, however, the industry benefits from support to sheep meat
production,notablyinWestEurope.Similarly,inWestEurope,NorthAmericaandJapanhides
andskinsariseasby-productsfrom animalskeptbymeatanddairyproducerswhoenjoysubstantialprotection.
,- Although severalmajor developingcountriesrestrictexportsofrawhidesandskins,interJ national tradeinraw hides and skins andwool isrelatively free overall. Incontrast, tradein
! leatherandleathergoodsandwooltextilesremainssubjecttowidespreadprotectionism,notablybyimportingdevelopedcountries.Even so,thedegreeofprotectionism anddistortionof
international trade appears tobeless than for suchproducts as meat and milk, derived from
thesameanimalspecies,wheresevererestrictionofimportsisaccompaniedbymassivesubsidization of exports of several OECD countries in the northern hemisphere. Also, whereas
quantitativerestrictionsnegotiatedundertheMulti-FibreArrangement,forinstance,generally
provideforagrowthfactor, thisisrarelythecasewithmeatanddairyproductsimportquotas.
AccordingtoFAO(FAO,3),theUSchargesatariff ofupto20percentonimportsofshoes,
whiletariffs on leather are between 5and 10percent and nilonraw hides.Nevertheless, as
mentionedearlier,USnetimportsofleatherandleatherproductshaveexperiencedarapidrise
overthepastoneandahalf decades.AsintheUS,tariffs onleatherandleathergoodstendto
increasewiththelevelofprocessing(tariffescalation)inotherdevelopedcountries,sometimes
accompaniedbyariseinnon-tariff barriersalongtheprocessingchain.IntheEuropeanCommunitythetariff onrawhidesisnil,itis7percentonleatherand8percentonshoes.Although
undertheGeneralized SystemofPreferences (GSP)importsof leatherand shoesintotheEC
arefree of tariffs, suchimportant shoeexporters asBrazilandtheRepublicof Koreadonot
21
enjoy thispreference.Japandoesnotchargeatariff onimportsofrawhides,whereasthebulk
ofleatherimports (overandaboveatariff quotaonwhicha20percentdutyislevied)istaxed
at up to 60 percent (which is to bereduced to 40percent over the next five years). In the
developing countries customs tariffs and tariff-like charges on imports are generally higher
than thoseof developed countries. Anumber of developing countries,notably Brazil, grant
subsidies on exports of shoes. Other developing countries tax exports of hides,leather and
leatherproductsandsomeimportanthideproducers,includingIndia,PakistanandArgentina,
havebannedexportsofrawhides altogether.
' "There is a similar tariff escalation in trade in wool and wool textiles, besides a host of
non-tariffbarriers,notablyquantitativerestrictions,onimportsand'voluntary'restraintsimposedbyimportingcountriesonexportingdevelopingcountries.AccordingtotheGATT'slatest
annualreport (GATT, 1991),the product group with the highest number of discriminatory
export restraints in 1990 was agricultural products, with textiles and clothing close behind.
Thefactthatthelattergrouphadthesecondlargestnumberofrestraintsacquiredaddedsignificance whenitwasrecalled thatthefigures didnotincluderestraints specifically negotiated
undertheMulti-FibreArrangement(MFA).
Amongthethreebigeconomicpowers,Japan,USandEC,Japandoesnotrestrictimports
of textiles and clothing under theMFAbut, aspointed out byGATT(1991),ithasrecently
askedcertaindevelopingcountriestorestraintheirtextilesandclothingexportstotheJapanese
market, while maintainingrelatively high tariffs for theseproducts. In theUS,according to
theOverseasDevelopment Council (ODCPolicyFocus, 1991,No.4)thetextileandapparel
industries^are.among4he_most-protectedmanufacturing sectors. Tariffs on woollen clothing
range from 17 to 21 percent. In addition, there is acomplex system of quota arrangements
with specific countriesundertheMFAaswellasregional arrangements for off-shore manufacture of US apparel in Caribbean countries and Mexico.According to ABARE (ABARE
Quarterly,March 1991),morethan80percentofUSimportsoftextilesandapparelisrestricted
byquotaarrangements undertheMFA.Nevertheless,asstatedintheaboveODCreport,US
importsoftextiles and apparelrosethreefold duringthe 1980s.
In theEuropean Community tariffs arelower than in theUS and Japan, but asin theUS
thereisalargenumberofquantitativerestrictionsonimportsfrom developingandEastEuropeancountries.
AsthelatestGATTreportmentions,membersoftheMFAaccountformostoftheworld's
exportsandimportsoftextilesandclothing.Textileexportsfrom themembersoftheMFAto
alldestinations amounted toan estimated US$ 125billion in 1989,accounting forjust over
80 percent of world textile exports (excluding EC intra-trade). The restrictions negotiated
undertheMFAapplytoalargepartoftheexportsofdeveloping andstate-tradingparticipants
to developed countries. The MFAJias^beenj^g^üatingjntemationjd tradeJn_texiiles_and
çtatfmgjrincejjï^ljt wasextendedforthethirdtimeinJuly 1986foraperiodoffiveyears.
Thecurrentarrangement (MFAIV)hasnowbeenextended untiltheendof 1992.According
to ABARE, while the MFAwas intended to be a temporary measure to allow older textile
industriesindevelopedcountriestimetoadjusttocompetitionfromlowcostforeignsuppliers,
subsequent negotiations haveresulted in an increase in itsrestrictiveness and anincrease in
thecoverageoffibre types.AlthoughesjablishedunderGATT,theMFAisinconsistentwith
the-basicrules;ofGATT,especiallythegeneralprohibition onquantitativerestrictions,inthat
itpermitsrestriction ofin^rt^ftamtiwèl^mg andEastEuropeancounrnesoha^sd
bjlajteran^ajos. Hence, the Uruguay Round negotiating goàlïor textiles and apparel is the
re-integration ofthesectorintotheGATT,asdistinctfromtheMFA.Itwashopedthatalltextileandapparelimportquotaswouldbephasedoutduringatransitionperiod.
22
Costofprotectionismandpossiblebenefitsresultingfromliberalization
AnumberofstudieshavebeencarriedoutbyFAO,orforFAO,todiscusstheeffectsofprotectionistmeasuresontradeinhides,skinsandleather(FAO,3);meat,withparticular reference
tobeef (Tangermann andKrostitz,1982);anddairyproducts(Krostitz, 1986).Thefirststudy
concluded that, after full liberalization, trade in hides and skins and their derived products
would expand significantly, with someincreasein worldmarket prices and export earnings
accruingtothedevelopingcountriesasagroup.Inthebeefanddairysectorswherethedegree
ofprotectionishigher,therecoveryofworldmarketpricesduetoliberalization andremoval
of supporttoproduction,notablyinWestEurope,NorthAmericaandJapan,wouldbemore
pronounced. Atthe sametime,therewouldbeacertain shift inbeef andmilkproduction to
lowcostproducingcountriesinOceaniaandthedevelopingregions.Intheseregions,export
earnings and incomes from increased employment in farming and processing would grow
whiletheburdenonconsumersandtaxpayersinWestEurope,NorthAmericaandJapanwould
decrease.
Theeffects ofprotectionistmeasuresontradeintextileshavebeen studiedforinstanceby
theWorldBank,theOverseasDevelopment Council andABARE.Thelatter twostudiesare
mainly concerned with protection of the US textile and apparel industries. Removing the
quotasandtariffsthatprotecttextileindustriesinOECDcountrieswouldproduce substantial
welfare gains for the countries while considerably raising export earnings of developing
countries.TheWorldBank(WorldDevelopmentReport, 1990)estimatesthat,iftradeintextiles and clothing were fully liberalized, developing countries whose export earnings from
theseproductsamounttoaboutUS$30billion,wouldrealizeanextrabenefitofUS$11billion.
Atthesametime,employmentbytextilesandclothingindustriesindevelopingcountriesmight
riseby20to45percent.
Restrictions by OECD countries on imports from developing countries andEast Europe
have,tosomeextent, alsofurthered tradeintextiles amongOECDcountries.Infact, among
thefiveleadingexportersthereareonlytwodevelopingcountries.Inthelate1980stheworld's
largest exporters of textiles were West Germany (which was also the largest importer) and
Italy,followed byChina,HongKongandJapan.Tooffset theirhighlabourcosts(in 1990,the
total costper operator hourwas betweenUS$ 15and20in Japan,North America andWest
Europe,morethanfivetimesthelevelinHongKong,TaiwanandSouthKoreaandtento fifteentimesasmuchasinSouthandSouthEastAsia),OECDcountrieshavebeenrapidlyrationalizing local textile industries, turning spinning and weaving into highly capital-intensive
activities ("WorldTextile",FinancialTimes,3October 1991).
Acomprehensive look attheimpact of protectionist measures inthelivestock sectorand
suchderivedproductsasleatherandwooltextiles suggeststhatliberalization wouldnotonly
enabledevelopingcountriestocapitalizeontheircomparativeadvantageintheprocessingof
hides,skinsandwool,buttherecouldalsobesomeshifttowardsdevelopingcountriesinmilk
andmeatproduction, addingtolocalsuppliesof hidesinparticular.Theresultantincreasein
employment and incomes would probably also stimulate domestic demand for animalproducts, betheyforfood orfootwear andclothing,from theircurrently verylowlevels.Atthe
sametime,consumersandtaxpayersindevelopedcountrieswouldrealizesubstantialbenefits.
References
ABARE(AustralianBureauofAgriculturalandResourceEconomics), Canberra. Agriculture
andResourcesQuarterly,variousissues.
Boyazoglu,F. &Flamant,J.C.,1990.Mediterranean systemsofanimalproduction,reprinted
from: TheWorldofPastoralism,NewYork.
CommonwealthSecretariat,London. WoolQuarterly,variousissues.
23
CommonwealthSecretariat,International WoolTextile OrganizationandInternationalWool
StudyGroup,London,1991. WoolStatistics, 1990-91,Paper submittedbyM.J. Godfrey
tothe60thInternationalWoolConference, Lisbon.
La Concerta,Milan,variousissues.
Doornbos,WJ.,1991.Marketandenvironment-specificlivestockproduction.Paperpresented
toInternationales ForumAgrarpolitik attheGreenWeek,Berlin.
Ekonomikaizhizn,Moscow, variousissues.
Eurostat,Brussels/Luxembourg. ExternalTradeoftheEC,variousissues.
EuropeanAssociation/orAnimalProduction(EAAP),1982.LivestockProductioninEurope,
Perspectives andProspects,Amsterdam.
FAO (1),Rome.Production andTradeYearbooks,Rome,variousissues.
FAO(2),Rome,1991.Factorsgoverningtheinternationalhidesandskinsandderivedproducts
markets,current status and outlook. Rome,Paperprepared for anECDC workshop,held
inBulawayo,Zimbabwe.
RAO (3),Rome. Impactof protectionist measures affecting imports and exports of hidesand
skins andtheirderivedproducts.Paperpreparedfor aboveECDCworkshop.
RAO (4),Rome, 1989. Worldapparelfibre consumption survey
FAO(5).Rome, 1986-1987.World statistical compendium for raw hides and skins, leather
andleather footwear.
FAO (6),Rome.Commodity ReviewandOutlook.Variousissues.
RAO (7),Rome, 1991.Worldmeat situationandoutlook.
FinancialTimes,London,variousissues.
GATT. GATTActivities 1990,Geneva.
InternationalTradeCentre, Geneva(l),1981. MajorMarketsandSuppliersforHand-knotted
Carpets,
InternationalTrade Centre, Geneva (2),1980.Hand-knottedcarpetsin theFederalRepublic
of German.
Isermann,K., 1990.Die Stickstoff- und Phosphor-Einträge in die Oberflächengewässer der
BRD.PaperpresentedtomeetingofAkademiefürTiergesundheit,Wiesbaden.
Krostitz,W.,1991.Potentialneedsandfuturemarketsforlivestockproductsinthenew,broader
European context, andexportopportunities.Paperpresented toanEAAPRoundTableon
thelivestockproduction sectorinEasternEurope,Budapest.
Krostitz,W.,1986.Trendsinworldtradeindairyproductsandfutureprospects.Paperpresented
totheXXn International Dairy Congress,TheHague.
Laniera(organo ufficialedell'associazione dell'industria laniera italiana),1991.Milan.
OverseasDevelopment Council,Washington, 1991.Global Textile and Apparel Trade:A
policyunraveled.PolicyFocus,No.4.
Priebe,H.,1985 Die subventionierteUnvernunft, Siedler-Verlag,Berlin.
Tangermann, S. &Krostitz,W.,1982.Protectionism in the livestock sector with particular
reference totheinternational beefmarket,Göttingen,Germany.
TheEconomist,London,variousissues.
USDepartment of Agriculture,Washington, 1991.World Agriculture Current Trends and
Perspectives,Woolmarketsindisarray,Issue63.
USLeatherIndustriesStatistics. LeatherIndustriesofAmerica,Washington,variousissues.
Weinschenck, G., 1991. Ökologische Chance durch Scheitern der GATT-Verhandlungen?,
Agrarwirtschaft, VerlagA.Strothe, Frankfurt/Main.
WorldBank,Washington., 1990. WorldDevelopmentReport 1990,pp.121-125.
24
SheepproductioninTurkey
E.Pekel*,B.C.Yalçin**, O. Güney*, O.Biçer*andO. Torun*
* DepartmentofAnimalScience, Çukurova University,FacultyofAgriculture, 01330,
Adana-Turkey
** UniversityofIstanbul,FacultyofVeterinaryScience,Avcilar,Istanbul, Turkey
Summary
Turkeyisamongthemajor sheepraisingcountriesoftheworldwithasheeppopulationof45
millionheadsin1988.Ofthesheeppopulation,97%belongtonativebreedsandtheremaining
3% are Merino and Merino crosses. Among the sheep breeds, White Karaman is the most
numerousbreed(43.2%)followedbyRedKaraman(22.4%),Dagliç(12.3%),Kivicik(7.7%)
andAwassi (2.3%).Karakul, ChiosandImrozhavesmallpopulations.
The sheeppopulation of Turkey have been decreased by 12%in the last 5years.Oneof
themajor reason of thedecrementis thechanges which arerecently occured in economical
andsocialstructuresofthefarmers whoareinvolvedinsheepindustryaswellasthechanges
inthewholeTurkisheconomical structure.Infactitwasmoredesirablethatthedecrementin
thesheeppopulationwouldappearasaresultofshiftinthesheepraisingsystemsfromextensivetotheintensive system.
/
Mutton is the primary product of sheep in Turkey.Although it forms some44% of total
red-meatproductionofthecountry,carcassweightpercapitaisstillverylowas8kg/headfor
lamb and 16kg/headfor adults.Milk is still considered as a secondary product of sheepin
Turkey anditconsists of 22.4%of thetotalmilkproduction. Regarding thewoolproduction
ofTurkey,nativesheepbreedshavelowgeneticpotentialintermsofwoolqualityandquantity.
Although woolproduction follows theothertwo,sheepbreeding strategy inearlyfifties was
intensified onimproving thewoolproduction of sheep.On theotherhand, sheepindustryis
oneof themostnumerous sectorprovidingrawmaterialfor theleatherindustryinTurkey.
Sincetheimprovement strategieshavetobebasedonnaturalconditions of thecountry,it
is strongly suggested that toimport and adaptnew technologies intoTurkish sheep industry
is stillnecessary.
Introduction
There is awide spectrum of regions in terms of topography and climatein Turkey.In some
regions,wheresubtropicclimateisdominant,intensivehorticultureisgenerallypractisedand
in otherparts where arid and semi-arid climate isdominant there isonly vast native grazing
landsandsteppes.Totalannualprecipitationvariesfrom 300mminsteppeareasto2000mm
inveryproductiveregions.
In this natural topographic and climatic conditions, sheep breeding has been playing an
important role in Turkish agricultural system for centuries and Turkey is always one of the
leading country in sheepproduction in theworld. Becauseof thecurrent demand for sheep
products andrelatively highpricespaidfor these commodities, sheeppopulation showedan
increasing trendinnumber withregardtootherlivestock.Thevastpermanent grazinglands
and dry steppeareasandpoor nutritivevalueprovided bythese lands aretheother affecting
factors of the increment in number of sheep.Thisincreasing trend hasbeen continued until
recentyearsalthoughimprovedirrigationsystemsandmechanizationareappliedinintensified
agriculture.
25
Table 1.Compositionofsheeppopulationinrelation to breeds.
Breed
Fat-tailed
WhiteKaraman
RedKaraman
Dagliç
Awassi
Thin-tailed
Kivircik
Turkish Merinos
Karayaka
Imroz
Others
Chios
Local crossbreds
Number
(106)
Proportion
(%)
23.2
9.0
7.4
1.1
47.6
18.5
15.2
2.2
3.8
1.4
1.2
0.07
7.8
2.9
2.4
0.14
0.01
1.6
0.05
3.2
Table2. Meanvaluesofproductiondatafor Turkish native sheepbreeds.
Breed
WhiteKaraman
RedKaraman
Dagliç
Kivircik
Karayaka
Merinotypes
Awassi
Chios
Imroz
Liveweight
(kg)
Milk yield
(kg)
Greasyfleece
weight(kg)
40-45
40-45
35-40
40-42
38-40
50-55
40-50
40-45
35-40
50-55
55-60
40-50
70-90
40-45
55-60
100-155
120-180
70-100
1.5-2.0
1.2-1.5
1.8-2.0
1.3-1.7
2.0-2.5
3.0-3.7
1.8-2.2
1.6-2.0
1.6-2.0
Asitisseeninsomecountriesintheworld,mutton andespecially lambmeatispreferred by
theconsumerandreceivesahighpriceinTurkey.Besidesthereisabigdemandforsheepmilk
products such ascheeseandyoghurtinthecountry.Ontheotherhand,woolisanimportant
rawmaterialforTurkishcarpetandkilimindustries.Itisalsopartlyusedinwoolen material
manufacturing. Therefore itcanbesaidthatsheephusbandry willmaintainitsimportancein
the foreseen future where scanty rainfall, poor rangelands and insufficient winter feeding
occurs.
Thesheeppopulationin 1983was48.7million.The numberofanimalofdifferent breeds
andtheirproportioninthepopulation aregiveninTable1 (Yalçin,1985).Thecontributionof
sheepmeatandmilktototalredmeatandmilkoutputofthecountryis32and22%,respectively.Moreoveranimportantamountofsheepexportation (liveandcarcass)totheneighbor
countries wasrealizedinthelastdecadewhich makes animportant shareinthetotalanimal
productsexportation.Sheepisalsothemajorrawmaterialsourceofleatherandcarpetindustry
which areimportantexportcommodities.Sheephusbandrymakesanimportantcontribution
26
intotheTurkish economy byusingthevegetation onnoncultivated, unproductive lands,and
thevegetationofinand/ornearforest areas.
Theagriculturalproductionprojectionscovering 1968-2000yearspublishedin 1969. The
sheeppopulationin 1968was32.654million headwhichwasmadeupof 16.3millionewes,
0.64millionrams, 15.714million yearlings andlambsandthenumberof sheepestimatedto
bethe samein the year2000.According to thisprojection, milk yield, number of sheep for
slaughterandfattening, meancarcassweightfor ewes,rams,lambsandyearlingswereestimatedtobe733.000tons, 11.99and7.0million heads,30,40and20kgrespectively. Itwas
alsoforeseen that thecontribution of sheepmeattototalredmeatproduction wouldbe25%
(Anonymous, 1969).
ThesheepbreedsinTurkey,theirdistributionand characteristics
Accordingto1983statistics,Turkeyisplacedinthefirst 10amongthesheepraisingcountries
oftheworldwithapopulationof48.7millionheadofsheep.ThishighlevelofsheeppopulationisanaturalresultofanimalproductionsystemappliedinTurkey.Because,animalproductionismainly basedongrazingonnaturalpasturewhichismorethan 80%oftheselandsare
typical sheep grazing lands covered withpoor and shortvegetation. Therefore sheepraising
isfree from thecompetition ofeitherotherlivestock orofhorticulture (Diizgiines, 1968).
Howevertheconditionsarechanginginopposition tothesheepindustry.Infact asaresult
ofunplannedandovergrazing,averybigproportionofthesheepgrazinglandsbecomeunproductive. Sofar as there is notlegislative measurements taken in order toprevent and touse
these lands in amore effective system. Theforeseen number of sheepof 32million headin
theyear2000is a striking indication of this statement.Theproduction performance ofindigenousbreedswhicharesuitablefortheextensiveproduction wouldnotbeeconomicalinthe
future,replacementoftraditionalsystembyintensiveandsemi-intensivesystemwouldbeexpected.Thesechangeswouldnotexpectedtoberealizingatthesametimewiththesamerate
in different regions of Turkey. But distribution and rate of changes and targets that sheep
production willbedirectedin arefeasible (Diizgiines, 1968).
Fat-tailednativesheepbreedsaredominantintheinlandregionsofthecountrywhichhas
aridclimaticconditions.Of thesebreeds,WhiteKaraman isdistributed inCentralandpartly
Eastern Anatolia, Red Karaman is distributed in Eastern Anatolia regions. Dagliç breed is
mainlyraisedaroundtheCentral-WestprovincesofTurkeyandAwassiisintheSouth-Eastern
provinces.Of thethin-tailed breeds Kivircik iskept inMarmara and Egeregions, Karayaka
isthedominantbreedintheBlackSearegionandImrozisraisedaroundÇanakkaleprovince.
As it is noticed, thin-tailed breeds aremainly distributed the coastal regions of the country.
Pure and crossbred Merinos are localized in South Marmara and Central Anatolia and
semi-fat-tailed ChiosiskeptinEgeandpartly ofcoastalMarmararegions (Yalçin,1978).
Meanvaluesofdatarelatedtotheproductionperformance ofsomenativesheepbreedsare
given in Table 2. As it is seen in the Table, live weight, lactation milk yield (exc. the milk
sucked)andfleeceweightofWhiteKaraman,RedKaramanandDagliçbreedswhichrepresent
80%ofthesheeppopulation,are35-45,60and1.5-2.0kg,respectively.Theyproducecoarse
carpettypewoolaswiththeothernativebreeds.Ingeneral,theyarelowproducingbreedsin
termsof meat,milk andwoolproduction.Ontheotherhand,Kivircik,ymrozandespecially
AwassiandChioshavebeennotedwiththeirhighmilkproduction.Theaveragemilkyieldis
120-180kg/year anditcan beincreased up to210kg under good management and feeding
conditions.
Tobesomeindividual recordanimalsinthesebreeds havingmilk yieldof morethan 300
kg/yearcanbeconsideredastheevidenceofpossibleimprovementlevelofaveragemilkyield
inChiosandAwassisheepbyselection.
27
Whiletheaveragelittersizefornativebreedsis85-90%,itcanbeashighas230%for Chios
breed.Withitslambingperformance,Chioshasanoutstandingpositionintheworld.Themilk
yield for the thin tailed Kivircik and Imroz sheep are reported to be 70-100 kg/year. But
Kivircik is noted with its potential for milk fed lambproduction and carcass quality among
thenativebreeds.TheMerinocrossesbredinTurkeyaredistinguishedwiththeirmaturelive
weight,fleece weightandqualitywithregardtonativebreeds.
Improvement directioninsheephusbandry
Sincethefoundation of theRepublic of Turkey,severalresearch studies related toimprovementofgenotypeofnativebreedsandtheexistingenvironmentalconditionshavebeencarried
outandtheresultsobtainedhavebeenextendedtothefarmers asmuchaspossible.However
the progress gained in sheep breeding up to day can not be considered satisfactory. The
necessity of changes in the present extensive sheep husbandry system will be firstly in the
areaswheretheconditions for economicaldairycattleproduction areavailable.Itseemsthat
thedefined regionswillbetheMarmara andEgewhereclosetothehighconsumerpotential
andgenerallyintensiveandsemi-intensiveagriculturalsystemsapplied.Eventhesenecessary
changes can be expected in the East and North-East Anatolian regions where appropriate
conditions are available for cattle production although they are far from mass consumer
centers.But shifting thedirectioninsheepbreedingwouldbeexpectedtobeslowerandwith
alowerrateindry andstepperegionsof thecountry.Thisratemightgearupwith theStates
policyappliedrelated tosheephusbandry intheseregions (Düzgünes, 1968).
ImprovingstudiesofnativesheepbreedsinTurkey
Theveryearly andthemostimportantimprovingworkforTurkishsheepbreedsisMerinolizing.Although some attempts were madeaiming atMerinolizing thelocal breeds bymeans
of crossbreeding before the Republic, the basic works were realized afterwards. With this
objectives,thefirst Merinosheepwereimportedin 1934accordingtoacrossbreeding project
to apply in Bursa, Balikesir and Çanakkaleprovinces which isprepared byW.Spöttel,who
wasthentheProfessor ofAnimalHusbandryattheAdvancedAgricultureInstituteinAnkara,
Turkey.Theobjectivesweretoimproveasheeptypewhichproducingfleecewithhighquality
andquantity,havebetterfatteningperformance andmoderatemilkyieldandalsoisadaptable
tothenaturalandproductionconditionsoftheregion.Becauseofnottobeabletoachievethe
objectives in thementioned region,theproject wasremoved tothe Central Anatolia by the
MinistryofAgriculture.TheWhiteKaramanewesattheStateFarmsinCentralAnatoliawere
inseminated with Merino semen by means of A.I.in 1952 and in consecutive years,crossbreeding isexpanded tothevillageflocks level (Düzgüneset.al. 1960).
As aresult of the big size of Fl generations and thehigher income that farmer obtained
from crossbreds wool which is subsidized bytheState,farmers' interesttotheMerinolizing
worksincreased. ConsequentlytheprojectisextendedtotheEastAnatolianregion aswellin
order to improve Red Karaman sheep by crossing with Merino.However the high level of
Merinogenotypecoupledwithunfavorableproductionconditions,adecrementin prolificacy
andgrowthperformance incrossbredanimalswereobserved.Inadditiontothisbylifting the
subsidy of State on the Merino crossbred wool, the Merino population is kept rather small
within this limited breeding area of threeregions and thepresent population of 3% in total
sheeppopulation ismadeup.
Until recently the breeding studies of native sheep breeds by crossbreeding are realized
betweenKivircikandWhiteKaramanwithmutton-woolMerinos.Besidesthedifferent ecologicalconditions andcharacteristicsofnaivebreeds,thechangingtrendinthemarketrequire28
mentsmust betaken into account. Itispointed outthat thereis aneed in using someexotic
breedsknown with their growthperformance, carcassquality,prolificacy andmilk yield for
improvement studiesof nativebreeds.Fromthispointofview,since 1968Turkish Scientific
and Technical Research Council have been supporting steering some number of research
projectsentitled"ImprovingtheTurkishSheepBreedsbyCrossbreeding"coveringTexel,East
Friesian,Ile-de-France,RambouilletandMutton merinobreeds (Yalçin,1978).
Oneoftheseresearchprojects isrelatedtoimprovingDagliçsheepwhichisthedominant
breedinCentralandWestAnatolianprovinces.Withthisaim,Ile-de-FranceandRambouillet
sheep were used as the breeding stock. The other research project is on the improving
possibilities of milk production and prolificacy in Kivircik sheep which is kept mainly in
WesternAnatolia andThraceregions,bycrossbreeding withEastFriesian andTexelbreeds.
It is reported that satisfactory results obtained from most of these research projects.
Therefore improvement can be achieved in theproductivity of Turkish sheep husbandry by
transferring theresultsintopractise.WiththeenlightenoftheseresearchworkssomeEnglish
meattypebreedswereimportedin 1987inacountrywisesheepproject anddistributedtothe
StateFarms and willing farmers indifferent regions.Butfor thetime beingnow,there isno
records and any information about the performance and future of these breeding stocks at
farmers level. Itis believed that there is an urgent need tofind out therequired information
andtoanalyzetheminordertoevaluatetheproject.
The research works on improvement of native sheep breeds by selection were mainly
focusedonAwassisheepwhichisthedominantbreedintheSouthAnatolianRegionofTurkey.
Milk is the primary product followed bymeatproduction in Awassi sheep (Spnmez, 1973).
Ceylanpinar Agriculture Enterprise has an important role onimprovement of Awassi flocks
aroundtheregionwiththepureAwassiflockof70000headandthemaleandfemalebreeding
stocksdistributedfrom thiscentermakes abigcontribution tothis improvement.
A group of Awassi rams were imported from Israel within a project conducted at the
CeylanpinarAgricultureEnterprisewithFAOfounds,inordertocomparetheperformanceof
different characteristicsoflocalandIsraeloriginramsunderCeylanpinarconditions.Theobjectivesofthisproject aretofind outtheusingpossibilitiesofIsraeloriginramsforimprovement studiesofAwassisheepintheregion.
Newapproachesfor sheephusbandryinTurkey
MarmaraandEgeregionsgenerallypossessfavorablemanagementandnutritionfacilitiesand
climatic conditions for intensive and semi-intensive sheepraising especially highquality fat
lambproduction.
Thereisaneedforresearchesondevelopingthesheepbreedingonthistarget.Inparticular
possibilities on improving prolific, high milk producing and unseasonal sheep genotypes
which can beused asdam-linein fat lambproduction practices must be studied. Toachieve
this,two-way and three-way crossbreeding must beapplied between Kivircik ewes andFin,
Romanov andChios breeds.Thencomparative studies aimingtodetermine the reproductive
performance, milk yield,length of breeding season andnursing ability of crossbred females
obtainedmustberealized.Withthesameobjectives,touseIle-de-France,GermanandEnglish
muttonbreedscanbeconsidered.Thusbyusingtheobtainedsireanddamlines,anindustrialized fat lamb production system which produce more lamb with high growth performance
andcarcass quality willbedeveloped.
Theexpected situationinsheepproduction inCentralandEastern Anatolianregionsdoes
not seem favorable for intensive sheep meat production in the near future. In somepart of
these regions, where conditions are suitable improving the present performance of native
breedsbyusingmutton-woolsheepbreedsmustbeconsidered. Butthelevelofexoticbreed
29
genotype must bekept at 50-75% in crossbred animals.This statement is alsoright for the
MerinocrossbredpopulationraisedinCentralAnatoliaatpresent.
Itisproved thatRambouillet xAkkaraman crossbred genotypescan besuccessfully used
asmutton-wooltypebreeding stockinthisregion.Moreoverworkingonpossibilitiesofmaking useofAmerican Rambouillet,Targheeand Colombiabreedsin gradinguptheRedand
WhiteKaraman sheepinEasternAnatoliaseemstobeanimportantissueinthe future.
Whileplanningthesedevelopmentworksfor thefuture, rawmaterial sourcesfor Turkish
woolen textileindustry andfor traditionalcarpetsectormustnotbeignored.Hencewemust
consider the necessity of required coarse wool production for theseindustries in someparts
ofthecountry.
References
Anonymous,1969. Theprojection inagriculturalproduction ofTurkey(1968-2000).Turkish
MinistryofAgriculture,Ankara,Turkey.
Düzgünes,O.,I.YarkinandR. So'nmez, 1960.Astudyonthevariationincolorinthefat-tailed
WhiteKaraman sheep,Merino-Fleisch-schafe and theircrosses.Zeitschrift fur TierzuchtungundZuchtungsBiologie,74(l):36-47.
Düzgünes,O., 1968.Developments in sheepproduction inTurkey andin the world (Diinya
veTürkiyekoyuculugunda gelisme yönleri).Univ.of Ankara, AgriculturalFaculty Yearbook,Volume,3-A, Ankara.
Sönmez,R., 1973.StudiesondevelopingthesheepproductionofTurkey (Türkiyekoyuculugunugelistirmeveislahiçalismalari).IV.Science Congress,8-9 Nov. 1973,Ankara.
Yalçin,B.C., 1978. Research and development works in the sheep breeding in Turkey
(Tiirkiye'de koyun islahi alanindaki arastirma ve gelistirme çalismalari). Proc. of VI.
Science Congress,Turkish Scientific andTechnical Research CouncilPublications,747755,Ankara.
Yalçin,B.C.,1985.Sheepproduction anditsproblemsinTurkey (Tiirkiye'dekoyunyetistiriciligi veproblemleri).J.ofVet. Fac.Univ.ofIstanbul, 11(2)87-97.
30
Session 1
Hides,skinsandleatherproduction
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
L
M.VailsOrtiz
E.Pekel
Anisotropy ofphysical characteristicfunctions ofsheep leather
M.Eskolin,M.Marjoniemi, E. Mäntysalo
Tampere UniversityofTechnology,LaboratoryofFurandLeatherTechnology,
P.O.Box527,SF-33101 Tampere, Finland
Summary
Thepropertiesofleatherarefunctions ofthepositioncoordinates andtheorientation angleof
samples. Asampling system was used in which either the orientation angleor the position
coordinates,orboth,werechanged.ThebackbonelinewaschosenastheYaxis.Thesmallest
samplesizewasselected.Resultsofthephysicalcharacteristicsobtainedfrom thetensileand
elongation experiments aregivenfor threeAustralian sheepleathers andthreeFinnish sheep
leathers. Australian sheep leathers formed group 1and Finnish sheep leathers group 2.AH
sheepleathershadbeennormallythinnedinthedressingprocess.Thatmayaffect thesample
thickness (THB) and the breakingload (BRL)for the sheep leathers studied. Asregards the
tensile strength, sheep leather is much stronger in the longitudinal direction than in the
transverse direction. The skins were chrome-tanned. The properties of any given leather
dependpartly ontheproperties of theraw skin andpartly ontheprocesses of manufacture.
Properties ofraw skins areof great importance in ascientifically controlled tanningprocess
andinallattemptstomeasureandevaluatequalityinleather.Two-dimensionalpicturesofthe
physical characteristics show variations asafunction of the transversecoordinate Xandthe
longitudinalcoordinateYovertheentireareaoftheleather.Thedifferences intheelongation
at break between belly, neck and rump arenot statistically very significant, which suggests
that there donotexist bigdifferences in thecollagen fibre structure of sheepleather atthese
sites. Typically, when the elongation at break gets higher values, the values for the tensile
strength are then lower. Theresults for the tensile strength of sheep leather aredifferent in
naturefrom Wilson'sclassicalresultsfor thetensilestrengthoftypicalcalfskins.
Keywords:sheepleather,physicalcharacteristics,samplethickness,breakingload,elongation
atbreak, tensiletrength.
Introduction
There have been many investigations on thephysical properties of sheep skins, also in the
leatherstate.Anytuggingappliedtothewool,especiallyintheweakerzones,issuretoproduce
grain cracks aspointedoutbyGratacos et al. (1991).According tothis studyitisclearthat
theflanks ofsheepskinshavealowertensilestrengththanthecentralpartsoftheskin.Sheep
skinsareverysensitivetoanystrongextensioninthehead-taildirectionifthestretchingpasses
theabdominalregions.Changesinthecollagenfibretissueoftheadjacent skinarecausedby
directional changes in theexternal musclefibres of theanimal's body and bychanges inthe
hairfollicles. Strength variations anddirectional variations in the skin's physical resistance
arepresented.Ithasbeenfound,particularly,thatthepercentageofshrinkmaybeconsiderably
affected bytheposition ofthesampleandtheorientation angle.Obviouslydirectionmustbe
takenintoaccountinmeasuringsuchpropertiesasthetensile strength,thebreakingload,etc.
(Conabere,1944).
Measurements of thephysical properties of leatherof the same species,withreference to
their position relative tothe backbone line,produce different results, as noticed earlierwith
blue-fox and mink leathers. Sample size has agreat effect on thephysical characteristics in
the tensile and the elongation experiments, which show a nonlinear behaviour as regards
33
-300 -270 -240 -2(0 -180 -I50 -120 -90 -60 -3D
ü
3D
EO
90
121 150 180 210 240 270
TBANSV. COORDINATE X (mm)
Figure1. Samplethickness (THB) asfunction oftransverse coordinateXforchrome-tanned
Australian(1)andFinnish(2)sheepleather.ALPHA= 0'and Y= 400mm.
samplesize(Mäntysaloetal.,1989and1990).Alsoanatomicalvariationsinthecollagenfibres
producedirectionalvariations aswellasvariationsinthephysicalcharacteristics of theskin.
All testing measurements were done using a fully computerized physical testing system
developedintheLaboratoryofFurandLeatherTechnology(LFLT)atTampereUniversityof
Technology (TUT).Thissysyternenablesallthedatatobestoredandprocessedautomatically.
Breaking and elongation tests were carried out in accordance with SLP.6 (or IUP/6). The
pulling rate was 100 mm/min and the sample width 5 mm. All measurements made using
digital equipment had an accuracy of0.1percent, which is goodconsideringthe variability
of the functions determined in this work. Ablunt-pointed measuring head was used with a
diameter of 1 mm,eliminating theneed toremovethehairinmeasuring thethickness ofthe
samples.
Resultsand discussion
The characteristics of fur leather used in this work were the breaking load (BRL), the percentageelongationatbreak(PEB),thesamplethickness(THB)andthetensilestrength(TEN).
The total number of samples was 2700.Thephysical characteristics of different leathers
werestudiedandcomparedusingananalysisofvariance.Themedianwasusedasastatistical
measure.Themedianismoresatisfactory thanthemeanwhenthereisarather smallnumber
ofsamplesandnonormalityassumptions.Strengthvariationsanddirectionalvariationsinthe
skin'sphysicalresistance arepresented.
Samplethickness(THB)
InFigure 1 THBispresented asafunction of thetransversecoordinateX.Thesolidlinecorrespondstothechrome-tanned AustralianandtheshadowedlinetotheFinnish sheepleather.
OveralltheAustraliansheepleatherhashighersamplethicknessvaluesthantheFinnishsheep
34
-SED - 3 3 1 -3O0 -270
1-210 - I A O - 1 5 0 - 1 2 0 -30
-SO - 3 0
0
30
SO
30
12D 150 18
210 210 270 30G 330
360
TKANSV. COORDINATE X (mm)
Figure2. Breakingload (BRL)asjunction of transverse coordinate Xfor chrome-tanned
Australian(1) andFinnish(2) sheepleather.ALPHA= 0°and Y= 400mm.
leather. We shouldremember that sample thickness affects the breaking load as well asthe
fibre structureofcollagen andthechangesinthedirection ofthehair follicles.
Breakingload(BRL)
BRLisplotted asafunction of thetransversecoordinateXinFigure2.Withtheorientation
angleALPHA=0thevaluesoftheBRLaresignificantlyhigherfortheAustraliansheepleather
thanfortheFinnishsheepleather.IntheseteststheAustraliansheepleathersseemtobestrongerthan theFinnishsheepleathers.BRLhasitsmaximumvaluesalongthebackbonelineresultingfrom the fibre structureof collagen, asexpected.Breaking loadvary asymmetrically
likeotherphysicalcharacteristics aroundthebackboneline.
Elongationatbreak(PEB)
In Figure 3PEB is shown as a function of the transverse coordinate X with the orientation
angleALPHA=0.ThevaluesofPEBarehigherfortheAustralian sheepleatherthanforthe
Finnish sheep leather. The values ofPEB have theirminimum on the backbone line,which
correlateswiththeformer studies doneintheLFLTandwastobeexpected.
Tensilestrength(TEN)
TENisshowninFigure4asafunction ofthetransversecoordinateX.TENvaluesarehigher
fortheAustralian sheepleatherthanfortheFinnish sheepleatherwiththesampleorientation
angle ALPHA=0and thevalueofY=400mm.Theresults correspond tothe fundamental
structureofthe skin,which alsowastobeexpected.
Tensilestrength (TEN)asfunctions oflongitudinalcoordinateYandtransversecoordinate
X for chrome-tanned Australian sheep leather is presented in Figure 5. Orientation angle
ALPHAofthesamplesisnow30.Theeffect ofpositioncoordinatesonthewholesurfacearea
35
-360 -330 -300 -270 -2-10 -210 - I 8 D - I 5 0 -I2D -9D -60 -30
0
30
60
30 I2D 150 IBD 211 240 210 300 330 360
TKANSV. COORDINATE X
(min)
Figure3. Elongationatbreak(PEE)asfunctionoftransversecoordinateXforchrome-tanned
Australian(1)andFinnish(2)sheepleather.ALPHA=0'and Y= 400mm.
35 X
S
2
£ 20
as
E-
o
2 15
E- 5
-f-I
H
360 330 100 270 2-10 210 IBD ISO 120
H
H
• -90 -50 -30 0
H
1 1
H
H
H
H
3D 60 30 I20 ISO IBO 210 210 2?B 300 330 360
1-
TRANSV. COORDINATE X (mm)
Figure4. Tensile Strength(TEN) asfunction oftransverse coordinateXforchrome-tanned
Australian(1)andFinnish(2)sheepleather.ALPHA= 0'and Y = 400mm.
can be seen. This figure differ from Wilson's classical results for calf leather and shows the
asymmetry of thevaluesof sheepleather.
Therearenoremarkabledifferences intheresults with theFinnish sheepleathers andthe
Australian sheepleathers.Twoadditional reasons which mightcause asymmetry are: firstly,
the backbone line has been roughly estimated and, secondly, there is natural physiological
36
Figure5. Tensile Strength(TEN)asfunctions of longitudinal coordinate Y and transverse
coordinateXfor chrome-tannedAustraliansheep leather.ALPHA- 30°.
asymmetry.Thechangeincharacteristicsisgreatestnearthebackboneline.Accordingtoour
measurementsY-coordinatedoesnotaffect theresultsverymuch.Theresultsfrom thisstudy
areroughly similartotheresults gotfor blue-fox leatherearlierinourLaboratory.Variations
ofthevaluesofthephysicalcharacteristics of sheepleathercorrelate tosomeextentwiththe
thicknessoftheleather.
References
Conabere, J.,1944.Int. Soc.Leather.Trds.Chem.,28,270.
Costa,R.,Sans,J. andPortavella,M., 1990/91.DasLeder,41,21;GrainStraininSheepskins
ProducedDuringFlaying:PartI,JSLTC,74,174.
Gratacos,E., Costa,R., Sans,J. andPortavella, M., Grain Strain in Sheepskins Produced
DuringFlaying:PartII,JSLTC,75,1.
Mäntysalo,E.,Marjoniemi,M.andKemppinen,E.,1989.TampereUniversityofTechnology,
Physics,Report 10-89.
Mäntysalo,E.,Marjoniemi, M. andKemppinen, E., 1990. Anisotropy of Physical Characteristic Functions of Fur Leather, Presented at the 86th ALCAAnnual Meeting on June
24-28,1990inBoyneFalls,Michigan,U.S.A.TobepublishedinJALCA.
37
Effets des maladies sur la production descuirs,peaux et fibres
animales
L. Blajan
DirecteurGénéralhonoraire deVOIE, Office internationaldesEpizooties,Paris, France
Summary
Themajor diseaseofanimalshaveaquantitative effect ontheproduction ofhides,skinsand
animalfibres,becausethedeathscausedbythemusuallyresultincompletelossofthecarcass.
However, moreimportant aretheeffects of allpathologicalprocesses onthequality ofthese
products.
Allconditionswhichaffectgeneralhealthcanleavevisibledefectsoftheskinanditsappendages,althoughtheskindiseasespropercausethemostimportantdamage.Someoftheseare
ofmicrobialorigin:sheeppox,goatpox,contagiousecthyma,lumpyskindiseaseanddermatophilosis.Othersareofparasiticorigin,notablymangeandmycosesinallspecies,anddemodicosisingoats.
Myiasis is also responsible for depreciation of hides, skin and animal fibres. The most
cosmopolitan of these is bovine hypodermosis (warble infestation). Otherforms of myiasis
areconfined tocertainregions,suchascutaneousdermatobiosisofcattleandTungapenetrans
infestation,occurringinintertropicalAmerica.Myiasiscausedbythescrew-worm(Calliphora
hominivorax)is of major importance, being confined to the American continent until its
appearanceinLibyain 1988.Thebitesofticksleavemultiplesmallpitsorfibrous scarschich
devalueleather.
Thediminution oflossesdepends ontheimplementation ofmeasuresaimedatpreventing
diseasesofanimals.However, thereislittlechanceofsuchmeasuresbeingappliedunlessthe
diseasehasanobvious effect onthehealth of animals oronthequalityofproductsmarketed
directly bytheproducer.
Introduction
Lesqualitésetlesdéfauts desproduitsfinis,qu'ils'agissedecuirtanné,defourrure, delaine
ou de toute autre fibre animale, traités pour leur assurer une présentation conforme à leur
destinationcommerciale,reflètent,d'unepartlescaractéristiquesgénétiquesetlepassébiologiquedel'animalet,d'autrepart,lesconditionsetméthodesdepréparationetde transformationdesproduits bruts.En cequiconcernelepassébiologique,l'influence del'alimentation
etcelledelapathologie sontconsidérables.
Toutes les affections qui ont unerépercussion surl'étatgénéral,peuventlaisser une trace
visiblesurlapeau etlesphanèresdel'animal. Lesmaladiesparasitaires internesexercentun
effet notable sur les agneaux dont la diminution depousse de la laine apu être estimée de
l'ordrede 60%.Parailleurs,lorsquelamaladieévolueverslamort, ledécubitusapourconséquenceunralentissementdelacirculation,unecongestion du tégumentetlastagnationdu
sang dans les vaisseaux superficiels. Il enrésulte laformation de veinules apparentes après
tannage,quirendent lapeauimpropre àcertaines finitions.
Cesont,cependant,lespathologies spécifiques intéressantdirectementletissucutané,qui
entraînent lespertes économiques lesplus importantes etqui sontl'objet duprésentexposé.
Dansunepremièrepartie serontexaminées lesmaladiesinfectieuses, etdansune deuxième
partie,lesparasitosesexternes.
38
Maladiesinfectieuses
Ladermatophiloseestunemaladieàévolutionaiguëouchronique,quel'onobservecheztous
les herbivores et qui provoque une dermatite exsudative avec formation d'éscarres et de
croûtes.Fréquente en Afrique de l'Ouest en particulier, on larencontre également dans les
pays tempérés, là ou la pluviométrie est tres élevée.Elle est due à une bactérie tellurique,
Dermatophilus congolensis, quitraverse l'épiderme, lorsque les conditions hygrométriques
sont favorables. Les lésions s'installent, enpremier lieu,au niveau de laface, desoreilleset
delarégioninguinale,lescroûtesinitialesfaisant ensuiteplaceàunvéritabletissucorné.Les
jeunes animaux sont plus sensibles que les adultes qui présentent généralement une forme
subclinique, mais peuvent aussi présenter une forme aiguë, avec, comme chez les jeunes,
extensiondeslésionsàlarégiondorsale.Latransmissionpeutsefaireparcontactdirectetpar
l'intermédiaire destiques etdesmouches.Lecontrôledelamaladierepose surlabalnéation
régulièredesanimaux enutilisantdes solutions acaricidesetbactéricides.
La clavelêeet la variolecaprinesont des viroses du mouton et de la chèvre largement
répanduesenAfrique etenAsie.Leviruspeutsetransmettreparcontactdirectentreanimaux
malades et animaux sains, mais la contamination est le plus souvent indirecte. Les croûtes
desséchéesréduitesenparticulesvirulentessedéposentsurleseaux,lespâturages,leslocaux,
lesvéhicules,lalaineetc.,quipeutresterdangereusetrèslongtemps,enraisondelarésistance
du virus desséché.Les lésions sont le plus souvent observées sur les oreilles, le museau, le
ventre, la face interne des cuisses, mais les parties couvertes de laine ou de poils peuvent
égalementêtreenvahies.Onvoitd'abord apparaîtredespapules,destâches quipeuventêtre
hémorragiques et setransforment ensuiteenpustules suivies delaformation descroûtesqui,
en sedétachant, laissent des cicatrices setraduisant par autant dedéfauts dela peau tannée.
Laluttecontrelaclavelêeetlavariolecaprinerepose surlavaccination.
La tremblante est unemaladie àévolution lentedont l'agent causal appartient àlacatégorie
nomméedes 'viruslents'ou 'virusnonconventionnels'.Les symptômes semanifestent chez
lemoutonadulteetmoinsfréquemment chezlachèvre.ElleestsignaléeenAmériqueduNord,
auJapon,auNépal,àChypre,enFrance,Irlande,Islande,auRoyaume-UnietenTurquie.Elle
estcaractériséepardestroublesnerveuxquisetraduisentpardestremblementsetdestroubles
locomoteursainsiquepardupruritamenantlesanimauxàsefrotter contretouslesobjetsdurs
etàs'arracher lalaineoulepoil.Latransmission delamaladiepeutêtreverticaledelamère
àl'agneau ouhorizontaleparcontactprolongé.Iln'existe nivaccin,ni traitement.
Onreparle beaucoup de la tremblante,depuis l'apparition en 1988,de l'encéphalopathie
spongiforme bovineou 'maladiedesvachesfolles'enGrande-Bretagne.Selontoutevraisemblance,lacontaminationdesbovinsapouroriginelesalimentscontenantdesfarinesdeviande
d'ovins atteintsdetremblante.
La dermatose nodulairecontagieusese manifeste par l'apparition, dans l'épaisseur du
derme,denodules denombrevariable,maispouvant atteindreplusieurs centaines.Due àun
virus, elle est restée longtemps cantonnée à l'Afrique australe et à Madagascar, mais s'est
étendue, au cours des dernières années à toute l'Afrique subsaharienne, ainsi qu'à certains
paysdu Moyen-Orient.
Parasitosesexternes
Danstouteslesrégionsd'élevage,onrencontreuneouplusieursespècesdeparasitesexternes,
quiprovoquent despertes économiques importantes, essentiellement imputables àladépréciation despeauxetdes fibres.
Lesparasitesexternesencausesontdesinsectesetdesacariensquipeuventêtrerangésen
troisgroupes,selonqu'ils'agitdeparasitesvivantsurl'hôteenpermanenceoutemporairement
ou seulementpour senourrirdesonsang.
39
Parasitespermanents
Les poux, très communs dans toutes les espèces, peuvent être piqueurs (Anoploures) ou
broyeurs (Mallophages).Lesfemelles pondentleursoeufs àlabasedesbrinsdelaineoudes
poils,prèsdelapeau.Lecyclebiologiqueaucoursduquell'oeuf setransforme enadultedure
30à45jours.Lapullulationdespouxproprementdits,commedesmallophages,estd'autant
plusrapidequelesanimauxengrandnombreviventen confinement.
Les espèces depoux broyeurs provoquent une irritation intense quipousse l'animal àse
frotter contrelesobjetsdursoumêmeàsemordre.Chezlemouton,enparticulier,lastructure
de la toison s'en trouve modifiée, ce qui apour effet dedétériorer les fibres etde rendre la
tonteplus difficile.
Les poux piqueurs, de plus grande taille que les précédents, entraînent également des
démangeaisons.Chezlemouton,oncomptetroisespècesdifférentes:Linognathusovillus,L.
pedalis,qui selocalisent auxparties noncouvertes de lainedesraces àlaine améliorées des
régionstempérées,etL.africanuspouducorpsdesmoutonsàpoilsetdeschèvresobservéen
Afrique,AsieetAmérique.L. stenopsis serencontre chezlachèvre.
Cespouxpiqueursprovoquentmoinsdedégâtsquelesmallophages.Cependant,ilspeuvent
occasionnerdesdommagesconsidérables auxtoisonsdeschèvresAngora.
Melophagusovinus,genredemouche sansailes,parasitedumouton,peutprovoquerune
infestation abondante de la toison. Son cycle biologique est de 5à 6semaines. On voit, en
écartant lalaine,des taches rouges correspondant auxinsectes adultes gorgés de sang.Leur
piqûren'estpastrèsdouloureuse,maisl'irritation qu'ilsprovoquentportel'animal àsefrotter
età semordre.Enconséquence,lespeauxpeuventêtre défectueuses.
Lesacarienssarcoptidésresponsablesdesgalessont,parmilesparasitespermanents,ceux
qui causent leplus dégâts aux cuirs,peaux etfibres.Les gales lesplus fréquentes chez les
ruminants sontduesàdeux sortesd'acariens:lessarcoptesetlespsoroptes.
Lessarcoptespercentlapeaupourenaspirerlalymphe.Lesfemelles creusentdesgaleries
épidermiques danslesquelles,ellespondentleursoeufs.Leparasitedontlecycle biologique
estd'environ 17jours,provoquedetrèsfortes démangeaisons,poussantl'animal àse frotter
jusqu'à s'écorcher, aggravant ainsi les lésions primaires et entraînant la kératinisation et
l'épaississement despartieslésées.Chezlemouton, seules sonttouchées lesrégions dépourvuesdelaine.
Alors quegénéralement lessarcoptesépargnent letroncdel'animal, lespsoroptes s'étendentleplussouventàtoutlecorps,d'où lenomdonnéàlagalepsoroptique,degaleducorps.
Ilsviventsouslapeausenourrissantdel'épiderme,provoquantlaformation deboutonsetun
pruritintense.Chezlemouton, lalaine sedétached'elle-même lorsquel'animal ne l'arrache
pasensemordant.
Lagalechorioptique,moinsfréquente, estplusfacile àsoigner,danslamesureoùelleest
localisée aux pattes. La gale démodécique, qui peut atteindre les bovins et les chèvres, se
manifeste pardespustulescutanéesprovoquéesparleparasitelogédanslesfollicules pileux.
Ilconvientdesignalerenfin unparasitequiestunsujetdepréoccupationpourleséleveurs
de Mérinos enAustralie,Psorergates ovis.Cette galeest apparue avec l'abandon des bains
arsenicauxpourlessolutionsd'insecticides organochlorésmoinsefficaces pourlecontrôlede
ceparasite.
Ladestructiondesparasitesresponsablesdesgalesestparticulirèementdifficile danslecas
dessarcoptesquiviventdanslesgaleriescreuséesdansl'épaisseurdelapeau.Lestraitements
par balnéation ou aspersion de solutions irsecticides doivent donc être renouvelés très
fréquemment, enprenant la précaution d'interrompre ces traitements avant l'abattage ou la
traitedanslesdélaisprescritspouréviterlaprésencederésidustoxiquesdanslaviandeoule
lait.
40
Parasitestemporaires
Onappellemyiaseslesaccidentsplusoumoinsgravesproduitsparleslarvesissuesdesoeufs
déposéssurlecorpsdel'animalparplusieurssortesdemouches.Seuleslesmyiasescutanées
intéressentlaproductiondescuirs,peauxetfibres.Lesmyiasescutanéeslesplusredoutables
sontduesà:
• Calliphorahominivoraxlimitéejusqu'en 1988àl'Amérique, duMexiquejusqu'à l'Amérique du Sud, mais introduite depuis lors en Libye,par des moutons vraisemblablement
importésd'Amérique duSud;
• Chrysoma bezziana,en Afrique tropicale,en Asieméridionale etdanslespays tropicaux
delazonePacifique;
• WohlfahrtiamagniflcaenAfrique duNordetenAsieCentrale.
Cesmyiasesnepeuventêtrecontrôléesqueparl'examenquotidienetindividueldesanimaux
pourdécelerlesplaiessurleborddesquelleslesmouchesdéposentleursoeufsquivontdonner
les larves senourrissant delachair des animaux pour, ensuite,tomber surle soletredonner
desmouches.
Il existe également unemyiasecutanée dumoutonprovoquée par les larves de mouches
différentes selonlescontinents:Luciliacuprina,enAustralieetenAfriqueméridionale,Lucilia
sericataetCalliphorastygiaenNouvelle-Zélande,LuciliasericataenEurope,Phormiaregina
etProtophorma terrae novae enAmériqueduNord.
L'infestationfavoriséeparl'humiditépeutavoirpourpointdedépartuneplaieoulesparties
souilléesparl'urineoulesfècessurlesquelleslesmouchespondentleursoeufsCmaisellepeut
aussi,dans le cas deL. cuprina notamment, sedévelopper directement danslesparties couvertes delainelorsquelatoisonestmouilléejusqu'à lapeau.
Letraitementreposesurl'applicationd'insecticides.Cependant,lesphénomènesderésistance
desparasites sedéveloppent rapidement. C'estainsiqueL. cuprina estmaintenantrésistante
àlaplupart desinsecticides connus.
Lesmyiasesprovoquéesparleslarvesdecertainesmouchesdelafamilledesoestridéssont
également àl'origine depertes non négligeables pourl'industrie descuirs etpeaux.Laplus
connue,qui estrépandue dansles zones tempérées de l'hémisphère nord est l'hypodermose
bovine,communément appeléevairon.LamouchedugenreHypodermadéposesurlespoils
d'un animal des oeufs qui éclosent pour donner des larves qui pénètrent sous la peau. Ces
larvesmigrentàtraverslecorpsets'établissentdanslestissussous-cutanésdudosdel'animal,
oùellesprovoquentdesboursouflurespercéesdepetitstrouspermettantauxlarvesderespirer.
Lescicatrices qui seforment lorsquelesplaiesguérissentlaissentlaplace àdestrouslorsdu
tannage.
Onrencontreégalement unvarronchezlachèvre,dûàPrzhevalskianaspp.enAfriquedu
Nord et en Afrique de l'Est, dans certains pays méditerranéens, en Asie centrale et dans le
sous-continentindien.
Dans les pays d'Amérique tropicale, Dermatobia hominis, a des effets semblables chez
l'homme, etcheztouslesmammifères, mais surtoutchezlesbovins.
Ectoparasiteshématophages
Danscegroupe,lesparasites àconsidérer sontlestiques. Présentes danstouteslespartiesdu
monde, c'est cependant dans les pays chauds qu'elles sont les plus répandues et qu'elles
occasionnentleplusdedégâtsauxcuirsetpeaux.Cesdégâtssontlaconséquencedesmarques
ressemblantàdespiqûresd'épingles laisséesparlesmorsuresdestiquesauxendroitsoùelles
sesont fixées.
La lutte contre les tiques,dans les pays où elles posent unproblème sérieux, repose sur
l'application, parbalnéation ouaspersion,desolutionsinsecticides.
41
Conclusions
Lespertescauséesàl'industrie mondialedescuirs,peauxetfibres parlesmaladies animales
sont difficiles à évaluer, en l'absence d'informations suffisantes à cet égard. Elles sont
particulièrementimportantesdanslespaysendéveloppementqui,généralement,nedisposent
pas des moyens nécessaires àlamiseenoeuvredesmesures quipourraientréduire l'impact
de cesmaladies. Cependant pour laquasi-totalité d'entre elles,lestechniques permettant de
lescontrôlerefficacement existent.Pourqu'ellessoientutilisées,leséleveursdoiventytrouver
unavantage.
S'agissantdelapeau,elleestàl'exception dequelquesproductionscommel'astrakan,un
sous-produit de l'élevage dont la qualité n'influence pas la valeur de l'animal. Il en va
différemment delalainequiconstituel'objet principaldel'élevage extensif dumouton.
Acet égard, l'exemple de la Nouvelle-Zélande, cité montre que la volonté des éleveurs,
stimuléepar leurintérêtestplusimportantequetout autrefacteur. Leséleveursdemoutons
néo-zélandais, considérant lespertes queleurfaisait subirla galeont, àlafin du 19esiècle,
décidé d'éliminer la maladie, par des dispositions pénalisant lourdement les propriétaires
d'animaux galeux. Bien qu'on ne disposât pas alors des moyens techniques efficaces qui
existent actuellement, la volontécollective des éleveurs s'appuyant surlaprophylaxie sanitaire,permitd'obtenir l'éradication delagaleunedizained'années avantl'établissement du
Ministère de l'Agriculture, vingt ans avant l'arrivée du premier Vétérinaire dans le pays et
trenteansavantlacréationd'uneStationderecherches surlesmaladiesanimales.
Bibliographie
Anderson, N., 1982. Internai parasites of sheep and goats. In: Coop, I.E. Sheep and goat
ProductionElsevierScientific Publ.(WorldAnimalScience,Ser.CVol. 1).175-191.
Andris,T.,1979.Diagnostic différentiel des affections et maladies de lapeau et de la laine
chezlesovins.Thèsevétérinaireno.89EcoleNationaleVétérinaireToulouse,49p.
Barlow,R.M., 1982.Infectious diseases of goats and sheep. In: Coop, I.E. Sheep and goat
ProductionElsevierScientific Publ.(WorldAnimalScience,Ser.CVol.1),151-174.
Murray,MD., 1982.External parasites of sheep and goats. In: Coop, I.E. Sheep and goat
ProductionElsevierScientific Publ.(WorldAnimalScience,Ser.CVol.1),193-203.
OfficeInternationaldesEpizooties, 1990. LaSantéanimatedansles années 80.OIE, 12rue
deProny75017Paris,40-70.
Zouari,R.,1979.Maladiesetaffections delapeaudesbovins.Thèsevétérinaireno.87.Ecole
Nationale VétérinaireToulouse,76p.
42
Effets destraitements al'abattoir surlaqualitédescuirset
peaux
L. Blajan
DirecteurGénéralhonorairedeFOIE, OfficeinternationaldesEpizooties, Paris,France
Summary
Thecommonest defects of hides and skins,and those mostfrequently seen are those which
appear atthetimeof slaughter, after death of theanimal.Blowsaimed attheanimals during
brutalslaughterproceduresproducecontusionsorexcoriationswhichfavouroverheatingand
putrefaction of leather. Incompetence or negligence by abattoir workers during carcass
skinningisacommoncauseof lossesanddefects through:
• lossofrawmaterialduetofaulty cutting;
• thinningoftheskininplaces,whichbecomesobviousduringtanning,causedbytheflaying
knife:cuts,depressions,plaques andfloral patterns,sometimespractically penetratingthe
skin;
• grain splitfollowing tooforceful flaying;
• damagefrom excessivetraction whenpullingoff thehide.
Hides and skinsmayalsodeteriorate after theirremoval through:
• eithertoomuchdrying byexposuretosunlight,ortoolittle;
• deterioration following salting;
• from faulty folding orpacking;
• during storageortransport
Improvementinquality atthelevelsoftheabattoirandthewarehousedependson education
oftheworkers,gradingof thehides,andpaymentaccording toquality.
Introduction
S'il est vraiquel'étatde santédesanimaux estunfacteur important de laqualitédespeaux,
celle-ciestégalementconditionnéeparlesprécautionspriseslorsdutransportjusqu'àl'abattoir,del'abattage,deladépouilleetdutraitementdespeauxaprèsdépouille.Cesontlesdéfauts
pouvant survenir aucoursdechacunedecesphases quiserontexaminésci-après.
Transportdesanimauxjusqu'àl'abattoir,battageetsaignéedesanimaux
Lesglissades,lescoupsdecorneéchangésentre animaux,l'espace insuffisant danslesvéhicules,lescoupsdebâtondesconvoyeurs sontautantdecausesdeblessuresendommageantla
peau desanimaux avant leurabattage.
Le maniement brutal des animaux, l'absence de précautions pour leur éviter la vue de
l'abattagedeleurscongénèressontégalementresponsablesdeblessures.L'abattagesansrepos
préalable des animaux, l'absence de dispositifs de levage sont responsables d'une saignée
insuffisante, etparsuitedelaputréfaction delapeau.
43
Dépouille
Lapremière opérationestla 'parfente' quiconsisteàpratiquer surl'animal unelonguefente,
quiatteintlachair,ets'étenddel'encolurejusqu'àlaqueue,ensuivantlaligneventrale.Puis,
de chaque côté de cette incision, l'ouvrier pratique une autre incision à la face interne des
membres,enavantdesmembres antérieurs,etenarrièredesmembrespostérieurs.
Vientensuiteladépouilleproprementdite,quiconsisteàséparerlacarcasseetlapeau,sans
léserviandeetcuir,etpeutêtreeffectuée selonplusieursméthodes:
• ausol,avecousansbercededépouille;
• suspendue,dansleschaînesd'abattage, avecappareilsdedépouillemécanique;
• suspendue,aupoingou aumarteaupourlespetitsruminants;
• parinsufflation d'air,ougonflage,danslecasdesmoutonsetchèvres.
Les dommages occasionnés à la peau peuvent provenir du manque d'habileté ou de la
négligence de l'ouvrier (défauts de main d'oeuvre) ou encore être facilités par la méthode
pratiquée.
Lors de mauvaise parfente, le cuir n'est plus symétrique, donc déprécié, car les tanneurs
recherchentdespeaux deformerégulièrequidonnentlemeilleurrendement encuir.
Ladépouille au sol, sicelui-cin'estpas lisseet sion nedisposepasd'unequantitéd'eau
suffisante n'estpas àconseiller, enraison durisqued'abîmer legrainducuir.
Ladépouillepar arrachage, sila traction de l'arracheuse est trop brutale compte tenudu
rythme de la chaîne ou de la résistance plus ou moins grande de lapeau selon l'origine de
l'animal,peutêtreresponsablededéchirures oud'unedéformation delapeau,aupointdela
rendre,parfois, inutilisable.
L'utilisation dumarteau pourladépouilledespetitsruminants estpratiquement abandonnée,enraisondeséclatementsde'fleur' (partiesuperficielle delapeauvoisinedel'épiderme)
qu'ellepeut occasionner.
Lesdéfautsdemaind'oeuvre,lesplusfréquents, sontdûsàl'utilisation decouteauxàlame
pointuequitraversentpartiellementoutotalementlederme.
Traitementdespeauxaprèsdépouille
Selon les cas,lespeaux sont livréespar l'abattoir, aprèstraitementpour assurer leur conservationouaprèsavoirétésimplementécharnées,rognéesetlavées(peaux 'vertes').Danstous
lescas,lespeauxdoivent, avanttout,êtrelavées,débarrasséesdusangetdesmatièresquiles
souillent,pouréviterlaputréfaction quisemanifesterait plustard.Celavage,pratiquéàl'eau
froide pour refroidir les peaux encore chaudes, doit être effectué soigneusement avec une
brossedure.
Lespeauxdechèvresàlongspoilsetdemoutonsàlainenedoiventêtrelavéesqueducôté
chair,pouréviterlarétentiond'unegrandequantitéd'eau,quiconduiraitàutiliser,parlasuite,
detropgrandesquantitésdesel.
L'écharnage despeauxdemoutonsetdechèvresàlongspoils,trèsmincesetfragiles exige
desprécautionsparticulièrespouréviterdelesendommager.
Lapeau 'verte',quicontientenviron62%d'eau,constitueunmilieudecultureidéalpour
ledéveloppement desmicro-organismes quiprovoquentdesdommagesallantdeladécoloration à 1' 'échauffe', putréfaction débutante et localisée qui, au tannage, entraîne la fente du
dermedansle sensdel'épaisseur. Ilspeuvent même allerjusqu'à laputréfaction quirendla
peau inutilisable, du fait de la décomposition et de la liquéfaction des matières protéiques.
Afind'arrêterledéveloppementdesmicro-organismes,ilconvientd'expédiertrèsrapidement
lespeaux aux tanneriesoù elles seront traitéespardesméthodes diminuant lateneureneau.
Ces méthodes qui peuvent également être mises en oeuvre à l'abattoir, pour assurer la
44
préservationdespeauxdesqu'ellessontretiréesdelacarcasse,facteuressentieldeleurqualité,
reposentsurleséchageàl'airoulesalage.
Leséchageàl'airsepratique,soitausol,soitparsuspension.Leséchageausoldonnedes
peauxdemauvaisequalité,carl'airnepeutcirculersurlafacecôtépoilsqui,touchantlesol,
ne sèchepas àfond etgardel'humidité favorable audéveloppement del'échauffé. Exposées
directement au soleil, les peaux peuvent présenter des défauts plus graves: desséchées à
l'extérieur, elles peuvent receler à l'intérieur despoches gélatineuses quiprovoqueront des
trousaumomentduchaulage,ouencore,surchauffées, leurgraissesedécomposeet,imprégnant les fibres, rend le tannageimpossible.Les peaux de bovins séchées au sol deviennent
dureset secraquellentlorsqu'on lesplie.
Ilconvient,donc,deproscrirecetteméthodeetdeluipréférerleséchagedespeauxsuspendues surcadres suffisamment grandspouréviterlecontact avecle cadre ou,pour lespeaux
depetitsruminants,surfils deferoucordestendushorizontalement.Unetension insuffisante
sur lecadreoulefil de séchageprovoque laformation deplis,àl'intérieur desquels lapeau
restehumidecequientraînelaproductionde1''échauffe'. Unetensiontropforteentraînedes
tiraillements, lors de larétraction de lapeau,pouvant être suivis derupture des fibres et de
cassurede 'fleur'.
L'inconvénient du séchage est de donner aux insectes la possibilité d'attaquer les peaux
séchées.L'insecteleplusnuisibleestledermeste,dontleslarvesprovoquentleplusdedégâts.
Ceslarves dévorent, en effet, etdétruisent lepoil etle graindu cuirqu'elles peuvent même
perforer entièrement.
Ilconvientdonc de saupoudrer d'insecticide, lespeauxplacées dansun magasin.Sielles
n'ont pasété suffisamment séchées,ouenmilieu humide, lespeauxpeuvent être également
envahiespardesmoisissuresquiabîmentlegrain,maisquipeuventêtreégalementcombattues
pardesproduits appropriés.
Letrempagedansunesolution arsenicale,ou arsenicage,pourprotéger lespeaux séchées
de l'attaque des insectes, est encore utilisé dans certaines régions.Les défauts d'arsenicage
peuvent être dus àune concentration insuffisante dela solution,ou àun bain trop vieux,ou
encoreàunbaindeduréeinsuffisante quirendentencorepossiblel'attaque parlesinsectes.
Lesalagepeutsepratiquerparvoiehumide,ouàsec.Lesalageparvoiehumideexigeun
personnelqualifié,degrandesquantitésdeseletunetempératureconstantecompriseentre15
et 20° C.Déconseillé dans lesrégions tropicales, où il estdifficile de lepratiquer de façon
satisfaisante, iln'exclutpaslapossibilitédedéveloppementdecertainsmicro-organismesqui
provoquentla 'décoloration'ou1' 'échauffe'.
Dans le salage à sec, après quelques jours de salage, les peaux sont séchées àl'air pour
permettre l'évaporation del'eaurestante,enutilisantgénéralement des supportsenbois.Les
peaux saléesàsecnecraignentpaslesinsectes,maisdoiventêtreprotégéesdel'humidité.
Conclusions
L'abattoirconstitueunobservatoireremarquabledel'étatdesantéducheptelquiserépercute
nonseulementsurlasalubritédelaviande,maisaussisurlaqualitédelapeau.Ilestégalement,
avecsonannexeleséchoir,unmaillondelachaînedeproductiondescuirsetpeauxsurlequel
ilestfacile deporter lesefforts nécessaires àl'amélioration deleurqualité.Celle-cipeut,en
effet, êtreobtenueparl'application detechniques simples,doncfaciles àenseigner.Les faire
accepterparlesopérateursest,selonlespays,lerôledel'Etat,oudescollectivitéslocales,ou
encoredu secteurprivé.
Dans certains pays en développement, ontétécréésdes Services pour l'amélioration des
peauxdépendantsouventdesServicesresponsablesdelaproductionanimale,dontlesactions
éducatives et de contrôle concernent l'ensemble de lafilière,du stade de l'élevage jusqu'à
l'exportation.Làoùl'intérêtdesopérateursaétésuscitéparlepaiementdespeauxàlaqualité,
45
Iesuccesaétéassuré.Mais,lorsquelescircuitscommerciaux sonttelsquelesefforts desproducteursetbouchersnesontpasrécompensés,commec'estlecaslorsd'achat 'tout venant',
aucunprogrèsnepeutêtreescompté.
Danslespaysindustrialisés,l'Etatencourageparfoislesecteurprivéàéviterlespertesdues
notammentauxmaladiesetaméliorerlaqualitédescuirsetpeaux.Lastratégiepeutêtreétablie
àceteffet, auniveaunational,parunComitéconsultatifcomprenantdesreprésentantsdel'élevage,desabattoirsetdel'industrieducuir.C'estainsique,danscertainscas,ontpuêtremises
enoeuvre, avecsuccès,desmesures deluttecontrelevaironetd'encouragementde bonnes
pratiquespourlapréparation, laconservation etl'entreposagedespeaux.
Maisc'estsurtoutdanslespaysendéveloppementquelesprogrèslesplusimportantssont
àfaire. Cesprogrès sont nécessairespourlabalancedeleurcommerce extérieur susceptible
d'êtreamélioréeparl'exportationdescuirsetpeauxqui,detouslesproduitsdel'élevage,sont
ceuxauxquelslespaysindustrialisésopposentlemoinsderestrictions.Ilss'imposentd'autant
plus que cespays sont devenus,au cours des vingt dernières années,de gros utilisateurs de
cesmatièrespremières.Lacapacitédetannages'yestaccrueconsidérablementet,alorsqu'ils
étaient globalement exportateurs,ils sontdevenusimportateurs. Cesontmaintenant lespays
industrialisés qui détiennent pratiquement le monopole des exportations de cuirs et peaux,
avecprèsde90%dela valeurtotaledeséchangesinternationaux. S'ils surmontent les difficultés,auniveaudelaproduction delamatièrepremière,lespaysendéveloppementpourront
s'affranchir delanécessitéd'importeret,s'ilsparviennentàsatisfairelesexigencesdumarché
internationalenmatièredequalité,ilspourrontcréerdesemploisenvendantdesarticlesàplus
forte valeur ajoutée.
Bibliographie
FAO,1987. Cuirs, peaux et produits dérivés. Document de travail CCP: ME/MS 87/2 du
sous-groupe des cuirs etpeaux du groupe intergou vernemental surlaviandede laFAO,
24p.
Jeannin,A., M.Lobry&A.H.Robinet,1971.Manueldesagentsduconditionnementdescuirs
etpeauxenzonetropicale,2eéd.,Paris,S.E.A.E.(Coll.Manueletprécisd'élevageno. 6).
Manu,L, 1963.Traitementetutilisationdessous-produitsanimaux,(CollectionFAO:Progrès
etmiseenvaleur,Agriculture no.75)FAO,Rome.
Robinet,A.H.,1977.Rev.Elev.Méd.vét.Paystrop.,30(1):101-105.
46
Utilisation des peaux au Maroc,caracterisation de la filière
A. Eddebbarh*,B.Jabrane** etN. Chraibi*
* DépartementdesProductionsAnimalesInstitutAgronomique etvétérinaireHassanII.
BP,6202 Rabat-Instituts,Maroc
** Institutprofessionnelducuir, Casablanca.
Abstract
Theleathersectorhasplayedanimportantrolewithinthenationaleconomy.Itincludestraditionalandindustrialtanneries.Thepurposeofthispaperisfirst tocharacterizethesectorand
itsevolution andtoestimatetheimportanceofhideproduction atthefarm level.
Datausedarefrom surveysorganizedatdifferent levelsofthesectorandfromtheslaughter
of animalsraisedatanexperiment station.
Imports,exportsandinvestmentswithinthesectorhaveincreasedduringlastyears.Fourty
tanneries areoperating.Theircapacityis 80millionfeet squares ofwhich45% areforcattle.
Majordifferences betweenartisanalandindustrialtanneriesareontheprocedureandthelenght
of treatment andthenatureoffinalproducts.
Severalkindsofleathersareproducedfromhidesandskins.Qualityisaffected by different
factors of which the conditions of storage of hides and skins is the most important for the
industry.Theratioof valueofhides/value ofcarcasseisthesamefor theproduction systems
investigated.Thepricingandthecollection systemsarenotqualitybased.Thepaperpresents
somerecommendations for theimprovement of thesector.
Introduction
Lesecteurducuirquiregroupelesactivitésdelatannerie,lafabrication d'articleschaussants,
laconfection devêtements,lamaroquinerie,.,occupeuneplace sensibledansl'économiedu
pays.Elleestappréciéeàtraverslavalorisationdesmatièrespremières,l'importancedesinvestissements,lagénérationdel'emploietlapromotiondesexportations.Commedanslamajorité
despaysendéveloppement,oùl'industrialisation estprogressive,lesecteurestenpleineévolution.Laphaseactuellesecaractériseparlacoexistancedesecteurstraditionnelsetdesecteurs
relativementmodernisés.Plusieursquestionsrestentposéesetsontrelativesàl'efficience des
systèmesderamassage,detraitementetsurtoutàl'importancedesproductionsdepeauxpour
lesacteurs àl'amont:l'éleveuretlechevillard.
L'objetduprésentrapportconsisteàlacaracterisationdusecteuretsonévolution,ainsique
l'appréciation de l'importance économique de laproduction des peaux pour l'éleveur et le
chevillard.Les donnéesrelatives aupremier aspectproviennent d'enquêtesinitiées en 1990,
auprèsdedifférents acteursdelafilière.Afind'apprécierl'importanceéconomiquedespeaux
àl'amont,nousprésentons:
a. Lesdonnéesd'abattagescontrôlésde188mâlesappartenantà6génotypesélevésenstation
expérimentaleetabattusàdesâgescomprisentre 18et22mois.Lesdonnéesontétéanalyséesàl'aided'un modèlelinéaire,danslequellepoidsàl'abattageestintroduitcommecovariable.
b. Lesrésultats d'enquêtesconduitesdans4régions dupaysdurantlacampagne 1990-1991
pour lacaracterisation delastructureetdelaproductivité des systèmes deproduction de
viande bovine. L'importance économique des peaux est appréciée,pour chaque système
parlerapport valeur de laproduction moyenne depeaux parunité zootechnique/ valeur
delaproduction moyennedecarcasseparunitézootechnique.
47
Caracterisation dusecteural'échellenationale
Surlabasedes abattages contrôlés,lesdisponibilités nationalesenmatièrespremieress'elevent àenviron 600000peaux bovines paran,2800000peaux ovines et 800000peauxcaprines.Septcenttroisentreprises sontimpliquéesdanslesecteurdepuislacollectedespeaux
jusqu'à laventedesproduitsfinis.Lepayscompteunequarantainedetanneriesmégisseries
d'unecapacité totale de 80millionsdepiedscarrésdont40%pourlesbovins.On distingue
troistypesdetanneries:artisanales,semi-industriellesetindustrielles.Levolumedel'emploi
danslestanneriesindustrielles etlesservicesauxiliaires s'élèveàenviron 15 000.
Commel'indiqueleTableau 1,lecommerceexterieurauniveaudusecteurestcaractérisé
pardesimportationsetdesexportationsdontlevolumeaaugmentélorsdesdernières années
respectivement de 5.68xl06 DHà847.08xl06etde2.64xl0 6 à271.36xl06.Levolumedes
investissementsdanslesecteuraluiaussiaugmentéd'unemanièretrèssensiblelorsdesvingt
dernièresannées.
Cinqphasescaractérisentl'évolutionhistoriquedusecteur.Lapériode 1965-1972aconnu
la multiplication des tanneries industrielles. Les exportations se sont accélérées depuis
1972-1974.Après 1974etjusqu'à 1983,onaassistéàlapromotiondesinvestissementsdont
levolumeaétémultipliépar4.La sécheresse,qu'aconnuelepaysaudébutdesannées 80, a
eudesrépercussionssurlesecteurquin'a connu leredressementqu'àpartirde 1986.
Troistypesdetanneriesopèrentdanslesecteur:lestanneriesartisanales, semi-industrielles
et industrielles. Les tanneries artisanales ont une histoire de plus de dix siècles au Maroc,
notamment àFèsetàMarrakech oùletanneurétaitl'artisanduvillageouduquartier.Ilconservaitjalousement sesprocédéstechniquesquiconstituaientunhéritagefamilial.Lescaractéristiquesprincipales delafilière artisanalerésidentdans:
Tableau 1. Evolutiondesvolumes desImportations, desExportationsetdesInvestissements
danslesecteurdecuirauMaroc en106dirhams.
Année
Import
Export
Investissement
1972
1982
1987
5.68
393.58
847.08
2.64
74.07
271.36
40.53
110.17
Source:MinistèreduCommerceetdel'Industrie, 1989.
Tableau2. Classifications desraiesselonlepoids etlerendementmoyen.
Catgorie
Poids
(kg)
Rendement
(pieds/kg)
Veau léger
moyen
lourd
Taurillonetvachette
<3
3-5
5-8
8-12
12-18
18-24
>24
2.5
2.25
2.00
1.80
1.60
1.45
1.35
48
légers
moyens
lourds
extralourds
a. Le 'clientélisme'développéauniveauduramassage,
b. laprécaritédesprocédésdetraitement,ex:utilisationdelafientedevolaillepour 'assouplir'
lespeaux,séchageàl'airlibre,égrainagemanuel,..
c. lanonutilisationdelacroûtequiesttoutsimplementperdue,et
d. lalenteurdestraitements:laduréeentre laréceptiondespeaux brutesetlaproduction du
cuir artisanal peut atteindre42jours.Lecoûtéconomique dutraitement s'élèveà46dirhams, soitenviron50dollarsU.S.parpièceetpourunetramede50peaux.
Lestanneriesindustrielles sedifférencient destanneries artisanalespar
a. lamécanisation desprincipales opérations:lecoroyage,leséchageàl'airconditionné,..
b. l'utilisation desproduitschimiquespourletannage
c. larapiditérelativedesprocédésdepuislaréceptiondespeauxjusqu'àlafabrication ducuir,
d. l'utilisation desdeux côtésdelapeaux (lafleur etlacroûte).Dansl'unedestanneriesde
Casablanca,lecoûtdetraitement s'élèveàenviron 15DH(quinzedirhams)parpiedpour
chacunedesoperationsderivière,detannage,deretannage etde finissage.
Facteursaffectants laqualitéducuir
Les principales qualités du cuir marocain, fabriqué àpartir des peaux bovines sont les suivantes:
a. le 'boxcalf' obtenu àpartirduveaupleine,fleur oulégèrementponcé
,
b. la 'vachette box'obtenueàpartirdesvachettesetdes boeufs
c. avachettefleur corrigéeobtenuedelavachettefleur poncée
d. le Nubuck obtenu àpartir des peaux de veaux et de vachette. La croûte est utilisée pour
obtenir différents produits.
CommelementionneleTableau2,lepoidsdesraiesainsiquelerendementvarientenfonction
des catégories d'animaux. Alors quelepoids desraies augmente de moins de 3kgpour les
veaux legersjusqu'à plus de24kgpour lestaurillons etvachettes extralourds, lerendement
enpiedsparkgévoluedanslesensinverse:de2.5pourlesraiesdesveauxlegers,ildescend
à 1.35 pourcellesdestaurillons etvachettesextralourds.
La qualité despeaux est affectée pardifférents facteurs àdifférents niveaux de la filière.
Selonlesutilisateursmarocains,surtoutlestanneursindustrielsetsemi™industriels,lesmauvaisesconditionsdeconservationconstituentlefacteurquiaffecte lepluslaqualitédespeaux.
Laputréfaction peutcauserlapertetotaledelapeau.Lesconditionsdedépouilledesanimaux
constitueledeuxièmefacteur quienaffecte laqualité.Lesanimaux sonttoujours dépouillés
manuellement, ce qui cause des déchirures au niveau de la croûte de la peau. Si le secteur
artisanaln'utilisepaslacroûte,lesecteurindustrielabeaucoupdemanqueàgagneràceniveau.
Lesestimations quantitatives àceniveau sontencoursderéalisation.
Auniveaudesélevageslesvarronsconstituentlefacteurprincipalquiaffecte laqualitédes
peauxbovines.
Systèmedepaiementetimportanceéconomiquedespeauxpourl'éleveur
Pourcaractériserl'importance delaproductiondespeauxpourl'éleveur etlechevillard,ilest
nécessaired'examinerlesystèmederamassageetdepaiementdespeaux.L'éleveurvendles
animauxvivantsauchevillardquidisposedelalicenced'abattage.Aprèsabattageetdépouille
manuelledesanimaux(lepaiementpourladépouillesefait àl'unité),lespeaux sontvendues
parlechevillard aupoids quiinclutceluidescornesetdelaqueue.
LeTableau3montrel'absencededifférences significatives auniveaudespoidsdespeaux
brutesdesanimauxmaiesdedifférents génotypesabattusàdesâgesvariantsde 18à22mois.
Lesmoyennes ajustées despoidsdespeaux brutes sesituent autourde40kg.
49
Tableau3. Moyennesajustéesdespoidsdespeauxdestourillonsde6génotypes.
Moyennekg/peau
Génotype
75% Holstein,
50% Holstein,
75% Frison,
50% Frison,
100%Frison
50% Frison,
25% local
50%local
25% local
50%local
42.34
40.68
40.12
40.42
41.26
40.67
50%local
local:Brunedel'Atlas.
Tableau4. Importancedelaproductiondespeauxpour quelquessystèmesdeproductionde
viandebovine.
Région
Système
D
L
T
C
Naisseurs1
Engraisseurs
Naisseurs2
Naisseurs2
Production
decarcasse
(kg/UZ/an)
Production
depeaux
(kg/UZ/an)
Importance
économique
despeaux^
111.6
88.2
83.6
61.5
17.2
13.6
12.9
9.5
4.28
4.28
4.28
4.28
1
Systèmesdéfinis parEddebbarh,ArabaetBenzekri(non publié)
Systèmedéfinis parAraba,Eddebbarh etOulahboub (nonpublié)
3 Valeurappréciéeparlerapportdelaproduction despeaux endirhams surlaproduction
descarcassesendirhams.
UZ Unité zootechnique
2
LeTableau 4résumant l'importance économique dela production despeaux pour l'éleveur
montrequelerapportdelavaleurdelapeausurlavaleurdelacarcasseparunitézootechnique
estlemêmepourles4systèmesdeproductionétudiés.Ilestde4.28,alorsquelesproductions
absoluesdecarcassesetdepeauxvarientsensiblementd'un systèmeàl'autre.Lesystèmede
paimentdes animaux,despeaux ainsiquelesystèmededépouille n'inclut aucuneincitation
surlaqualitédespeaux
Conclusions
Cerapportprésentelesrésultatspréliminairesd'unprojetencoursderéalisation.Ilspermettent
detirerlespremièresconclusions etdesouleverlesquestions suivantes:
Toutd'abord àl'amont delafilière, l'éleveur etlechevillardn'ontpasbeaucoupàgagner
en améliorant la qualité despeaux danslecadre des systèmes actuels depaiement etdedépouilledesanimaux.Lesystèmed'utilisationdespeaux,surtoutauniveaudelafilièreindustrielle, souffre beaucoup de la qualité despeaux.L'amélioration de la filière àce niveau, doit
passerparunsystèmed'incitationdel'éleveuretsurtoutduchevillard.Lesystèmededépouille
des animaux méritentd'etremécanisé.
50
Lesconditions deconservation entrel'abattoir etlatannerieaffectent énormément laqualité
despeaux.Aceniveau,silesystèmederamassageparaitdifficile àréorganiser,danslesconditions actuelles,il estnécessaire etpossibled'améliorer les conditions deconservation. La
collaboration entre la recherche et les organisations professionnelles des industries du cuir
devraitaboutiràlamiseaupointdeméthodessimplesdeconservation appropriéesausystème
marocaindecollecte,etleurdiffusion auprèsdesramasseurs.
Le secteur d'utilisation despeaux, au Maroc est en pleine évolution. La coexistance des
deux secteurs artisanaletindustriel soulèvelaquestion dudilemmeentre:
• Unetradition artisanalemaintenueauvestitudedel'histoire depuisplusieurssièclesetqui
constituel'activité principaleetlasourcederevenudeplusieursfamilles, et,
• Unsecteurindustrielquinepeutcontinuerd'évoluerquedansdesconditionsderentabilité
économique.
Danscesconditions,assistons-nous àd'autres formes dudilemmeentrel'équité socialeet
l'efficience économique?Jusqu'àquelpointfaut-ilpousserlamodernisationdusecteur?L'un
despremiersélémentsderéponsepouréviterlesconséquences socialesde l'industrialisation
(chômage,...)résidedanslanécessitédel'intégration desartisans danslesprocessus d'organisationetdemodernisationdu secteur.
Bibliographie
Ministère duCommerce etdel'Industrie1989. Rapportannuel,Rabat.
51
Lesproblèmesetprevisionsdel'industrieT\irquedu cuir
T. Kosar
TurkishLeatherIndustrialistAssoc, Demirhane Cad.30,Kazliçesme,Istanbul, Turkey
Summary
Theleathersectorcoversawiderangeincludingmarketingandsalesoperationsbesidesdoing
allprocessingathidesandskinstothestateinwhichtheyareoffered foruseasleatherarticles.
Theleather sectorhasproven thatithas astructuretoenableittoadaptitself in ashorttime
toindustrialization efforts in spiteofitsbeingatraditionalbranchofcraft witholdandtraditionalroots.Due to the fact that leather sectorhas competitive power and wide economical
fields effected byit,itisincludedinthemarkedsectorsof strategicalimportance.
Especiallyitisatthetopsecondplaceamongthemanufacturing sectorfrom theviewpoint
of earning net foreign exchange. Leather sector has the potential to rise its present yearly
amount of export of US$ 800^900million toone andhalf-two billion dollars with agiven
andreasonablesupport.Leathersectoris,however,inastructuraltransformation stageinthe
direction of industrialization. Ithascertainproblems andexpectations inkeeping upitssuccessful development live.Forexample,hidewhichisthemaininputoftheindustry andprocuredfrom the sources within thecountry and abroadisinsufficient inquantity wiseaswell
asithasdifferent problemsinrespectofquality.Establishment of free leather zonetakesthe
first placeamongthemeasuresrequired tobetakentosolvethesaidproblems.
Especially it has been forced to fight the financial problems due to the reasons such as
resettlement Andreconstruction, keepingpace with newprocess and technologies andreorganization works, aiming atwide scaleinvestments, obligation toincrease operating capital
for moreproduction.
Especially theindustrialists basedatorganizedindustrialsitesandexportersofleatherand
leatherproductsareneedingandexpectingmediumtermcheapcreditwithaviewtocomplete
theirexpected development in themedium term andthesub-sector of shoemaking industry
toovercometheirproblems.Marketingandsalemethodsandsystemsneedtobereorganized.
Thereisnecessary togetoriented towardsoriginaltrademarkand fashion.
Organizedtraininginstitutions andorganizations aresufficient inquantity but insufficient
in respect of quality. Preparation and application of packaged training programs based on
analytical method shouldbewidened.
Althoughenvironmentalpollutionconstitutesaproblemfor theleatherindustry aswellas
foreachbranchofindustry,thesectoriswronglyknowbecauseoftheeffects oftheinformation
acquiredduringitsoperationwiththeoldconditions.Today,theleatherindustryistheprincipal
sectoror branch showing mostobviousrespect toitsEnvironment.Theorganized industrial
siteisthemostconcreteexampleforit.Problemsandpossibilitiesarereviewedundersixheadings:hides,production,finances, marketing,training, environment.
Introduction
Ainsiqu'ilestsoulignédanslapremièrephrasedeintroductiondelabrochuredeprésentation
du symposium,danslesréunions àcaractère scientifique engénéral,lesarticles 'cuir,poilet
laine brute (Toison)'qualifiés de"sousproduits animaux"ne sontpas suffisamment prisen
considération.
Oràcommencerparlesannées70,l'IndustrieduCuiretdesArticlesencuirquisuitrégilièrement un rythme de progression ascendante possède une large part de contribution dans
52
l'économie nationale.Lechiffre deproduction relatif àl'Industrie du CuiretdesArticlesen
Cuirreprésenteunniveausupérieurà3%enmoyennedansl'ensembledelaproductionréelle
denotrepaysbienqueselonlesannéescechiffre accusecertainesvariations.En 1988,eneffet
ilaété3.2%.Sil'on envisagelaquestion surleplan dusecteurdefabrication, l'on constate
que la production de cuir et de l'industrie d'articles en cuir représentent les 4.5 % de la
production totaledecesecteur.
L'Industrie du Cuiretdes Articles en cuirest un secteurquinécessite unemain d'oeuvre
diversifiée et spécialisée et par conséquent elle est susceptible de créer un large secteur
d'emploi.
D'après les sources del'OrganisationdePlanification del'Etat,larépartition de lamain
d'oeuvre nombred'ouvriers danslesecteurseprésentecommeci-dessous:
Traitementdelapeau
Vêtements en cuir
Pelleterie
Bourrelerie-sellerie
Chaussures
Total
26374
22232
3000
2212
22309
76127
Source: Organisation dePlanification del'Etat,
Vued'ensemble surl'Industrie ducuir
etd'articles encuir,Octobre1988.
Toutefois,je suisd'avisqueleschiffres produitsdansletableauci-dessussontexcessivement
basparrapport ànoschiffres réelsd'emploi.Lenombredenostravailleurs occupésdansles
secteurs de 'vêtements en cuir', de 'bourrelerie'etde 'chaussures' notamment est nettement
supérieurauxchiffres indiqués.
Selonnosestimationscechiffre n'estpasinférieurà400 000.SiSiàcechiffre nousajoutons
ceux qui d'une manière ou d'autre travaillent le ouir, il serapossible d'affirmer que 7ou 8
centmillepersonnes gagnent leurviedanscesecteur.
Un côté important de ce secteur d'autre part est qu'il est orienté vers les exportations. Il
constitue eneffet le 'secteur locomotives'denosexportations decuir. Carilseclasseimmédiatementaprèsle'secteurtextile'encequiconcernelesrecettesnettesendevises.Ilreprésente
unchiffre annueld'exportation deunmilliarddeUS$environ.
D'autre part, le secteur de cuir qui s'est essentiellement renouvelé aux années 1970, se
trouve,apartirdumilieu des années 1980danslaphasederéaliserd'importants projets qui
luidonnerontlesdimensionsréellesd'uneindustrie.Letransfertdu'KazliçesmeDeriSanayii'
quireprésentelecentredel'industriedetraitementducuirdenotrepaysetquiseglorifie d'un
passéde538années,dansla 'zoneorganiséedel'industrieducuird'Istanbul'aménagéedans
le secteur Aydnli-Orhanli de Pendik vient de commencer cette année. Les préparatifs des
IndustrielsduCuirdeYesildereàIzmirsuivrontimmédiatementetlestravauxdeconstruction
dela 'zone organiséed'Industrie duCuir'comprenant 140usinesàMenemen sontencours.
L'Industrie duCuirdelaVilled'Usakquiamarquéunrapidedéveloppement aucoursdes
dernières années setrouve candidate àune 'zone industrielle organisée' dontles études sont
encours.
Messieurs les intivées et chers collaborateurs,j'ai essayé de faire un aperiu général sur
l'ensemble denotre secteur.Jedésireparlasuitemepencher surdes sujets plus spécifiques
qui seront présentés sous six titres différents: peau brute, production, finances, marketing,
formation, environnement.
53
Peaubrute
Lespeaux brutes fournies àl'Industrie ducuirpar les sources intérieures sont 'insuffisantes
enquantitéetnonsatisfaisantes enqualité'.
Bienquedesdonnées statistiquesexistentausujet del'existence dansnotrepaysdubétail
surpieds,personne nepeut prétendre queceschiffres correspondent exactement au nombre
réel debétail.On saitquedansnotrepays l'élevage sefait en majorité dansle secteurrural.
Ceciexpliquelefaitqu'il n'estpasintensif etqu'ilestcontinuellement enmouvement.Ilest
horsdedoutequedesvariationsimportantes seconstatentsurlesnombresdesbestiaux,selon
les saisonsd'étéet dhiver.Leschiffres fournis parles statistiquesofficielles etexposés dans
les tableaux doivent donc pour ces raisons, être admis comme exacts,jusqu'à preuve du
contraire.Lestroistableaux suivantsindiquentlenombreetlesprojections dubétail.
Onvoitqu'ilneseproduitpasunaccroissementvisibledanslenombredubétailsurpieds.
Onnesaitpasd'ailleurs lenombredebétailabattusparlaconsommation.Lesabattageshors
controlesontnotammentdifficiles àévaluer.Cesabattageshorscontroleetlenombredebétail
sacrifiés pendantlesfetesdeKurban sontévaluéspar approximation.
Cequiestcertain,estquelaquantitédepeaux brutesobtenueàl'intérieur dupaysnepeut
plus répondre aux besoins du secteur la production de cuir et d'articles en cuir étant en
augmentation progressive.
D'autrepart,lesproblèmesd'avant l'abattage, aucoursetaprèsl'abattage proviennenten
grandepartie de l'erreur des hommes.Les mesures àprendre contre les maladies provenant
de manque denutrition oudemanquedesoinsdelapeau nesontpasappliquéespour cause
denégligence ou d'ignorance.
Les données statistiques en rapport avec les importations de peaux brutes confirment en
effet cette situation:
Danslesabattagesdebétailsanscontroleopérés surtoutdanslesrégionsrurales,lespeaux
sontabiméesàcausedeserreursdecoupeoudepelage.Aprèsl'abattage,ilarriveégalement
d'importantesdétériorationsetdebertesdueségalementaumanquedesoinetdeconnaissance
enmatièredeconservation.
En résumé, il est constaté que les actions négatives sur les peaux brutes,des problèmes
d'avant, au cours et après l'abattage atteignent desdimensions importantes. Ces défauts qui
serévèlent lorsdu traitement delapeau sontlescuases depertesmatérielles considérables.
Pour lespeaux brutes provenant desrégions où les abattages s'effectuent sans controle,ces
pertesdevaleuratteignentdespourcentages élevés telque50%.
J'estimequ'ilestnécessairedes'attardersurl'importancedelavaleurdelapeaubrutepour
notre économie. Parailleurs,les notions de baserelatives àlabattage et àlaprotection dela
peau doiventêtreinclusdanslesprogrammes del'enseignement primaireetsecondairedans
les secteursruraux.Lacondition d'un 'Certificat d'abatteur de bétail'doitêtreexigée,après
unbrefcoursprofessionnal àl'exemple deschauffeurs decolorifere. Cettemesurequiserait
imposéed'abord auxabattoirs serad'unegrandeutilitééconomique.
Amon avis,lamesurela plus efficace et laplus utile àmettre en application contre l'insuffisance ennombre,depeaux brutes serait decréerune'zonefranche depeaux'. Acotéde
la zone organisée d'industrie de cuir d'Istanbul d'ailleurs une zone franche a commencé à
naitre. Ceci facilitera sans doute l'accès aux sources extérieures. L'industriel pourra voirla
peauqu'il achèted'unepart,etd'autrepartilseralibérédeslonguesduréesdecommandeset
desdifficultés de financement.
54
Tableau 1. Nombredebovinsetde bufflesparannées.
Bovins
Buffles
Total
13951527
14 174 751
14 401 547
14631971
14866 082
15 103 939
15345602
15 591 131
729954
737254
737254
737254
737254
737254
737254
737254
14681481
14 912005
15 138801
15369225
15 603336
15841 193
16 082856
16328385
Années
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993 (projection)
1994 (projection)
Source: DPT,VI,BYKP,rapportpréliminairedelacommission spécialisée d'élevage.
Tableau2. Nombredemoutonsetdechèvresparannées.
Années
Moutons
1990
1991
1992
1993 (projection)
1994 (projection)
Chèvres
mohair
2779524
2 821 217
2863535
2906488
2950085
48663540
49 190175
49 641 677
50 138074
50639 475
Chèvres
àpoil
Total
/
13 362894
13 463 115
13564088
13665819
13 768313
64805958
65434507
66069300
66710401
67 357873
Source: DPT,VI,BYKPRapportpréliminairedelacommission spécialiséed'élevage.
Tableau3. Productionlocaleetimportationsdepeauxbrutesetdepeauxpicklées (103têtes).
Petitbétail
Années
19861
19871
19882
19893
19903
Source:
1
2
3
Grosbétail
Local
Importation
Local
Importation
26675
26046
25803
25940
27257
11782
17741
12 223
20240
23937
4392
4533
4535
4 127
4230
295
642
324
451
718
DPT.Vuegénérale surl'Industrie ducuiretd'articles encuir(Octobre 1988)
Calculépartête surbasedesdonnéesdel'Institut desStatistiques del'Etat (DIE)
Donnéesdel'ordinateur duDIE
55
Production
L'industrie du CuirenTurquiebénéfice en général d'une technologieetdeméthodes développées.Maissondéveloppementgénérals'esteffectuéparl'extensiondespetitesexploitations
etparl'adaptation auxtechnologies etméthodesnouvelles.C'estpourquoi lestechniqueset
lesméthodesd'exploitation etdegestionrationnellesexigéesparuneproduction industrielle
n'ontpuêtreappliquées.
Lefait quecetteindustrie soitinstalléedansdesbëtimentsde3,4etmêmede5,6étages
constitueàcesujet l'exemple leplusconcretetleplusfrappant. Cetaménagementempêche
d'autreparttoutesolutionduproblèmedel'environnement. Pourcesraisons,dansleslocaux
etlesrégionsouletannageetlaproduction ducuirsefont àl'échelleindustriellelaformede
l'installation 'physique' devient unproblème qui gênelaproduction. Des 'zones organisées
del'industrie ducuir'ennombresuffisant apparaissentcommelasolutiondeceproblème.
D'autrepart,ilestobligatoirede suivrelesnouvellesméthodesettechnologies et d'envisagerlesinvestissements exigés pour uneproduction decuir àl'échelle industrielle.Au cas
contrairedesdifficultés apparaîtront enmatièrederentabilité etdequalité.
Cet pourquoid'ailleursl'ingustrie ducuirdeKazliçesme-Istanbulacommencéàpartirde
lasecondemoitiéde 1991àtransférer soninstallation dansla 'ZoneOrganiséede l'Industrie
duCuird'Istanbul'crééedanslesecteurAydnli-OrhanlidePendik.
Tandis que l'industrie du cuir de Yesildere àIzmir seprépare à s'installer dans quelques
années dans la Zone Organisée d'Industrie du Cuir de Menemen. Pour l'industrie du cuir
d'Usak égalementlesmêmemesuresetlesmêmesdispositions setrouventencoursd'études.
Leschiffres deproduction depeaux traitéesetarticlesencuirsontci-dessous:
Production despeaux traites:
Menubétail (millonsdedm)2
Grosbétailveau chromé (mil.dm)2
Cuiràressemeler (milletonnes)
Produits encuir:
Articlesd'habillement (millepièces)
Articles desellerie (millionsdeTL)3
Chaussures (millionsdepaires)4
Souliersencuir
Souliersenplastique
Souliersenmatière textile
Pantoufles
1
3
Estimation
Prixde 1988
19901
1982
1989
1 180.0
640.0
5.6
2485.7
845.3
6.6
2 679.7
996.4
7.5
2476.4
85286.1
69.8
26.0
5.0
5.6
33.2
5960.2
130911.0
86.5
33.2
7.3
37.2
37.2
6 342.4
139608.0
89.9
34.9
7.5
37.8
37.8
Chiffres descommissions spécialisées d'élevage
Saufcaoutchouc etbois.
S'il fautrésumer,l'industrie turqueducuirtraverseunepériodeimportantede transformation
durable. Si l'Etat accorde le soutien nécessaire aux problèmes financiers notamment dece
secteur,cettetransformation peut seréaliserdansunepériodedecinqans.
Laproduction depeaux traitées etd'articles en cuiraccuse uneaugmentation sensibleau
cours de dix ans.Toutefois avec l'entrée en circuitde la zone organisée d'industrie du cuir
d'Istanbulseulement,laproductiondusecteurseradoubléaucoursdes3-5annéesprochaines.
56
Financement
Letransfert desusinesinstalléesàKazliçesmedansla'Zoneorganiséedel'Industrie duCuir
d'Istanbul'aobligél'industrieducuir,quisetrouvaitdanssasecondephasedetransformation,
àentreprendredesinvestissements extraordinaires.
L'industriel s'estvud'unepartobligé àentreprendred'importantes investissements pour
laconstructiondenouveauxbatimantsd'usineetpourl'équipementdecesbëtimentsetd'autres part, l'obligation d'augmenter sa production a rendu urgents ses besoins de capitaux
d'exploitation.C'estdanscesconditionsextraordinairesqu'ilattendquedes'Créditsàmoyen
termeetàbonmarché'luisoientconsentis.
L'autrefacteurimportantquiagitdefaçonnégativesurlecapitald'exploitationestle'Taux
d'inflation élevé'. H devientimpossible deporter surlesprix lesrapides accroissements des
prix derevient etd'y adapterlerythmeducapitaletceciconduit àunediminution dalaproductioncauséeparl'insuffisance ducapital d'exploitation.
Nidanslepaysniàl'étranger,iln'existeunproblèmedemarchépourlecuiretlesarticles
encuir.Cequiestimportantc'estlaqualitéetleprix.Surlesmarchésextérieurs notamment,
iln'est pasquestiondemesuresrestrictives tellesque 'desquotas'pourlesecteurducuir.
Toutefois, ilimportequelegouvernementmetteenvigueurlesmesures d'encouragement
pourpromouvoir lesexportations decesecteurs.Tandisquenosconcurrents telsquel'Inde,
le Pakistan et la Corée du Sud bénéficient d'encouragements officiels et officieux, nous
sommes amputés chaque mois des modestes encouragements dont nous bénéficions et ceci
n'augmentepasnoschances.Acotéd'unepolitiquedesuppressiondesencouragementsd'ailleursinsuffisants, lapolitiquesdenotrefouvernementrelativeaux 'coursdedevises'paralyse
l'exportateur. Lefait quelescoursdedevises soienttenusaudessousdeschiffres d'inflation
coteàl'exportateur uneperteannuellesde20-30%.
Enoutrelespolitiques etlesméthodesmisesencouvrepourlemarketingetlesVentesen
cuiretdesarticledecuiràl'intérieur commeàl'extérieur dupaysserévèlentnettementinsuffisantes.
Une politique d'enseignement etderéorganisation simpose dans cedomaine.Le secteur
doitd'unepartintensifier sestravauxrelatifs aux 'marquesoriginales'etàlamodeetlegouvernement de son coté doit porter ses encouragements à un niveau stasfaisant et mettre en
application unepolitiqueréalistedecours.
Enseignement
Lesétablissementsquifournissentunenseignementorganiséenrapportaveclesecteurducuir
sonten nombre suffisant. Ilimportetoutefois d'améliorer laqualitédecetenseignement.Le
nombreetlacompétencedesenseignants doiventêtrerevusetremis àjour.
L'InstitutprofessionneldePendikdoitêtredotéd'unstatutautonomeetacquérirlecaractère
d'uneétablissementfournissant unenseignementdeniveau international.
L'enseignement extensif doit être développé. Pour la main d'oeuvre dont l'industrie a
besoin en grand nombre desprogrammes-paquet s'inspirant d'une méthode analytique doiventêtremisaupointeten application.
Environnement
L' opinion publique considère le secteur peaux et cuirs comme une 'branche d'industrie à
caractèreextrêmementpolluant'.Orlestechnologiesavancéesdesrécentesannéesnotamment
ontréduitsensiblementlesfacteursdepollution.D'autrepartcetteindustriea,àtouteoccasion,
manifesté sonrespectdel'environnementetcontinueàlefaire.
57
AKazliçesmedesefforts visiblesontétédéployésdanscesensdanslamesurequelesconditionsl'ontpermisetdevantl'impossibilité demultiplierdanscesecteurlesmesurescontrela
pollution ladécision du transfert danslazoneorganiséedel'industrie du cuir aétémiseen
application cequiconstitue unepreuve tangible de son comportement. La zone organiséde
l'industrie ducuird'Istanbul possèdeactuellement uneinstallation d'épuration etderécupération uniqueaumonde;60000arbustes sontencemomentplantésdanscetterégion.
Lesindustriels decuirdelarégiond'Izmirégalement sesontorientésàmettreaupointles
meilleursdispositions etdansl'intention de supprimer totalementlapollution ils sontence
momentencoursdecréerlazoneorganiséedel'industrie deMenemen.
58
The Turkish leather industry, itsfuture and possibilities,
the competition with the industry in the European Community
M.E.Artan
Facultyof VeterinaryMedicine, UniversityofIstanbul,Istanbul,Tiirkiye
Summary
Inthisinvitedpaper, theplaceofTurkish Leather IndustrywithinEuropean Community,its
future anditsccompetitiveinrelationtotheindustryinEuropean Community aredealtwith,
inthelightoftheexistinginformation inTiirkiye.
WhencomparedwithECcountries,Tiirkiyeoccupies3rdplaceinlargeruminantnumbers,
1st place in small ruminant numbers, 5th place in the production of raw hides from large
ruminants and 1stplaceintheproduction ofrawskinsfrom smallruminants.
Withitsshareof30-40percent,EuropeanCommunityhasanimportantplaceintheworld
marketofskinandleatherproducts.ThefiguresshowthattheshareofthissectorintheTurkish
tradewithECcountries hasreachedimportantdimensions.
Withitsperformance attainedinexportsinrecentyearsand with theimportance given to
technologicalchanges,TurkishLeatherIndustryhasattractedasignificantamountofattention.
Animportantimprovementintheproduction potential andqualitywillbeobtainedwhenthe
organised industry units using themostrecent technologies areput tooperation in the near
future.
TurkishLeatherindustryhasanoutstandingperformance which setsanexampleforcompetition inEuropean Community.
Introduction
Tiirkiyeappliedfor themembership ofEConApril 14, 1987after which newpolitical,economicandsocialactivitiesbegan.Sincetheapplicationmanyestablishmentsandfirmsstudied
theTurkishcapacity tocompetewithECIndustry.
This note explains the position, future and competition capacity of the Turkish leather
industrythrough studiescarriedoutinTiirkiye.
Hidesandskinsproductions
Thequantityofproductionisrelatedtoanimalpopulation.Whenlookedattheanimalnumbers
ofECcountries andTiirkiyealtogether, (Table 1),itwillbeseenthatTiirkiyehas 11551000
cows. This would make Tiirkiye thefifth country in Asia, and thefourth country in Europe
(excludingUSSR).Thenumber of its sheepis40677000,which makes it 4th in Asia,and
thefirst inEurope (excludingUSSR).Thenumberofits goatsis 11329000whichbringsit
to fifth position in Asia and first position in Europe. Another evaluation would show that
Tiirkiyehas9.2%ofthetotalnumberofcows,26.9%ofsheepand98.1%ofgoatsinEurope.
Tiirkiye, by producing 77480 mt hides is the fifth producer country in Europe (excluding
USSR)andAsia;itisthethirdcountryinAsiaandthefirstamongEuropean(excludingUSSR)
andECcountries byproducing76 160mtskins(Table1).
In Tiirkiye, the hide production in proportion to the livestock number is at arather low
level;because,theproduceperunitisataratherlowleveland,sincetheuncontrolledslaugh59
Table1. Livestocknumbers(103 head),hidesandskinsproducts(mt)inThe World, Asia,
Europe andTürkiye (TR).
World
Asia
Europe (TRincluded)
EC
Bel.-Lux.
Denmark
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
UK
Türkiye
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Hides
Skins
1 281 472
339556
137120
85364
2967
2226
21780
20369
731
5637
8737
4606
1359
5050
11902
11551
1 175524
290793
191 941
102967
190
86
12001
4098
10376
4991
11623
1405
5354
23797
29046
40677
526440
283242
26464
12 315
8
1 103
71
5970
9
1214
34
745
3 100
61
13100
6903880
1516930
1247631
871595
28000
20625
160100
259900
7 652
39000
149008
52000
12780
45930
96600
77480
1741 174
620387
291673
154834
1700
225
17 460
6017
19160
8050
16700
1342
6300
41280
36600
76 160
FAO,TOKB.
teringtakesplaceatahighlevel,itcausesgreatlosses.Spreadofcultureracesisanimportant
factor causing an increase on thehideproduce. Controlled slaughtering, which is being followedupon with greatinterest, isanotherimportant factor thatprevents lostonthehideand
skinproduction atlargescales.Bythisway,thepresentcapacitycanbeincreasedupto50per
centlevel (Artan, 1982).
Structural conditionoftheleatherSectorinTürkiye
LeathersectorisoneoftheoldestsectorsoftheTurkishindustry.Theestablishmentsaremostly smallones.Since theattempts onutilizingtheadvanced technological improvement have
notreached toarequired level yet,thesector stillmaintainsits labourprintedcharacter.The
technological level beingmaintained attheleatherprocessing andleatherclothing branches
isrecorded tobeatamediumdegreewhileitexhibitsalowdegreeattheshoemakingbranch
(Kartay, 1988).
Thepresentestablishmentsarespeciallysettledatthewesternareasofthecountry.Istanbul
andIzmir aresomeof thesecities where thoseestablishments aresettledrather densely.Approximately80%oftheoutputofthesectorisbeingproducedattheworkplacesatKazliçesme,
Istanbul.Inordertocreateacapacityincreaseaswellasatoapplyamodernizationattheleather sector in Türkiye, several investment encouraging funds are being executed (Table2).
Nowadays,therearefour importantprojects thatplay animportantrolefor the sector:
1. TotransferthepresentestablishmentsettledatKazliçesme,stanbul,whichhasa300ton/day
totalproduction capacity,totheTuzlaOrganizedLeatherIndustry Centerwherethedaily
capacitylevelisaimed tobeincreased toalevelover600ton/day.
2. Toactivatethe MinorIndustrial CenteratIkitelli-Istanbul,which has beenconstructedin
order to provide appropriate work places for the shoemaking, sadolery and ready-made
60
Table2.Documentsofincentive investmentusedinleatherandsole industries.
Year
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
Total
Doc.
No.
Total
investment
Operating
revenues
(106TL)
(106TL)
943
1726
6408
9 634
21624
33 765
74100
214
432
1886
1413
6435
20368
30748
8
10
16
30
27
40
131
Foreign Employment
exchange
(Labour)
&. Share
3
(10 $)
1411
2193
4155
6320
1064
11991
36712
553
775
1811
1 135
1268
2738
8280
Table3. Theproductionofleatherandleatherproducts.
Skinleather (106dm2)
Hideleather
Upperleather (106dm2)
Soleleather (103tons)
Leathergarments (103no.)
Shoes (106pair)
Others (103tons)
1986
1987
1931.7
2407.2
822.1
6.6
3968.3
81.9
2.3
885.9
7.0
5 639.4
86.6
2.9
Table4. Worldleathergarmentsandaccessoriesexportmarket(1(PUS$).
1981
World
Europe
EC(10countries)
1392611
558481
458145
1982
1450724
551239
473433
1983
1516353
542360
492013
1984
2002291
588020
536655
1985
2019 313
651257
598993
1985.International TradeStatistics YearbookUnitedNations,1987.
leatherworkshopswhicharealready makingtheirmanufacture underextremelyprimitive
conditions.
3. TotransfertheestablishmentssituatedatYesildere-IzmirtotheOrganizedIndustrialCenter
of Leather situated at Menemen, and to increase the production level to 27000000
num./year.
4. To complete the modern center in Bornova-Izmir, which is being constructed by 750
shoemakers.
Bytherealization oftheseprojects,theexportation volumeofthesectorisexpectedtoreach
uptoalevelof 3billionUS$in 1995(Özcörekci,1988).
61
Inparallelwiththeimprovementofthesectoritself,compensatingtheneedforqualifiedmanpowerisanotheraspectthatisalsobeingresearched.Atthemoment,leathertrainingcourses
baseduponatwoyearsorfouryearsofeducationprogramsatthecollegelevelhavebeenstartedatcertainuniversities suchasEgeUniversity (fouryearsofeducation,commencing from
1983onwards),IstanbulUniversity(twoyears,commencingfrom 1987);andtheseeducation
programsarealreadybeactive.Moreover,atPendikLeatherTrainingandResearch Institute
(establishedin1974),aleathertechnicianshiptrainingcoursebaseduponhighschoollevelis
beinggiven.
InthePlainObjectivesandAnnualApplicationPlansoftheprogramsfor5YearsofPeriods,
DPT(StatePlanningOrganization) hasputforward certainmeasuresregardingtheimprovementofleatherandtheleatherproductssectoreitherinordertobebroughtintoapplicationat
acontinuous basisorwithintheprogramperiod (DPT,1988).
ProductionofleatherandleatherproductsinTiirkiye
Production of leather and leatherproducts inTiirkiyeregarding theyears of 1986 and 1987
hasbeenshownatTable3.Productionincreasespeedin 1987hadbeenrecordedas26.9percent.During therecent years,important increaselevels havebeenrecorded.However,these
increases are still insufficient torespond the demands on the sector, and a great amountof
leatherisbeingimported.Withintheyearof1987,396000000dm2ofleatherhasbeenimported(Özcörekci, 1988).
AccordingtothesourcesoftheInternationalTradeStatisticsYearbook,theWorld'sLeather
Clothing and Accessories Export Market, and theworld,Europe and EC Countries markets
regarding theexportation of leatherclothing andaccessories have shown atTable4.Among
theworld's leather and leather products market,ECCountries maintains animportantplace
havinga30-40%shareof themarket.
Tiirkiye'scompetition and theEC countries
LeathersectorisoneoftheenterprisingsectorsanexportationinTiirkiyeaccordingtothedata
gatheredconsideringtheyearsof 1980-1988.Theratiooftheleatherproductsontheproduction percentage of the whole exportation has been recorded as 19.2%,and the ratio of this
amount to the total exportation is 2.7%.Growth at exportation is 125.8%,while growth on
productionexhibitsa11.7%oflevel.Accordingtoanotherevaluationrealizedconsideringthe
relationsbetweentheworld'sexportationandtheTiirkiye'sexportation:theleathersectorhas
been classified tobeamong the sectors having acompetitive superiority (sectorsrecorded a
relativesuccess) (TUSIAD).
When thefactors determining thecompetition superiority areconsidered according toan
evaluation basedupon 10scale,thepresentsituation attheleathersectorisasfollows:labour
forcecost,salaries9;labourforceproductivity9;capitalcost4;quality9;specialities9;Mismatches7;Technology5;Qualifiedlabourforce4;Intrastructure5;Availabilityofrawmaterial 10; Domestic competition environment 7; Image of country 3;Foreign connections 4;
Geographical situation 3(Senatalar, 1991).
Atthisevaluation,thislabourforceproductivity andthegeographical situationcanbeacceptedtobepositivefactors,whilecapitalcost,applicationofnewtechnologiesanddomestic
competitionenvironments aretaken asnegativefactors.Whencompared tothedevelopedor
developingeconomics,Tiirkiyeisatanadvantageous situation from therespectsof medium
periodlaborforce supply and salarylevel.Thetechnologies beingappliedbycertain sectors
inTiirkiye,generally,exhibitavariablesituation atlargescales andtheycanbeclassified as
unproductiveones.However,theleathersectorisamongthosewhichapplyadvancedtechno62
logiesatsufficient degree.InTürkiye,rawmaterialavailability andlowlabourforce costare
importantfactors whichprovideacompetition superioritytotheleathersector.Thesectorhas
an important effect on the employment volume, foreign exchange input power and thedevelopmentof thenon-developedregions.
Conclusion
In recent years,Turkish Leather Industry has gained an important success due to its recent
performance ontheexportation field aswellasduetotheimportanceoftechnologicaltransformation it experiences. When the organized industrial centers of leather are activated by
applyingthemostadvancedtechnologies,thepresentproductioncapacity andquality areexpectedtobeincreasedtohigherlevels.TurkishLeatherSector,againsttheECCountries,has
aremarkableperformance capability from therespectofitscompetitivepower.
References
Artan,E.,1982.Thestudiesontheskinsandhides,collectedatthemuslimfestivalofsacrifice,
intheyearof birthcentenaryofAtatiirk.J.1st. Un.Vet.Fac.8(1):1-88.
DPT(SPO), 1988.ThecompetitionprobabilitiesofTurkishindustryinECmarket.ThePrivate
Specialization. Commission's Report of Leather and Leather Products. State Planning
Organization (SPO),Türkiye.
FAO, 1990. FAOYearbookProduction 1989.Vol43.
Kartay,H.,1988.The,structuralstationandtheexpectationsinTurkishLeatherIndustry.Deri,
Year5,Issue50,p.6-13.
Özgörekgi,M.,1988.Generalreviewoftheleatherandleatherproductsindustries.DPT(SPO)
ISBN975-19.0102-2.
Senatalar,F., 1991.Leatherlaborsection,Deri,Year7,Issue78,p.8-13.
TOKB,1990. TurkishAgriculturalMinistry'sdocuments.
TUSIAD, 1991.Türkiye21stcentury,Vol.2,TUSIADPublications.
63
Session2
Environmentalproblemsassociatedtotheleatherindustry
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
R.Février
O.Öztürkcan
Innovations scientifiques et techniques pour lecontrole de
l'environnement etde laqualité desdéchargesdans l'industrie
du cuir
A. Simoncini, E. Miriani
UnioneNazionaleIndustriel Conciaria U.N.I.C.-Italie
Abstract
TheItalianleatherindustrystartedover30yearsagotobringaboutaneffective actioninorder
toface ecologieproblems connected with theindustrial processing andit has always helda
leadingpositionatinternationallevelfortheworkperformed andthestudiesrelatingtowaste
watertreatment,depletionofemissions,sludgedisposalandrecoveryofprocessby-products.
2600tanneries,producing 1 billion700millionsquarefeetoftannedleatheranddischarging
around30millioncubicmetersofeffluent peryeargiveunquestionablyrisetoproblemsconcerningdepollution,alsoowingtothefacttheItalianlegislationisamongthemostrestrictive
intheworld.
Keepinginmindthatnecessarilyforprocessinghidesintoleatherschemical^reagentshave
tobeused,anevaluationwillbemadeofallthetechnologiesdevelopedforreducingthepollutiontoamaximumextentfromthestempointitselfofwastetreatmentplants,whilealsopointing out the problems connected with emissions into the atmosphere as well as the present
trendsinthefield ofecological finishing.
Astotheover300000tonsofchromedandunchromedresiduesfrom Italiantanningprocesses,thecurrentlinesfor approachingthequestionofthemosteffective utilizationofthese
valuablenitrogenousrawmaterialswillbepointedout.Anoverallviewwillthenfollowabout
thetechnologieswhichshouldbeadoptedformaintainingthepresentproduction standardsin
compliance with environmental requirements and in the context of the need for an overall
higherproductivity oftheleatherenterprises.
Introduction
Al'occasiond'un symposiuminternationaldontlesujetestaxéessentiellement surlespeaux
brutes,lesracesanimales,lesressources zootechniques etsurl'utilisationdedifférents types
depoilsetlaine,ilestaussinécessairedeparlerdetannage,c'est-à-diredel'industriequitransforme les peaux en cuir, récupère la laine et les poils engendrant de véritables problèmes
écologiquesliésautravaildespeaux.
Letannagedespeaux représentelatransformation d'une substanceorganique putrescible
enunesubstanceimputrescible,cequiestunevéritableopérationécologique;c'estainsiqu'on
récupèreun bienprécieux quel'hommeutilisedepuislapréhistoireetquidérivedutannage
despeauxréaliséau fil des sièclespardes systèmesempiriques telsquelafumée, contenant
des aldéhides, l'écorcedesplantes,contenant des tannins,les substances grassesdespeaux
qui libèrent des aldéhides lors de leur rancissemnt; au début de ce siècle, les peaux étaient
tannéesavecdes selsbasiquesdechrome.
Laproductiondepeaux danslemondesemonteà 1 milliarddepeaux/an;pluslespotentialités dans unpays sont élevées,pluslesproblèmesécologiques auxquels ilfaut faire face
sontgraves(Tableauno. 1).Dansplusieurspaysreprésentés àceSymposiumInternational,il
existeunnombreimportantdetanneries:
67
Turquie
700
(140millionspc/an)
Maroc
40
France
182
Angleterre
70
Grèce
160
(130millionspc/an)
Egypte
230
Finlande
45
(1600millionspc/an)
Italie
2600
Face àces énormes quantités depeaux transformées, l'Italie a mis en oeuvre des stratégies
exceptionnellespourdonneruneréponseopérationnelleàlaquestionenvironnementaledans
son ensemble, par le biais d'études et de recherches multidisciplinaires pour aboutir à la
construction de systèmesd'épuration dont lesfrais degestion sontfort élevés.Malheureusement.l'épuration des eaux apourconséquence laproduction de bouesdont l'évacuation est
très coûteuse. Une série de sous-produits dérivent des travaux de tannage; nos études ont
démontré qu'ils peuventêtreconsidérés commedesmatièrespremières secondaires (MPS),
utilisablespourlaproductiondematièreazotéepourl'alimentation dubétail,pourlesemplois
Tableau 1. Productiondepeaux.
- Production depeauxdanslemonde (peaux/anenmillions)
Bovines
Ovines
Caprines
Autres
Total
240
450
210
100
1000
(5.5millionsdetonnes/an)
- Tanneriesdanslemonde: 13000avec500000empoyés
- Peauxtannéesproduites: 12.5milliardsdepiedscarrés/an
- Valeurducuirtanné:50000milliardsenlires italiennes
Troispaysproduisent 25%ducuirtanné (piedscarréesmillions)
Italie
1 600 (2600tanneries)
U.R.S.S.
1000 ( 650tanneries)
U.S.A.
700 ( 120tanneries)
- L'Europeproduit 43% ducuirtannémondial
- L'Europe occidentale enproduit29%
- L'Italie produit 50%ducuirtannédelaCE,cequiestégalà 14%duproduit tanné
mondial
Eauxetresidues:
Eauusée
(millionsmc/an)
Monde
Italie
300
28
Boues
(filtrées-pressées)
(tonnes/an)
Residuestannées
etnon-tannées
(tonnes/an)
280000
270000
Incidence surleprixducuirtannédescoûtsd'épuration, del'écoulement desboueset
desrésidus,del'abattage desémissions:environ 12centimes américains/carré.
68
Tableau2. Residuesdutannage.
100kgdepeau:
eau
kg 65
solide kg 35
55%quideviennentdespeaux tannées
= 18-19kg
Lessolidessedivisenten:
45%derésidustannésou non-tannés
+lesboues
- Résidus non-tannés
Résidusenpoil.
L'écharnage(aprèsextractiondesgraisses)permetd'obtenirdelafarine azotéepour
l'alimentationdubétail.
Ledécoupageentripepermetd'obtenirdelagélatinealimentaireetphotographique,
ducollagènepourl'industriecosmétiqueetpharmaceutique.
Biométhanisation
,
Pyrolyse
énergie
Incinération
Résidus tannés
Dérayageauchrome+enzymes
Dérayage+découpage+dépolissage-
chrome
protéines
cuir torréflié
matériaux composites
carton-cuir
pharmaceutiques,pourlesutilisationsagricoles comprenant aussilesbouesd'épuration (Tableauno.2).
Récemment,uneCommissiondelaCommunautéEuropéenneaenvoyéauParlementEuropéen un document sur les stratégies communautaires à adopter en matière de gestion des
déchets.Suivant lesdirectives duParlement,l'effort conjoint doitdéboucher surla 'prévention'delaformation desdéchetsavantleurvalorisationquiestprévueetsouhaitable.L'Italie
suitcettedirectivedepuisplusdevingtansavecdescoûtsconsidérables; larépercussion sur
lecoûtducuirtannés'élèveàplusde6%.DanslesautresPays,aussibiencommunautaires
qu'extra-communautaires,cesproblèmesnesontpasabordésetlesmesuresadoptéesenmatièreécologiquen'en sontqu'àunstadeembryonnaire.
Parconséquent,unaperçu surlespossibilitésdisponibles aujourd'hui, enamontetenaval
ducycledetravail,pourréduirel'impactécologiquepeutdonnerdesindicationsvalablesaux
opérateurs du secteur, qui devraient saisir la nécessité de mettre en place des mesures écologiques, désormais inéluctables, pour la survie du commerce des peaux et des travaux de
tannage.
Considérant que le temps à notredisposition pour exposer un sujet si vaste est réduit,je
présenterai unesynthèseportant surlesopérationspossibles,phaseaprèsphase.
Peauxbrutes
Lespeaux sont stockées suivant laméthodedelachaînedufroid oubien en ayantrecoursà
l'emploideconservants autresquelechlorure de sodium quin'est pas biodégradable etqui
69
constitueunproblèmedansleseffluents. Lebattagedespeaux saléesavantleverdissageou
l'emploidefoulonsenréseaupermetderécupérer,mêmesicen'estquepartiellement,cepolluant.Ilexisteaussidessystèmesderécupération deseauxdedésalinisationquiséparentles
protéinesdelasaumure;celle-ciestensuiteconcentréeparevaporationetleselréutilisépour
lesalage.
Pentachlorophenol(PCP)
Lesproduits àbasedePCPsontutiliséspourpréserver surtoutlespeaux traitéesen saumure
desmoisissures.Cetemploicréeplusieursproblèmespuisquelesquantitésdecesconservants
surlespeauxfinies sont supérieures àcellesprévuesparlaLoi.Lalimitede5ppmimposée
enAllemagneseraaugmentéesuivantuneDirectiveCommunautaire(76/769)quiprévoitune
quantitéjusqu'à 1 000ppmdePCP.Entretemps,lesconservantsdecetteclassepeuventengendrer,aprèsincinération,destracesdedioxine;parconséquent,ilssontremplacéspard'autres
produitsàbased'ortophénilphénol, deparachlorométacréosol oubienpardesproduitsàbase
de TCMTB ayant le même effet anti-moisissure bien qu'ils soient plus coûteux et moins
durables surlapeau.
Dépilage
Le dépilage traditionnel à base du complexe sulfure-chaux peut être remplacé par d'autres
alternatives.Laprésencedequantitésdesulfure,deDCOetDBOélevéesaprèsladestruction
despoilsprovoquent desinconvénients pendant l'épuration; l'eau aprèschaulage a unCOD
de40000à50000contreunevaleurde12000a 13000silepoilestrécupérépardesprocessus
d'immunisation etl'emploi debassesquantitésdesulfures.Danslecasdespeauxlainées,le
dépilageenzymatiqueoul'emploidepetitesquantitésdesulfure combinéauxenzymesayant
une activité spécifique enmilieu alcalin,aurontuntrèsgrandintérêtàl'avenir. Lesenzymes
susmentionnés sontdéjàdisponiblesetàl'étude auprèsdescentresderecherche.Leprincipe
de l'injection d'enzymes souspression du côtécuir (Penetrator) estvalabledupoint devue
écologique.
Déchaulage
L'une des substances chimiques les plus difficiles à éliminer des eaux résiduaires est l'ion
ammoniumquidériveessentiellemntdesselsd'ammoniumutiliséslorsdudéchaulage.L'utilisationdugazcarboniquetestéemêmeàl'échelonindustrielrésoutenpartiecesinconvénients.
Leprocessusesttrèssimpleetlesfrais pourl'installation desfoulons nesontpasélevés.
Tannage
Laplupartdespeauxproduitesdanslemondesonttannéesaveclesselsdechrome.Considérant
queleseauxrésiduaires doiventcontenirdesquantitéstrèsbassesdechrome,allantde 1 mg
à2mgdeCrparlitreetquelaprésencedechrometrivalentlimitel'emploidesbouesenagriculture, on a cherché àremplacer le chrome par d'autres produits minéraux, en particulier
l'aluminium etletitanium.Maismalheureusement,cesselstannants,ycompris l'aluminium,
ont deseffets nocifs etles selsde chrome ne serontpasremplacéspar d'autres systèmes de
tannage.Parvoiedeconséquence,ilfautévaluertouteslespossibilitésexistantespourréduire
les quantités de chrome à utiliser et surtout pour épuiser les bains de tannage et pour en
70
récupérerlechromerésiduaire.Sil'onconsidèrequelesbouesdetannagecontiennentenviron
50%dematièreorganique azotée,pourquecesmatériauxconviennentpourlafertilisation, il
fautfaire touslesefforts possiblesafinderéduireaumaximumlesquantitésdechromedans
leseffluents. Les systèmespermettantd'obtenirl'épuisementtotaldesbainsdetannage sont
nombreux; le chrome, tout comme les autres produits chimiques, ne peut réagir que sur la
substancedermique(SD)delapeauquiestégaleà20%dupoidsdelapeau;sionapportesur
lespeaux entripe2.5%de Q2O3,nousfournissons àlapartieréactive delapeau (SD)plus
de 50%de son poids!Il est fort évident quecesquantités sontexcessives, qu'unepartiedu
chromen'estpasfixéed'unemanièrestableetqu'onlaretrouvenonseulementdanslesbains
résiduelsdetannagemaisaussidansleslavages,lorsdelaneutralisationetdanslesbainsde
teinture.Outrelanécessitéd'optimisertouslesfacteurs quiinfluencent laréactivitéduselde
chrometelsquelepiclage,lestemps,lepHetlabasification, latempératuredemeurel'un des
paramètres fondamentaux. Suivant lesexpériences réalisées en Italie,nous avons démontré
qu'à l'aided'un chauffage programmé,quipeut accroîtrelatempératuredanslesfoulons de
manièreprogressiveet linéairejusqu'à atteindre40 à45° Cdans lesphases finales, onpeut
utiliser desquantités dechromeinférieures d'un tierspourfixer àlasubstancedermiqueles
mêmesquantitésdeseltannant.EnItalie,plusieurstanneriesontappliquécesystèmeréduisant
ainsi la quantité de chrome, obtenant des eaux de tannage presque épuisées et de faibles
quantitésdechromedanslesboues.
Ilexistesurlemarchédesselsdechromeàhautdegréd'épuisementquipermettentd'obtenirdanslesbainsépuisésmoinsde1 gr/1parrapportàunequantitéconstantede4à6gr/1.En
outre,beaucoup deproduitspeuvent favoriser lafixation duchrome ainsiqu',onl'a suggéré
parexempleenutilisantdeshydrolysatsdechératineobtenusàpartirdupoilrécupérépendant
laphasededépilageavecrecyclage.Quoiqu'ilensoit,ilfaudraitmenerdesétudesultérieures
afinquelechromefixélorsdutannagenesoitpaséliminépendantlesopérationssuccessives.
Teinture
L'emploideclasses decolorants quiontremplacélesproduits benzidiniques ouceuxàbase
detoluidineafindeéliminerleseffets cancérigènesdecessubstances.Lavéritableinnovation
estl'emploidecolorantsliquidesquiévitentl'inhalationdepoudres,quipeuvent êtremieux
dosésetquiontuneréactivitéplusimportantevis-à-visdespeauxchromées,grâceauxdimensionspluspetitesdesparticulesducolorant.
Finissage
Ilexistedifférents typesdefinissage quicomportent l'utilisationdemachinesetdeproduits
chimiques.Lesfinissagespeuventêtresubdivisésendeuxcatégories:lefinissageàbased'eau
etlefinissageàbasedesolvant.Lesfinissagesàbased'eauimpliquentl'utilisationdecaséines
etdestraitementsavecdesproduitsréticulants(telsqueleformaldehydeoudesproduitssimilaires). Lesfinissagesà base de solvantprévoient, suivant les articles, l'emploi de solvants
soitsolubles,dansunecertainemesure,soitinsolublesdansl'eau.
Les solutions sontapportées surlapeauparlapulvérisation (lignesdepistoletsàvapeur),
lesaupoudrageoul'enduisage.
Lesproduitsquipeuventprovoquerdesproblèmesécologiques(pollutiondel'atmosphère)
sont les suivants: l'émission de particules, le formaldehyde et les solvants insolubles dans
l'eau.Parailleurs,dupointdevuedesmachines,lesproblèmesmajeurs sontliésessentiellement aux lignes de pistolets à vapeur où la pulvérisation de mélanges, avec la création de
l'aérosoletlesdébitsélevésd'air(jusqu'àenviron15000m3/h),demandel'emploidegrandes
71
quantitésdeproduitsdontunepartieseulementestapportéesurlapeau,alorsqueleresteest
dégagédansl'air.
Dès lors,il est nécessaire d'analyser chacun de ces éléments susceptibles de représenter
uneforme potentielledepollution:Particules: lesparticules solides,composées essentiellementderésines,decaséinesetdepigments,sontprésentes seulement dansleslignesdepulvérisation.Al'heureactuelle,grâceàdescritèresetàdessystèmesd'abattageàl'eau (toursà
contre-courant),detrèsbonsrésultats,enconformité aveclesnormesenvigueur,peuventêtre
obtenus.Formaldehyde:cettesubstance,employéetraditionnellementdanslesecteurdutannage,pourlesfinissages àl'"aniline", n'apasétéremplacéeaujourd'hui encorepard'autres
produits aussivalables.Lesproblèmesqueleformaldehydeposesontcorrélésàsavolatilité
élevéeetaux fortes contraintes établiesparlalégislation actuelle.L'utilisation du formaldehydeacomportédesinvestissementsimportantsafind'équiperleslignesdepulvérisationavec
desinstallations d'abattageappropriées.Nuldoutequelesrésultatsobtenus sont satisfaisants
etceciaétépossible enréduisant lesquantitésdeformaldehyde employées eten appliquant
destechnologiesd'installationquiexploitentsasolubilitédansl'eauetsaréactivitéparticulière
danscertainesconditions.Solvants:ilfautfaireunedistinctionentrelessolvantssolublesdans
l'eau(parexemple,lesglycols,l'acétoneetc.)etlessolvantsinsolubles.Encequiconcernent
lespremiers,iln'existepasdeproblèmesd'abattageimportantscarenexploitantleursolubilité
dansl'eau,onarriveàlimiterleurteneurdanslesémissions.Encequiconcernelesautressolvants,leproblèmeestbienplusclairétantdonnéquelescaractéristiquesdesémissions (concentrations,débitsetc.)sonttellesqu'ellesempêchentd'avoirrecoursàdestechnologiesexpérimentées dans d'autres secteurs,par exemple les chambres de combustion catalytiques ou
thermiques.Lecoûtdel'investissementetsurtoutdelagestion nepourraitpasjustifier cette
opération.Quefaire alors?La seulealternative seraitdeneplusproduirecertains typesd'articles,maisàvraidire,celle-cinesemblepasêtrelameilleure solution.Ilfaudrait plutôtune
actionconcertéeaveclesproducteursdesubstanceschimiques.Ceux-cidoiventêtreenmesure
deproposerdenouvellesformulations quipermettent d'obtenirlesmêmesproduits avecdes
solvants différents deceux utilisés actuellementet solubles dansl'eau:unehypothèse quia
déjàétépréconiséepardesétudesmenéesparlaStazioneSperimentalePellideNaples.C'est
là,indiscutablement, lavoieàsuivreetàapprofondir. Desraisonsécologiques,techniqueset
économiquessontàlabasedecesorientationsd'autantplusquedecettefaçon,ilserapossible
d'envoyer les eaux d'abattagedes solvants aux installations normales d'épuration des eaux
dontchaquetannerieestpourvue.
Encequiconcernelesémissions,lalégislationitalienneestrécente,peuclaire,incomplète
etpénalisanteetparvoiedeconséquence,elledoitfairefaceàtouslesproblèmesdelaréalité
productive.
Onespèreque,dansunfuturproche,desnormesserontformulées àl'écheloneuropéenqui
ne soientpasdiscriminantes pourlesdifférents paysdel'EuropeUnie.
Machinespourletannageetcyclesdetravail
Cesdernièresannées,lesactivitésdetannageenEuropeontsubiunfléchissement légerdela
production,dûessentiellementàlacrisedel'industriedelachaussure,auxdifficultés d'approvisionnementenmatièrespremièresetauxproblèmesécologiquesdusecteurquicontribuent
àcréerdessujetsderéflexion.Leniveaudelaqualitéducuirtanné,unecondition fondamentale
pourlacompétitivité,nesembleplusêtresuffisant pourassurerl'expansiondansl'avenir.Une
telle expansion est au contraire corrélée àune innovation technologique constante qui doit
créerlesdifférences nécessairespourlacompétitivité.Afin deréaliserceprocessusd'innovation,il seranécessairedecompter surdessystèmesd'automationtrès sophistiqués,avecune
gestion entièrement informatisée delatannerie.Dans unemoindremesure,ilfaudra réaliser
72
unemécanisationintégréepoussée,enpartieaumoyendesystèmesinformatisés etessentiellementenrobotisantlaplupart desopérationsdemanipulation despeaux.
Lapremièresolutionpeutêtreréaliséeàlongtermeseulementpardestanneries ayantdes
productionstrèsélevées.Enrevanche,lasecondesolutionoffre, àmoyenterme,unepossibilité
réelle d'applications différenciées selon l'importance de laproduction. Par conséquent, les
initiativesindustrielles auxquellesondevraaccorderunintérêtprioritairesontnon seulement
lecontrôledesprincipalesphasesduprocessus,maisaussil'emploidenouveauxtypesdemachines destinées à toutes les phases de la transformation, outre la robotisation de la manipulation despeaux. Ceci,dans lebutdetransformer letravail 'discontinu' delaplupart des
machinesutiliséesactuellement entravail 'continu'.
Depuis plusieurs années, on a mis aupoint desmachines qui sont largement employées:
pourl'écharnage,ledécoupage,laventilationlapresse,lateintureetledérayage.Anotreavis,
lesperspectivesfutures delatransformation despeauxsontétroitementliées,pourdesraisons
économiquesetécologiques,àunesériedeprocessusderationalisationducycleproductifqui
doiventêtreinterprétés surtoutcommeunemodification essentielle desprocessusderivière,
notamment du dépilage-chaulage, comme une simplification des opérations de charge etde
décharge, commedescontrôles etsipossible,lerecyclage desbains etledosageplus facile
desproduitschimiques.
Desinnovations substantiellesdanslarationalisationdesopérationsmécaniquessontaussi
nécessaires,àtraversledéveloppement del'automation, surtoutpourleprélèvement,lepositionnement et l'empilage despeaux àla sortie desfoulons et des machines. Enréduisant le
nombredetravailleurs,lescoûtsseronteuxaussiréduits.Toutefois,ilestclairquecesinnovationsneserontappliquéesquesilescoûtsdel'innovation sontlimités.Enmêmetemps,ilsera
possible d'obtenir une amélioration de la qualité des peaux, de plus grands rendements en
termede surface etaussideréduirelesproblèmesécologiques.Deslignesdetravail 'encontinu'sontactuellementdisponiblesoù,bienquel'hommeremplisseencoreunefonction fondamentale,des solutions valables sont adoptéespour l'automation et lecontrôle duprocessus.
De fait, la continuité et la vitessede travail sont assuréespar l'automation des transferts, ce
quipermet uneforte diminution descoûtsdemanipulation tout en garantissant la souplesse
de travail nécessaire. Amoyen terme, il estpossible d'envisager une économie de la main
d'oeuvreemployéede40à50%pourlesraisonssuivantes:1)touteslesopérationsdedépilage,
de chaulage, de tannage et de teinture peuvent être réalisées dans un seul foulon, réduisant
ainsilemouvementdespeaux;2)touteslesopérationsmécaniquespeuventêtreexécutéessur
des machines encontinu, dontplusieurs sontreliées en série,cequicomporte uneréduction
considérable dunombre d'ouvriers.
En cequi concerne lesavantages écologiques des nouvelles lignes de travail préconisées
— l'écharnage et ledécoupage associés aufoulon àrecyclage— ellespermettent d'obtenir
unediminution d'environ 50%des bouesproduitesparlatannerieetuneéconomieconsidérabled'eau.Ilestégalementpossiblederécupérerlesdéchetsdedécoupage,lescroûtesetles
oreillonsquisontindemnesdeproduitschimiquesetquipeuventdoncêtrerecyclésaussipour
l'alimentationanimaleoupourlapréparationdeproduitsàhautevaleurajoutée.Dansl'atelier
de finissage, si on adopte lapigmentation avec des machines àrouleaux pour remplacer le
système traditionnel de pulvérisation, tout problème d'épuration s'en trouve éliminé et les
solutions de couverturepeuvent êtreentièrement utilisées.Enfin, ledécoupage automatique
despeauxaveclesdéchetsréduitsauminimum,surtoutpourlespetitespeauxdevaleur,augmenteralesrendements etlimiteralesproblèmesd'élimination desdéchets.
Grâce àun effort conjoint des tanneries,del'industrie chimique, desproducteurs demachines et d'installations et delarecherche du secteur,ilestactuellement possible deréaliser
unetanneriequi,sansgaspillagederessources,puissegarantirl'avenir del'industrie dutannagelié,sansaucundoute,àuneproductivitéélevée,àuneréduction généraledescoûts,àun
contrôleduprocessusetdoncàunequalitéconstante,toutcecienrespectantenpleinl'environnement.
73
Possibility ofreduction and re-usingthewastesofTurkish
leatherindustry thatcauseenvironmental pollution
Ö.SariandA.N. Yapici
UniversityofEge, FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofLeatherTechnology,
35100-Bornova-hmir, Turkey
Summary
Fromtraditionalhandicrafts intwentyyearstheTurkish leathermanufacturing hasbecomea
majorindustry,meanwhilerapidflowofpopulationfromruralareastotownsresultedinunorganized urbanization. Tanneries once located in provincial zones of towns now engulfed in
rapidexpansion andbecomepartofcitycenter areaswheretannerieslackproper infrastructures.Consequently treatmentplantsweren'tinstalled bythefirms.Andnowsuddenlyenvironmentalhazardsofleatherindustrycometoattention.
Institutionstosupplythisindustrywithskilledresourcestoincreasethestandardsofknowledge were slow in forming. Insufficient establishments while moving upward for spacein
progressmadeitdifficult, sometimesimpossible,totreatandprocessesliquidandsolidwastes.
Thus,establishmentswhobroughtnewtechnologyweren'tabletomakecompleteuseofthem.
Considering the state of theTurkish tanneries today, to achieve desired decrease in solid
andliquidwastes,variousprecautionscanbeeffective.Educationandtrainingcraftsmen must
betheprimeconcern.Withoutskilledcraftsmen nomatterhownewthetechnologyisdecreasingthewastetopreventpollutionwillnotbepossible.Alsothechemical andwaterquantity
inapplicationforsorting,soaking,dehairing,limingetc.Ifitcanbeappliedinspecificamounts
itwillhelptominimize theliquidandsolidwastes.
TanneriesofTiirkiyemakenoeffort torecyclethewaste.Wastewaterstudiesfor agriculturalusearen'tmade.Alsonoresearchismadeforusingthesolidwastes.
Keywords:tannery,wastes,reduction, sorting,recycling.
Introduction
Turkish leather industry, which has become a major manufacturing from traditional handicrafts, isoneoftheindustry brancheswhichmustbepointed outwith sensitivity andimportance.The sector,which hasshowed arapiddevelopment andchanginginlast twentyyears,
hadneitheritsowninfrastructure noreducatedpersonnel.Whenthesectors'spollutingsideis
noticeditwasverylatethatthetakenpreventscouldn'tbeenough.
Theareasthattheleatherindustryisestablishedandsettled,inashorttime,startedtotake
placein citycenters becauseof unorganized urbanization andrapidflow ofpopulation from
rural areas to cities. So the establishments that normally have to show horizontal growth,
parallel to unorganized urbanization, showed perpendicular development in limited areas.
Environmentalpollution hasgraduallyintensed,treatmentplantscouldn'tbeestablishedand
theonesthathavebeenestablishedcouldn'tgivetheexpectedresultbecauseoftechnological
incompetence.
Incities,problemofenvironmentalpollutiongraduallyincreasedandresultofthis,leather
industry had the problem of changing place. As a result, studies about moving the leather
establishments inIstanbul KazliçesmetoTuzlaOrganizedLeather Manufacturing Areasand
theonesinIzmirYesilderetoMenemenMaltepeOrganizedLeatherManufacturingAreasare
increased.StudieslikethatarealsodoneincitieslikeBursa,Usak.Howeverfinancialproblems
74
hindered theorganized leather manufacturing areastogainworkingnessin a shorttime.On
one sidethepreventsthatthelocaladministration took andontheothersidetheobligations
thattheenvironmentallawssubmittedespeciallycausedthemovingoftheestablishmentsin
Kazliçesmetoothercities.So,incountrybasebesidesnotbeingabletotakepreventstohinder
the environmental pollution, postponing and decreasing occurred in the production of the
establishments,thequalitybecamelowerandmanyfirmscouldn'timplementtheircontracts.
GeneralsituationofTurkishleatherindustry
Thereisn'tanycertainknowledgeaboutthenumberofleatherestablishmentsinTurkey,itis
thoughtthatthereareabouttwothousandestablishments.Theseestablishmentsareinsufficient
bothtechnicallyandtechnologically.Besides,theyshowdifferencefromeachotherinworking
methods.
Mostof theestablishments inTurkeyareintensedincities andtownslikeIstanbul,Izmir,
Usak,Bursa,Denizli,Çorlu,Gönen,Gerede,Kula.When theseplaces aresearchedfor their
treatment plants the collected treatment plants are only in Izmir Yesildere and Gökdere. In
otherplaces,therearen'tanytreatmentplantsexcept5-10establishments.So,allliquid effluentsaredirectlygiventonaturalenvironment.Theseeffluents, whicharen'tdependedonany
kindof treatment,causesenvironmentalpollution.Shortly,today'sTurkishLeather Industry
doesn't have any possibilities to treat its own enfluents except 5-10 treatment plants. This
problemcanbesolvedonlyintheplacewherethetreatmentplantisandonlyifitworksgood.
Decreasingtheenvironmentalpollution
Someprevents can betaken bytakingintoaccountthesituation of TurkishLeather Industry
wementioned above.Thisispossibleonlybyeducatingfirstly theleather manufacturer and
then the ones working in the sector. Because it isn't possible to establish and tolabour the
technological possibilities todecrease the environmental pollution in these establishments.
Here,becausethatmanyfactorslikediscontinuityintheproduction,variety,andlowcapacity
playsanimportantrole,investmentsaren'tbecomerational.So,itcan'tbepossibletoevaluate
eitherliquidorsolideffluents inaneconomicway.
Itispossibletoseparatetheeffluents inleathermanufacturing intotwogeneral groupsas
liquidandsolideffluents. So,hereitwillbetoldaboutfirstly howtodecreasetheliquidand
solideffluents andthenhowtoevaluatethese effluents.
Asknown,rawmaterialsareprocessedindifferentfloatamounts.Becauseofthis,according
tothekindoftherawmaterialorsemi-manufactured leatherdifferent amountsofwaterisused
and chemical materials in various characters areadded tothewater. Also,thewasted-water
structureshowsaverymixedcharacterwiththeprotein,fat,hair,dust,solid,etc.duringvarious
processes.Because ofthis,totreattheeffluents ofleathermanufacturing ismoredifficult in
contrastwiththeothermanufactures' effluents.
Below, approximate water amounts, which are used in labouring 1 000 kg of someraw
materialsandsemi-manufactured leatherinaclassicformula,aregivenasanexampletogive
anideaabouttheliquideffluent amounts.
Forraw skin
70-90m3/t
Forpickledleathers
30-^40m3/t
Forwet-blueleathers
24-30m3/t
Forgoatleathers
60-70m3/t
Forpickledgoatleathers
20-30m3/t
Forwet-blueleathers
18-22m3/t
Forcalf upperleathers
60m3/t
75
Today,inmostoftheplacesoftheworld,waterisusedlessthanthesevalues.Here,besides
economical and ecological factors, the knowledge, technology and new auxiliary agents,
which areimproves gradually, startedtobevery effective.
Theresearches done inEgeUniversity AgriculturalFaculty Leather Technology Department showed that at least % 50 of water can be saved which is used for the production of
clothingandupperleatherinthesectortoday.
Todecreasetheeffluent volumeispossiblebyoptimizingtheprocesses.Thisneeds firstly
qualifiedpersonnelwithenoughtechnologicknowledge.Bydoingthat,thevariables effecting
theprocedureduringtheprocesscanbeadjustedwellandtheexpectedresultcanbeprovided.
Thefirst prevent tobetaken toprovide thedecreasingoftheeffluent volumeistoeliminate
thesuperfluous washingsandrinsing.Thewashingsafter limingdecreasing,tanning,dyeing
andwashingsbefore andafter theneutralizationneedsverymuchattention.Also,theamount
of thewater thatis usedin theprocess must beadjusted very goodand byusing thetechnologicalknowledge,thechemicalsthataregiventothefloatmustbetakenasthemaximumby
theleather. Someprocesseffluents canbeusedmanytimesbyrecycling.However, theestablishments arenotsuitabletoestablishansystemlikethatbecauseof settlingand infrastructure.Also,itmustn't beforgotten thattheregeneration needsaverygoodanalyticalcontrol.
Besides liquideffluents, thereisanotherkindof effluent causing environmental pollution
whichiscalledthesolidwastes.Thesecanbeclassified inthreegroups,suchas:
a. hairyrawmaterialwastes;
b. untannedleatherwastes;
c. tannedleatherwastes.
Theirquantityrisesupto50-55 % oftotalrawmaterial weight.Thepossibility ofevaluating
them,changesaccordingtothetypeofthewaste.
Thereisthepossibilityofevaluatingthewastes.AsmostofthetanneriesinTiirkiyearein
certaincentersinIstanbul andIzmir,theproblemofcollectingthesolidwastesisnearlyfinished.But,inTiirkiye,therearen'tinstitutionsyetthatcanprocessthesesolidwastes.Toestablishtheseinstitutionstherequiredstudiesmustbedoneandtheinstutionsmustbeestablished
as soon aspossible in the areaswhere theleather establishments areintensed.When thisis
succeeded, thenaturewillbeeffected inapositivewayandtheeffluents willbeevaluatedby
becomingtherawmaterialof anotherindustry:
Waste'stype
Waste'susages
1. untanned wastes Sausagecase,surgicalmaterial,food matters,glue,manure
2. tannedwastes
Artificial leather,glue,foodmatter,manure
3. otherwastes
Artificial leather,hair, solubleprotein
76
Useof the biomasses and ofthe by-products ofthe leather
industry in agriculture
5.SilvaandC.Baffi
InstituteofChemistry,FacultyofAgriculture, CatholicUniversity,Piacenza,Italy
Abstract
Experimental data from trials with the use of leather tannery sludges in agricultural soils,
typicalofNorthItaly,oncropsofrice,maizeandwheatwillbepresented.Thematerialsallow
good yields,comparable with theyields of plots fertilized with mineral fertilizers only,and
theypermitagoodsavingofNfertilizers.Asfaraschromiumisconcerned,thedatafromexperiments showthattherearenorisksconnectedwithchromiumlevels ingrainsabdstrawof
crops becausethe element (presentonlyintheform CrIII)remains in the soilaschromium
oxidewhichisaninertmaterialwithoutanyriskfor thepollution of soilandgroundwaters.
Keywords:Chromium,energy saving,fertilizing action,leathertannerysludge.
Introduction
Despitethediffuse opinionthatbelivesthatby-productscomingfromchemical,foodandother
industrieshavetobeconsideredonlyaswastes,intheserecentyearsscientistsandinternational
organizations (ECC Directive n 91/156/ECC 18 March 1991) have begun to consider the
problem underadifferent pointofview.Infact by-products arebeginning toberegarded as
energy and nutrient sources by virtue of organic matter, nitrogen contents,to be favourably
employedasrawmaterialsinprimaryactivities,asinagriculture.Inthisnewlighttheproblem
offindingsuitablesolutionsforthedisposalofwastes,changesinfinding suitablefieldswhere
thesematerialscouldbeprofitably employed.Thatisthecaseofbyproductscomingfrom leatherindustrieswhichproducelargeamountsof different materials;inthispaper sludgesand
theirpossibleagriculturalusewillbeonlytreatedindetail,neglectingallotherleatherindustry
by-products.Aimofthepaperistherefore toinvestigateaboutthepossibleuseofleathertannerysludgesinagricultural soilsasorganicmanureswhichcanrestorefertility levelsinsoils
submitted tointensive agricultural cropping.
Materialsandmethods
Theexperiments carriedoutcanbesubdividedintwoparts:experiment 1 andexperiment2.
Theformer willdealwiththeuseof leathertannery sludgesinsoilswheremaize/wheathave
been grown and thelatterwilldealwiththeuseof thesludges on soilswithricecrop.Inthe
experiments,bothtwo-yearlong,thesamesludges andthesameexperimentaldesign (randomizedblocks)havebeenemployedasitwillbedescribedinthefollowing sections.
Experiment1
Theexperiment 1wascarried outonaloam soil,typical of thePlain of Northern Italy,with
medium fertility, subacidreaction and good e.c.c. (Table 1)with acropping of maize (first
year) followed by wheat (second year). The leather tannery sludges employed were of two
types:onecalledSludge 1,camefrom vegetabletanningandtheother,calledSludge2,from
77
Table 1. Mainphysical-chemicalcharacteristicsofthesoils.
Parameters
Soil
exper.1
Soil
exper.2
6.2
0.12
1.90
40.5
77.0
73.5
0.40
20.9
5.3
0.19
3.82
56.5
39.6
18.9
0.24
15.1
31.1
48.7
20.2
27.8
68.8
3.4
pH (inwater)
TotalN%
Organicmatter%
Avail.P2O5ppm
Exchang.K 2 0ppm
Chronium solubleinHCl6Nppm
Avail,chronium (Lakanen-Ervio)ppm
e.c.c.(meg/100g)ppm
Physical analysis
sand%
silt%
clay%
Table2. Chemicalanalysisofthesludgesemployedinthe trials.
Parameters
pH(inH 2 0; 1:2.5)
Dryresiduesat 105"C %
Mineral substances at550°C(ashes)%
Organicsubstances%
Organiccarbon (Springler-Klee)%
TotalN(Kijeldhal)%
TotalP 2 0 5%
TotalK 2 0%
TotalCaC0 3%
Exavalent chronium
ChroniumextractablebyHCl6N(Cr%)
Availablechronium (Lakanen-Ervio)%
C/N
Sludgetreatment
Sludge1
chrometanning
9.1
38.3
61.0
39.0
21.0
2.1
0.42
0.010
41.4
absent
2.23
0.440
10
filter-press
Sludge2
vegetabletanning
7.8
32.0
57.2
42.8
22.0
2.2
0.40
0.023
0.023
absent
0.33
0.036
10
filter-press
chrome tanning.Themainchemical analysisof thesludges areshowninTable2.Theexperimentaldesignwasrandomizedblockswith4replicationsforeachtreatment;thetreatments
were6thefirstyearand8thefollowing one,sosubdivided:thefirstyearwehadtwoorganic,
twoorgano-mineral,oneonly mineralandoneno-fertilized treatment tobecompared.onthe
basisoftheirNcontent.Thefollowingyear,inordertohavesupplementaryinformation about
theresidualeffect ofthesludgesappliedtheyearbefore,twoorganicallyfertilizedplotswere
splitted.Theexperimentaldesign andthenutrient supplies areshowninTable3.
78
Table3. Experimentaldesignandnutrientsuppliesfor maizeandwheat.
CropofMaize
Treatments
Test unfertilized
NPKminer,fertil.
Sludge 1org.fertil.
Sludge2org.fertil.
Sludge 1+PK
org.+miner,fertil.
Sludge 2+PK
org.+miner,fertil.
t/haof
sludge
suppl.
(Am.)
CropofWheat
Nutrients supplied
(kg/ha)
t/haof
sludge
suppl.
K 2 0 (dm.)
N
P2O5
0
0
12.8
15.3
0
300
282
322
0
168
51
64
0
200
3
1.5
12.8
282
219
15.3
322
232
Nutrients supplied
(kg/ha)
N
P2O5
K20
0
0
12.8
15.3
0
200
282
322
0
100
51
64
0
0
3
1.5
203
12.8
382
101
3
202
15.3
422
114
1.5
Table4. Experimentaldesignandnutrientsupplies1for rice crop.
Treatments
Test unfertilized
NPKminer, fertil.
Sludge 1org.fertil.
Sludge2org.fertil.
Sludge 1+PK
org+min. fertil.
Sludge 2+PK
org+min. fertil.
t/haof
sludgesuppl.
(dm.)
Nutrients supplied(kg/ha)
N
P2O5
K20
0
0
6.40
7.66
0
140
141
161
0
100
25.6
32
0
180
1.5
0.75
6.40
141
125.6
181.5
7.66
161
132
180.8
Thedosesappliedthesecondyearareequaltothoseappliedthefirst year.
Experiment2
Theexperiment2wascarriedoutonasilty-loamsoilsitedinaNorthernregionofItaly,with
highfertility, acidreaction(Table1)withacroppingofricefortwo years.Forthisexperiment
arevalidthe sameexperimentaldesignmadefor theexperiment 1.Theexperimental design
andnutrient suppliesareshowninTable4.
79
Table5. Grainyieldsfor maize,wheatandricecrops (tlhaofdrymatter).
Treatments
Maize
Wheat
Rice
1styear
Testunfertilized
NPKminer,fertil.
Sludge 1 org.fertil.
Sludge 1 residualeffect
Sludge2org.fertil.
Sludge2residualeffect
Sludge 1+PK
Sludge2+PK
9.22
10.38
8.35
0
8.36
0
9.30
8.39
4.203*
6.48d
5.96d
5.05b
5.93cd
S ^
6.36d
6.01d
5.80*
6.03a
6.78b
0
7.00b
0
6.61b
6.77b
Rice
2ndyear
5.67a
6.80b
6.85b
5.99a
6.7l b
5.99a
6.84b
6.83b
1 0.01confidence level;diferences in smallletters.
Table6. Contentsof chronium in grainandstrawsamplesof rice,maizeand wheatafter
harvesting (ppm).
Treatments
Test unfertilized
NPKminer, fertil.
Sludge 1 org.fertil.
Sludge 1 residual effect
Sludge2org.fertil.
Sludge2residual effect
Sludge 1 +PK
Sludge2+PK
1
Rice
1styear
Rice
2ndyear
Maize
Wheat
chaff
grain
chaff
grain
straw
grain
straw
grain
1.31
0.91
1.03
0
1.21
0
0.83
0.76
n.s.
0.04
0.05
0.05
0
0.03
0
0.03
0.03
n.s.
1.27
1.33
1.11
1.13
1.11
1.21
1.08
1.34
n.s.
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.05
n.s.
0.59
0.50
0.62
0
0.64
0
0.61
0.51
n.s.
0.05
0.06
0.06
0
0.05
0
0.06
0.04
n.s.
0.55
0.48
0.54
0.48
0.61
0.50
0.55
0.54
n.s.
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.06
0.08
0.06
n.s.
ns:nonsignificant differences betweenthemeans.
Resultsand discussion
Experiment1
Table5showsthedatarelativetograinyieldsofmaizeandwheat;datarelativetostrawyields
arelessimportantandarenotreported here.Wecansaythat sludgesneededacertain period
oftimetobeincorporatedandtoreachsteady-stateconditionswithsoilorganicmatter;neverthelesseveninthefirstyearofapplicationwithmaizecrop,theyieldsoforganically fertilized
plotsdon't significantly differ fromotherplots,especiallyfrom thosewithmineral fertilizers
only.Inthesecondyear,withwheatcrop,thefertilizingactionofsludgescanbebetterobserved
inthattheplotsfertilized withleathertannerysludgesshowyieldscomparablewithplotswith
mineral fertilizers only.Table6showsthevalueofcontentsof chromiumin straw andgrain
of maize andwheatafter harvest. Therearenosignificant differences among themeansand
80
Table7. Statistical test on means of organic matter values in soils afterfinalharvesting
(Duncantest).
Treatments
Sludge2+PK
Sludge2
Sludge 1
Sludge 1+PK
Sludge 1 residualeffect
NPK
Sludge2residualeffect
Test
Soilexp. l a
o.m. %a
1.95e
1.92e
1.91e
1.90e
1.83b
1.81b
1.78b
1.64a
Treatments
Sludge2+PK
Sludge2
Sludge 1+PK
Sludge 1
Sludge2residualeffect
Sludge 1 residualeffect
NPK
Test
Soilexp.2 a
o.m. %a
3.88e
3.87e
3.86e
3.85e
3.80b
3.78b
3.76b
?,.&&
thevaluesareverylow,expecially for grains,which areofinterestfor humanfood. Thedata
relativetoorganicmatter(Table7)andchromiumcontentsintheloamsoilafterharvestshow
thatleathertannerysludgesrestoreinitialorganicmatterlevelsinsoilswhichhavebeenreducedin their valuesintheotherplots with slurry supplies.Asfar aschromium levels in soils
areconcerned,the plots fertilized with sludges show anincrease inchromium lévels.butthis
elementinthesoilispresentasCr 2 0 3 (trivalentform) andinthisformitistransformed when
itisadded tosoilby additionof sludges;therefore ithastobeconsidered asaninert material
(assuggestedbyEPA),without anyriskfor groundwaterpollution.
Experiment2
Table5showsthedatarelativetoriceyieldsinthetwo-year experiment; wecan saythatthe
leather tannery sludges havebeenreadily mineralized and theirnutrients made available for
riceroots, which uptake nitrogen directly as ammonium without any nitrification process.
Therefore inricefield conditions leathertannery sludges have afertilizing action already in
thefirst application year.Thedatarelativetoyieldsobtainedinthesecondyearconfirm those
relativetoonesoffirstyearandpointoutthattheorganicororganic+mineralfertilized plots
hadyieldssimilartothoserelativetomineralfertilizationonly.Forchromiumcontentsinchaff
andgrain (Table6)arevalidthesameobservations madefor maizeandwheatof experiment
1 andthe values of chromium, expecially for grain, arevarylow for being ariskfor human
health.Asfar asO.M.(Table7)andchromiumcontentsareconcerned,insilty-loamsoil after
final harvesting, data show that the sludges appliedrestore accettable levels of O.M. in soil
more than amineral fertilization only; for chromium theplots fertilized with sludges show
chromiumvalues significantly higherthanthoseoftheotherplotsbuteveninthiscaseitwas
detectedasCri n (chromium-oxide)only,aninertandhighlyinsolublematerial,withoutrisks
for groundwaters.
Conclusions
After thesefield experiments thefollowing remarkscanbedrawn:
1. Theleather tannery sludges show afertilizing action bothin aerobic and anaerobic agrosystems withyieldscomparable withmineraldressingsonly;
2. ThesematerialsrestoreaccettablelevelsofO.M.inagriculturalsoilssubmittedtointensive
cropping andtherefore theypermitanitrogen fertilizer saving.
81
3. Theuseofleathertannerysludgesdon'tdetermineacumulationofchromiumingrainand
strawofcropsoffoodinterest.Thelevelsarealwaysverylow.
4. hematerialsdetermineanincreaseofchromiumlevelsinsoils.butchromiumisonlyinthe
trivalentform,withoutrisksfor thepollutionofsoilsandgroundwaters.
5. Duringtheexperiments nopathologic ortoxicologiceffect forhealthhasbeen observed.
References
C.E.C., 1991.DirectiveofCouncil (91/156/CEC),NL78/32-37.
Silva,S.,Baffi, C, Ghilardelli, A. &G.P. Veneziani, 1986.Impatto agricolo di fanghi provenientidaacquereflue diindustriecheutilizzanolaconciaalcromoealtannino.Annali
FacoltàdiAgrariaU.C.S.C.26:61-90.
Silva,S.,Baffi,C, Ghilardelli,A.&I.AnguissolaScotti, 1987.Effetti dellousoinagricoltura
deifanghi didepurazioneconciari.Ing.Amb.16:312-18.
Silva,S.,1989.Impiegoagricolodeiresiduidilavorazionidéliepelli.LaConceria (Ed.)pgg
60.
EPA,1978.Review of theEnvironmental Effects of Pollulants:HIChromium EPA-600/178-023pg9-11.
82
Session3
Breedingandfeeding inwoolandhairproduction
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
V. Tîmon
A.Eliçin
Basesphysiologiques etgénétiques de la production de laine
etde poils chez lespetits ruminants et le lapin
D. Allain*,R.G.Thébault** etH.deRochambeau*
* Inra,CRToulouse, SagaBP27,31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
** Inra,CRPoitouCharentes,LeMagneraud17700Surgeres, France
Summary
Twotypesofhairfollicles arefound inthecoataccording totheskin development:
1. epidermal hairfollicles (primary +secondary)whichproducecoarsefibres andsome fine
ones,originatefrom theprimitiveepidermis;
2. derivedhairfollicles whichproducethefinest fibres,gatherbybuddingonthepreceeding
epidermalhairfollicle.
Suchdevelopmentprovides asufficient haircoverforthegrowingmammals.Thenumberof
these hair follicles in activity which determine wool and hair production differs between
species.Insheepandgoats,thenumberofderivedhairfollicles islowandconstant.Growth
ofhairiseitherpermanentinwolledsheepandangoragoatsorseasonaldependantincashmere
goatsandwildsheep.Thischaracterisadditiveandduetoseveralgenes.Fleece'is harvested
byshearingonceortwiceayear.Usually,onetypeofnon-medullatedfibres,respectivelywool
and mohair, is found in the fleece of woolled sheep and angora goat, and two types of medullatedandnon-medullatedarefoundinthecoatofcashmeregoatsandwildsheep.Inangora
rabbit, thenumberofderived hairfollicles ishighandvariableaccording totheseason.Hair
grows during 14to 20weeks.Fleeceis harvested by plucking every 14weeks.The angora
character is due to apair of autosomal recessive genes.Twotypes of medullated fibres are
found in the fleece: bristles which arelong (11cm) and coarse, and down fibres which are
shorter(6cm)andfiner.Thefactorsinfluencingthequantityandthequalityoffibreproduction
arenumerous anddifferent inthese3species.
Introduction
Lepelagedesmammifères estunorganedeprotectioncontrelesélémentsdumilieu:température,précipitations et prédateurs. Les propriétés mécaniques, physiques et chimiques des
différents typesdepoilsformant latoisonjouent unrôleimportantpourcetteprotection.Par
ailleurs, la structure et la composition du pelage subissent des modifications périodiques se
traduisantparuneadaptation dupelageauxconditionsclimatiques.Lesystèmepileux sedécompose d'une façon générale en 2 parties. Le pelage externe composé de poils longs et
grossiers,lesjarresoupoilsdegarde,quiassurentlaprotectionmécanique,etlefragilepelage
internecomposédeduvetsquiassurel'isolation thermique.Cettespécialisationdes différents
types de poils dans le pelage, leur nombre, leurrépartition et leur morphologie s'établitau
coursde laviefoetale. Les follicules pileux constituent desgroupes biensdéfinis oùchacun
occupe,suivantsonordred'apparition, uneplacehiérarchiquecorrespondantàlafonctiondu
poil.Mais cepelagedeprotection présentedenombreuses dérivations decomposition etde
structure, dues àdes mutations que l'homme aconservé et sélectionné à son profit pour la
productiondepoilstextiles,commel'illustreleTableau 1.Lepelagedulapinangoraesthétérotypique et composé exclusivement de fibres médullées. On yretrouve des poils de garde
aveclesjarresraides,longsetgrossiers,etunsouspoil,lesduvets,pluscourts,tresfins frisés
etenviron50foisplusnombreuxquelesjarres,ainsiquedespoilsintermédiaires,lesbarbes.
85
Tableau 1. Compositionetstructure dupelagechezlelapinangoraetlespetitsruminants.
Lapin
angora
Fibres médullées
Primaires1
Secondaires1
Fibresnonmédullées
Primaires1
Secondaires1
1
2
3
jarre
30-80M-2
10cm3
duvet
15n
6cm
-
Chèvre
Mouton
cachemire
angora
sauvage
jarre
30-100\i
6-20cm
(jarre)
jarre
cachemire
12-18 \L
4-8cm
mohair
mohair
22-45 n
(wool)
12-20 n
merinos
wool
wool
18-25 n
typedefolliculepileuxproduisantlesfibresdésignées.
diamètredesfibresenmicrons.
longueurdesfibresencentimètre.
Chezlachèvreonrencontre 2typesdepelages:d'unepartune toison hétérotriche, chezles
races produisant du cachemire, composée de jarres grossiers médullés, et de duvets fins
dépourvusdemoelle,etd'autrepartunetoisonhomotrichechezlachèvreangoraoùl'onrencontrenormalementunseultypedepoils,lemohair,unefibrekératiniquepuredépourvuede
moelle. Toutefois selon les souches et les individus, on trouve dans la toison de la chèvre
angora,quelquesvestigesdupelageexterne,jarresetfibreshétérotypiquesmunisdemoelle.
Lepelage dumoutonesttrèsdiversifié selonlesraces.Cettediversité s'apprécie selonla
présencedesdifférents typesdepoilspouvantcomposerlepelagedumouton:
• toison homotriche composée exclusivement de laine, une fibre kératinique pure non
médullée(Merinos),maisquelquefoispourvued'unetrèsfinemoelleplusoumoinsdiscontinuedanscertainesraces(Texel,Romney);
• toisonhétérotricheoùl'on rencontreàcotédelalaine,desfibresgrossièresmédullées,du
crinàcroissancepermanente (Manech)et/oudesjarresàcroissancesaisonnière(Limousine,karakul).
Afin demieuxmaîtriserlaproductiondefibreschezcesespèces,ilestnécessairedebienconnaîtrelagenèseetlefonctionnement desfollicules pileuxainsiquelesvariationsdestructure
etdecompositiondupelage.
Genèsedupelage
Lepelageestnormalementconstituéde2typesdefollicules pileuxquisedifférencient selon
leur ordre d'apparitiondans lapeau.Toutd'aborddesfollicules pileux épidermiques quise
forment aucoursdelaviefoetale,parinvaginationdel'épidermeprimitifavecformation d'un
canal pileux. On distingue les follicules primaires qui apparaissent les premiers et sont
normalementorganisésentriadesavecunfolliculeprimairecentralet2latéraux(Carter,1943),
et les follicules secondaires qui apparaissent ensuite à l'intérieur de la triade de follicules
primairespourformer ungroupe folliculaire.
86
Aprèslachutedupériderme,lorsquelespremiers signesdekératinisation apparaissent pour
donnernaissanceàl'épidermedéfinitif, seformentlesfolliculesdérivésparbourgeonnement
des follicules épidermiquespréexistants (Hardy etLyne, 1956).Cebourgeonnement donne
naissance àunfaisceau defollicules pileuxquiontencommununemêmeglandesébacée,le
mêmecanalpileuxetformeunfolliculepileuxcomposé(Rougeotetal.,1984).Lebourgeonnementdesfollicules dérivésqui,selonlesespèces,peutseprolongerlorsdespremièressemainesdelaviedel'animal,permetd'assurerunebonnecouverturepileuseaufuretàmesure
delacroissancedel'animal.
Chezlelapin angora,lespremiersfollicules pileux apparaissent versle 18èmejourdela
gestation (durée chezla lapine:32jours).Le groupefolliculaire est composé d'un follicule
primaire central et de 4latéraux. Ala naissance on dénombre 8 à 12follicules dérivés par
groupefolliculaire etde40à70àl'âgede20semaines(MehneretKoetter, 1965;Thébault,
1977). Cette multiplication de follicules dérivés est indépendante de l'âge de l'animal et
s'arrêtelorsque l'animal a atteint unpoids de 2±0.1kg, soit entre 14et 20 semaines d'âge
(Thébault, 1977;Rougeotet al.,1984).
Chezlachèvre,lespremiersfollicules pileuxapparaissentversle60êmejourdegestation
(duréechezlachèvre:150jours).Ondénombrede3à5folliculesprimairespargroupefolliculaire. La multiplication des follicules dérivés se poursuit jusqu'à l'âge de 4 à 6 mois
(Margolena, 1974),oùl'on dénombrede2à3poilsémergeantdelapeauparlemêmecanal
épidermique(DreyeretMarincowitz,1967).
Chezlemouton,lespremiersfollicules pileuxapparaissentversle60êmejourdegestation
(duréechezlabrebis:150jours).Legroupefolliculaireestcomposéde3folliculesprimaires.
L'apparition des follicules épidermiques secondaires et des follicules dérivés présente des
intensités et des durées différentes selon les races. Ainsi on dénombrejusqu'à 8 follicules
dérivésparfollicule épidermiquechezlesracesàtoisondense(typemérinosd'Arles),3chez
desraces àtoisonhétérotricheoujarreuse(Limousine,Karakul)etnormalement aucunchez
les races à pelage sauvage, mouflon, (Rougeot, 1974). Cependant, à la naissance, tous les
follicules pileux sontformés.
Acestypesdiversetdifférents defolliculespileuxcorrespondentdestypesparticuliersde
poilsquiremplissentchacununefonctionbiendéterminéedanslepelage.Chezlelapinangora,
les follicules primaires centraux fournissent lesjarres, lesprimaires latéraux, les barbes ou
poilsintermédiairesetlesfollicules secondairesproduisentlesduvets(RougeotetThébault,
1983). Chez le mouton et la chèvre, l'homme a profondément modifié la production des
follicules pileux.Chezlesracesàtoisondetypeprimitif,moutonSoay,chèvrecachemire,on
trouvedesjarres,émanantdesfollicules primaires,enfouis danslalaineoulecachemireque
produisentlesfollicules secondaires.Chezlesracesàtoisonlaineuse,moutonMerinos,chèvre
angora, la totalité des follicules pileux,primaires et secondaires,produit dela lainechezle
moutonoudumohairchezlachèvreangora.Toutefois, àl'intérieurdelatoison,lespoilsont
deslongueursetdesdiamètrestrèsdifférents, dûsautypedefolliculespileux.Ainsi,lesfollicules primaires fournissent les fibres les plus grossières et les plus longues, tandis que les
secondairesproduisentlesfibreslesplusfinesetlespluscourtes,l'amenuisementdesdimensions s'accentueàmesurequelaformation desfollicules pileux aétéplus tardive (Rougeot,
1974).Toutefois, chezla chèvre angora, lesfollicules primaires peuvent produire desjarres
et/oudesfibresmédullées.
Lacroissanceetlerenouvellementdupelage
Dansunpelagesauvage,lespoilssontrenouveléspériodiquement.Ainsilesfollicules pileux
présententdesphasesd'activitéou anageneetdesphasesdereposoutélogène.Laduréede
l'anagèneest héréditaire etcaractéristique dechaque typedepoil.La durée du télogène est
variable et peut-être modifiée par des manipulations photopériodiques, traitements hormo87
naux,traumatismesouepilation.Parunmécanismedemuessaisonnières,lepelagesubitdes
modifications de structureetdecompositionenaccordaveclesvariationsdu climat.
Cependant,dansunobjectif deproductiondepoils,l'homme aconservéetsélectionnédes
animauxdontlepelageprésentedescaractéristiquesappropriéesàlafabrication textile:poils
longs,homogenessipossibleetfacileàteindre.Toutefois,desdifférences etdesparticularités
subsistent selonlesespèces.
Chezlelapin angora,laduréedecroissance despoils estde l'ordre de 12à20 semaines.
D'où cettelongueurcaractéristique dupelageangoradu àunallongementdeladuréed'anagène.Cecaractèreangoraestmonogénique,récessifetautosomal(RochambeauetThébault,
1989).Toutefois chaquecatégoriedepoilspossèdesaproprevitessedecroissance.Après 14
semainesdepousse,lesjarresmesurent10cmetleduvets6cm.Selonlasaison,lesdimensions
despoilsvarientlégèrement(Rougeot&Thébault, 1983).Parcontre,lesnombreux follicules
dérivésdesfollicules composéesjouentunrôleimportantdanslesvariations saisonnièresde
structureetdecompositiondupelage.Eneffet, unepartied'entreeuxdisparaîtenété,puisse
reconstitueenautomneetenhiver,cequiauneffetmajeursurlacompacitédupelage(Rougeot
& Thébault, 1983).Il en résulte des variation saisonnières de laproduction quantitative de
l'ordre de 10à30% selonlesauteurs (RougeotetThébault 1983; Magofke etal.,1982).
Chezleschèvresproduisantducachemire,lacroissancedupelageestsaisonnière,lesjarres
serenouvelent auprintemps etlesduvetspoussent du solsticed'étéau solsticed'hiver, d'où
defortes variationssaisonnièresdelapopulationdefollicules pileuxavecl'absence deduvets
danslatoisonauprintempsetenété(McDonaldetal.,1987).Parcontre,chezlachèvreangora,
la duréedecroissance du mohair estpresquepermanente,entre 8-9 moisminimumet2ans
maximum(Schwarzetal.,1987).Cecaractèred'allongementdupoildûàunecroissancequasi
permanenteestpolygéniqueetadditif.Toutefoislavitessedecroissanceenlongueuretendiamètredes fibres varie selon la saison avec unmaximumenétéet unminimumen hiver.De
même,letauxdejarresetdefibresmédulléesvarientlégèrementaveclasaison(Ryder,1978).
Onpeutégalementobserverunrenouvellement saisonnierpartieldespoils(Margolena,1974;
Ryder, 1978).
Chez le mouton, la croissance des fibres est permanente, mais la vitesse de croissance
fluctue selonlasaisonavecunmaximumenétéetunminimumenhiver.L'amplitude saisonnière est moins prononcée chez les races merinos. Chez les races à toison hétérotriche, les
fibresgrossièresetmédulléesontunecroissancesaisonnièreetsontrenouveléeschaqueannée.
La variation annuelle de la durée d'éclairement est l'un des principaux facteurs de
l'environnement quicontrôle lefonctionnement des follicules pileux.Lesvariations saisonnières du pelage qui en résultent: dimensions des poils, nombre de fibres, sont sous la
dépendance de l'axe hypothalamo-hypophysaire et de la glande pinéale par l'intermédiaire
dessécrétionsdeprolactineetdemélatonine(Rougeotetal.,1984;Allainetal.,1986;Lincoln,
1990).L'administration demélatonine enété,quipermetdemimerl'action desjourscourts,
induit lacroissance d'un pelage d'hiver chezle vison (Allain etRougeot, 1980)etla chèvre
cachemire (Lynch et Rüssel, 1989), et permet de supprimer la dépression estivale de la
production de poils chez le lapin angora (Rougeot et al., 1986; Allain et Thébault, 1990).
L'administration demélatonine enhiverretarde l'apparition delamuedeprintemps (Allain
et al., 1981).Les mues saisonnières et lareprise d'activité des follicules pileux ont lieu au
printemps lorsque les niveaux de prolactine augmentent (Allain et al., 1986; Lynch 1990;
Lincoln, 1990)et inver- sèmentàl'automne lorsqu'ils diminuent (Martinetet al., 1984).En
comparantlaproductiondelaineetlesprofilsendocrinienschezdifférentes racesdemoutons,
Lincoln (1990)endéduitquelacroissancepermanentedelalaineestassociéeàdesniveaux
élevésdeprolactineenhiver.
Laproduction depoils
Chezlelapinangoralatoisonestrécoltéepartonteouparepilation.Cettedernièreméthode
quiestutiliséeenFrance,provoqueunsynchronismederepoussedespoilsoùchaquecatégone
depoilsconservesonproprerythmedecroissance.D'oùlaproductiond'unetoisonbienstructurée,contrairementàlatontequicoupelespoilsàdifférents stadesdeleurcroissance.Rougeot
&Thébault (1984)recommandent auxéleveursd'épiler lesanimaux toutesles 14semaines.
Danslecadredelatonte,unrythmeplusrapidederécolte, 10-11semaines semblepermettre
uneaugmentation delaproduction annuelle,maisunediminutiondelalongueursdes fibres.
Lesdifférents facteurs devariationsidentifiés (Rochambeau &Thébault, 1990;Rochambeau
etal., 1991)sont:lepoids,le sexeetl'âgedel'animal ou sonnuméroderécolte, l'intervalle
entrerécoltes,lasaisonetlemodederécolte,ainsiquelesconditionsdenaissancedel'animal:
moisdenaissance (Rochambeau etal., 1991)et tailledeportée (Magoflce et al., 1982)dont
lesinfluences sontsensibles surlespremièresrécoltes.Cesfacteurs influencent égalementla
qualitédelatoisondontlesprincipauxparamètres sontlalongueuretlediamètredes fibres,
letauxdejarres,lamorphologiedessectionsdroitesdejarres,laproportiondechaquecatégorie
depoilsetlaprésencedepoilsfeutrés ousales.
Chezlachèvre,latoisonestrécoltéepartonte 1 foisparanchezlachèvrecachemireet2
fois par anchezlachèvreangora.Lesdifférents facteurs devariations delaproductionpondérale,identifiéschezlachèvreangora(Nicoll, 1985;Nicoll,BighametAlderton, 1989)sont:
lepoids,le sexeetl'âgedel'animal et sesconditions denaissance, âgede lamère,moisde
naissance ettailledeportéedontl'influence est sensiblesurles2premières tontes,ainsique
la saison derécolteet l'intervalle entretontes chez lachèvreangora.Les critères de qualité
d'unetoisonsontlediamètremoyendesfibres etsoncoefficient devariation,letauxdejarres
etdefibres médullées,lerendement aulavageetlaprésencedefibres salesoucolorées.
Latoisondumoutonestrécoltéepartonte1foisparan.Lesfacteursdevariationsdelaproduction pondérale qui ont fait l'objet de nombreuses études sont l'âge, le sexe et le poids de
l'animal ainsiquelesconditionsdesonenvironnement denaissance,âgedelamère,période
denaissanceettailledeportéedontl'influence estsensiblesurlapremièretonte.Lescritères
dequalitéd'unetoison sontnombreux:diamètremoyendesfibres etsoncoefficient devariation,lerendement aulavage,lalongueurdesmèchesetsavariabilité,larésistance àrupture,
larésistance àlacompression,ledegrédeblancetlaprésencedejarresetdefibres colorées.
Parailleurs,chezcesdifférentes espèces,leniveaud'alimentation etl'étatdereproduction
ontuneinfluence sensible surlaproduction defibres.
En conclusion, chez les petits ruminants et le lapin, nous pouvons distinguer 2 types de
productiondefibresenfonction delastructuredestoisonsetdelacroissancedesfibres:d'une
partlestoisonshétérotriches,utiliséesenl'étatouaprèsséparationdesduvets,queproduisent
respectivementlelapinangoraetlachèvrecachemire,oùlesfibresontuneduréedecroissance
biendéfinie, desdimensionspresquecontantes,maisdontlenombrevarie selonlasaison,et
d'autrepartlestoisonshomotrichesdelachèvreangoraetdumoutonàtoisonlaineuseoùles
fibresontunecroissancepermanente,leurnombreestpresqueconstant,maisleursdimensions
varientaveclasaison.
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91
Producingdesiredwoolcharacteristicsduringfleecegrowth
ML. Ryder
4, OspreyClose, Southampton, SOI 8EX, UK
Abstract
How knowledge of wool growth is applied to wool improvement depends on the farming
systemandwhetherornotwoolisaprimaryproduct.Emphasis shouldbeplacedonwhatthe
buyerpaysfor fine fibres inclothing wools,lackof kempandpigmentin carpet wools.But
inallsystemsaheavyfleece comesfirst sinceprice/fleece ismoreimportantthanprice/kg.
Most fleece characters are highly heritable and so weight and quality can be increased
through selectivebreeding.Increasingweightbyfeeding isonlyeconomicalthroughpasture
improvement.Anunderstandingoftherelationshipsofcharacterscanbegainedfrom theformula:Fleeceweight=theaveragefibrelength(L)xtheaveragefibrediameter(A)xthedensity
intheskin(N)xthe specific gravityofwool(D)xtheskinareawithwool(S).
Keywords:carpet,clothing,fleece,kemp,Merino,pigment,wool.
Introduction
Developing countries grow 30%of world woolproduction, but thefact that these countries
alsoproduce40%ofworldsheepmeatand50%oftheewemilk,indicatesthatwoolisusually
a byproduct (Howe and Turner, 1984).In Britain, highmeatprices and subsidies mean that
woolaccounts for less than 10%of theincomefrom sheepflocks, despitemuchof thewool
beingof semi-fine 'Crossbred'type,havinguniquespeciality uses.IntheMediterranean area
milkisoften theprimary productoftheewe,andthewoolisusually of less-valuable Carpet
type, so that it is pushed into thirdplace and accounts for nomore than 5%of theincome.
Only in low-cost, extensive farming systems is it economical toproduce wool as aprimary
product,andthewoolgrownisthemostvaluablefine-woolled,Merinotype.Thewayinwhich
thebasicknowledgeofwoolgrowthisappliedthendependsonthefarming systemandwhetherornotwoolisaprimaryproduct,nosinglerecommendationcanbemade(Doney,1983).
Inallsystems,however, aheavyfleeceweightisimportant sincepriceperfleece ismoreimportant tothegrowerthanthepriceofwoolperkg.Itisalsomoreeconomicaltomakefleece
improvements bybreeding thanthrough feeding.
Sincewoolislookedonsolelyasacrop,otheraspectsof theskintendtobeignored.The
fleece givesinsulativeaswellasmechanicalprotection.Astaplelengthof5cmwillprovide
heatinsulationequivalenttoatemperaturegradientof40°Cinhotaswellasincoldconditions.
Afleece therefore savesfood thatwouldotherwisebeeatentokeepthesheepwarm.
Whatdoesthewoolbuyerpayfor?
Thewidevarietyofwoolandthediversityofitsusesmakesitdifficult fortextilemanufacturers
to specify wool's most desirable textile characteristics, which are also difficult todefine in
biologicalterms.Thereactionofwoolbiologistshasbeentoseekobjectively thefactors that
determinewoolprice.InAustraliaduringthe1950sitwasfoundthatthepriceofMerinowool
wasdeterminedmainly byfibrefinenessmeasured asqualitynumber,andthatthenextmost
importantcharacteristicswerestaplelengthandawhitecolour.Thisindicatedthatthegreatest
returnwouldbegainedfrom sheepgrowingaheavyfleeceofwhitewoolwithahighquality
92
number,andalongstaple.Thetraditionalqualitynumber(e.g.50sor70s)isthebuyer'sestimateoffineness.Itisdefined asthenumberofhanks,each560yards(474m)long,thatmight
bespunfrom 1 lb(0.45kg)ofcombedwool.Greaterqualitynumbersthereforeindicate finer
wools.Thenumberofcrimps(waves)perunitlengthoffibre,whichincreaseswithdecreasing
fibre diameter, is used as a guide tofineness, and it wasfound that crimp number could be
substitutedfor qualitynumberasafactor determiningprice.
InasimilarsurveycarriedinUSAduringthe 1960s,crimpnumberhadnoeffect onprice,
butbuyerspaidmorefor woolswithgreaterqualitynumbersandlongerstaplelengths.Fibre
diameter is the single most important character in wool processing(contributing 80% of its
spinnablity) and soin Australia, crimpnumberisnolonger usedinfleece appraisal.In fact,
qualitynumberitselfhasbeenreplacedbytheobjectivemeasurementofmeanfibre diameter
inmicrons.
AsurveyoftheBritishPriceScheduleshowedthatincreased fleece weightgaveagreater
returnthanabettergrade(Ryder, 1975).TheBritish 'Grade'refers tooveralldegreeofexcellence, and incorporates penalties for faults aswell asthequality number. Then, the 'Super'
gradeofsemi-fine (Down-breed)woolwith56squalityfetched59.lpperkg,whilethe 'Pick'
grade with 58s quality fetched 61.9pper kg.With an averagefleece weight of 2.25 kg,the
pricedifferential was 6.3p.Butonly 0.25kg moreof 'Super' gradewool wouldhaveadded
14.8p.
Farmersusuallymakecomparisonsonpriceperkg,yetpriceperfleece ismoreimportant.
Thus therelatively high (1991)price of 124.9pperkgfor fine Shetlandwoolis transformed
into alowreturn per sheep by thelow fleece weight of 1 kg. Conversely a 5:5 kg fleece of
LincolnLustrelongwoolconvertsthelowpriceof90.lpperkgintoagainof495.6pperfleece.
Mostprice differentials between gradesof British wool (and even between different classes
ofMerinowoolinAustralia)aresuchthatthemorereadily achievedobjectof0.25to0.5kg
morewoolisalmostcertaintobringagreaterreturnthanthemoredifficult changetoabetter
grade.OnlytheMerinobreedhasahighwoolpriceperkgandaheavyfleece weight,sothat
Merinofleeces onaverage areusually twiceasvaluableasnon-Merino fleeces.
Anomalies existinBritain wherecertain gradesreceive ahighpricebecauseof increased
demand, althoughthewoolmaybelessfine.Thecoarsest ScottishBlackface woolhastraditionally received thehighest price for that type becauseof thedemand for suchwool tofill
mattresses in southern Europe.In 1991themattress grade of Blackface wool fetched 92.4p
per kg while the best carpet grade received only 89.9p. Changes in fashion can produce
short-term variations inprice.During the 1980s one grade of lustre longwool fetched twice
theaverageBritishprice—224.4pperkgin1989—becauseitcouldbeblendedwithmohair,
yetby 1991thepricehadfallen to 127.3pperkg.
Increasingfleeceweightandimprovingwoolquality
Havingdeterminedthatfleeceweightisthemostimportantfeatureforthegrower,howcanit
beincreasedwithoutincreasingfibrediameter, whichisthemostimportantcharacteristic for
the wool user. Heredity contributes more to fleece type than does the environment, which
includes suchfactors asday-length aswellasnutrition.Geneticdifferences infleeces canbe
exploitedbyselectivebreeding,whichisaslowprocess,butitisadvantageousthatmostfleece
characteristics are highly heritable, the heritability of fleece weight being 0.3 to 0.6. In no
breedotherthantheMerino,however,isitlikelytobeeconomicaltoapplyselectivebreeding
solelytowoolcharacteristics.Inmostotherbreeds,meatormilkprovidesuchahighproportion of the income that woolcannot beput first in breedingprogrammes and so therateof
geneticprogressisreduced.Butthisdoesnotmeanthatonecannotincreasefleeceweightand
eliminate woolfaults. Thereisnoreason why agoodmeatram shouldnot alsohave agood
fleece. Improved husbandry byreducing environmental variation leadstoanimmediateres93
ponseinthefleece.Althoughitisnotusuallyeconomicaltoprovideextrafood solely toget
morewool,wheresheephousingiscommonthereisthepossibilityofreducingotherseasonal
variationsbroughtaboutbechangesindaylength.
AsimpleformulaworkedoutbyHelenNewtonTurnerforMerinosheepinAustraliahelps
onetounderstandwhatthedifferent componentsoffleeceweightare,andhowtheyareinterrelated:fleece weightW=L x A x N x D x S . Inthisformula,L= themeanfibre length;A=
themeancross-sectionalareaofthefibres (measuredasfibrediameter);N=themeannumber
of fibres per unit areaof skin (fibre density);D= thedensity (specific gravity) of wool substance;and S=thetotal areaof skin growing wool.Tosimplify, togetmorewool youneed
largersheepwithlongeranddenserwool.Theonlycomponentthatcannotbechangedisthe
specific gravityofkeratin,whichhastheconstantvalueof1.31.Thickerfibresmaybeheavier,
butthey areundesirable sincetheyreducewoolquality.
First,howarethecomponentschangedbyfeedingformorewool?Seasonalpasturevariations mean that sheeprarelyreach theirgeneticpotential for woolproduction.Extra food in
theform oflong-termpastureimprovementtherefore stimulates woolgrowthandthegreater
fleece weightisbroughtaboutbyincreasingLandA.Fibredensity(N)isunaffected by feed
since all woolfollicles areformed by about thetimeof birth.Goodnutrition for themother
aboutthetimeofthebirthoflambsisimportantinensuringthatthegeneticmaximumnumber
of secondaryfollicles willdevelopandproducefibres.Thisisillustratedbythenutritionalpenalty of being a twin, in which the smaller number of follicles developed can reduce adult
fleece weightby 3%. Betternutrition canalsoincreasebodysizeandtherefore the skin area
(S), but this has no effect on fleece weight since theresult is merely a lower wool follicle
density.
Breedingfor increased fleece weight (W)could theoretically increaseallthecomponents
exceptspecificgravity.InsomeexperimentswiththeAustralianMerinotheselectivebreeding
caused anincreaseinfibrelength (L)anddiameter (A),whileinothers theincreased fleece
weightwasbroughtaboutbyanincreasedfibredensity,whichwasactuallyassociatedwitha
decreaseinmeanfibre diameter of 1 micron.Thebestpractical advicewithMerino sheepis
toselectforfinerwoolatthesametimeasselectingfor agreaterfleeceweight.IntheMerino
thereisnogeneticcorrelation between fleece weightandbodyweight.Thereistherefore no
dangerofobtainingheaviersheepthatwouldeatmoreandsoreduceefficiency. Inotherbreeds
fleeceweightiscorrelatedwithbodyweight,butthisisuseful sinceanyselectionforincreased
bodyweightwillincidently increasewoolproduction.
Fleececharacteristics
Sincefibrediameteristhemostimportant textilecharacteristic,fleece weight shouldnotbe
increasedbymakingthefibres thicker, andcertainly notintheMerinobreed.Becausepoor
nutrition reduces fibre diameter, its expected heritability of 0.5 can be less than 0.2. Crimp
numberhasaheritability of 0.4to0.5,butcrimpnumbershouldnot beusedin selection for
fibre diameterbecauseitispoorlycorrelatedwithfibrediameter.Fleeceweightcanberaised
byincreasing staple length,provided thattheincreased length doesnotput thewool intoan
inferior class,which canhappen intheMerino.Staple length isless affected by diet thanis
fibre diameterandhasthehigherheritabilityof0.3to0.6.
Lackofuniformity infibrelengthanddiameterisacommoncomplaintamongwoolusers.
In addition to the obvious genetic differences between breeds, there are genetic differences
betweenflocks,betweenindividualsheep,betweendifferentpartsofthefleeceandevenwithin
thewoolstaples.ThereisconsiderablescopeinbreedsotherthantheMerinoforreducingthis
variabilitybyselectivebreeding,e.g.thevariationofindividualfibrelengthwithinthestaples
andof staplelength between sheep.
94
Woolfaults
Given that there mightberestraintson actualimprovement,atleastonecan aim atreducing
woolfaults. Common hereditary faults arecolour andkemp.Natural blackfibres andkemp
arerareintheMerino,butcanbeaseriousfault incrossbred andcarpet wools.Pigmentand
kempareentirelygeneticinoriginandsocanbetackledbychoosingramslackingsuchfibres,
andatthesametimecullingbadly affected ewes.Hairs (longer andlesscoarsethankemps),
too,arebasicallygeneticinorigin,buttheyaresubjecttoenvironmentalinfluences inthatthe
centralmedullaofhairsisonlyfully-formed duringsummer;hairsbecomenarrowandtolose
theirmedulladuringwinter,whentheycanappearlikewoolfibres-hence theirnameheterotypes.Theheritability ofhairinessrangesfrom 0.3to0.7.
Faultssuchasvegetablematterandexternalparasitescanbetackledthroughmanagement.
Otherfaults due tothe environment areless-fully understood and more difficult to control.
Break,whichoccursatonlyonepointinthestaple,resultsfromseasonalnarrowingworsened
bypoor nutrition, but stress from cold ordisease is another cause of break and actual wool
loss.Tendernessofthefibres canbecausedbyanattackfrom microorganisms andcanoccur
inshornfleeces if theyarestoredindampconditions.
WoolBuyerspenalizeallyellowstainsinfleeces sincetheycannotdistinguishcanarystain
from thosestainsthatwillscouroutduringtextileprocessing.Canarystainiscommoninhot
countriesandmightbeduetoalkalinesuint(sweat),butitsseasonaloccurrenceallowsshearing
tobetimedbefore theworstperiod.Weathering of the stapletipfrom toomuch sun orrain
cancauseaharshhandleandunevendyeing.
Carpetwool
Sincehairyfleeces arecommonly usedincarpets,theimpression isgainedthatcoarse fibres
with a wide medulla are a desirable feature in carpet wools. In fact, hairy fleeces are used
because they arecheaper, andmany suchfleeces havetoomany brittlekemps and coloured
fibresforuseincarpets.Themainrequirementforcarpetsisrelativelycoarse,non-medullated
wool.Thisisshownbystudiesofoldorientalcarpets(Ryder, 1987).Inmodernfactory carpet
manufacture thisisachievedbyblending woolsof severaltypes(InceandRyder, 1984).
Herethereisthepossibility ofeithercrossingwithanimprovedtype,orof selectivebreeding within existing breeds. Crossing with theDrysdale and Tukidale hairy strains of New
ZealandRomneyinBritaingaveheavierfleeceweightsandlackofpigment,butthecrossbred
fleeces were kempy (Ryder, 1983). In a 20-year selection experiment with the Scottish
Blackface, 8-weekoldlambswere selectedonamedullation index andputinto aHairyora
Fineline.TheHairylineeventually acquiredverycoarse,heterotypehairfibres (notkemps)
in each primary follicle, and the secondary (wool) fibres acquired a medulla, as well as
becomingmorenumerous.
In theFine une, the lateral primaries grew wool fibres in place of hairs,but the centrals
retainedkemps.Thesecondaryfibresbecamefinerandincreasedinnumber.Breedingtogether
of theHairy andFine lines gavenoevidence of a single-gene effect, but some evidence of
heterosisinmedullationsuchthatcrossesofhairywithfinesheeparelikelytohavemorehairy
fleeces than the intermediate value. In crosses with the long-woolled Wensleydale breed,
offspring from the(kempy)Finelinelackedkemp,butoffspring from theHairy lineshowed
muchlessreductioninmedullation (Ryder, 1985).
95
Clothingwool
IntheBritishstratification systemdrafthilleweswithcarpetwoolarecrossedwithlong-woolledrams.TheresultingcrossbredewesarecrossedwithaDownramtoproducefatlamb.This
meansthatcrossbredsheepprovidemostofthemediumandsemi-finewool,whichistherefore
notof clearly-defined grade,and the semi-fine (Down cross)woolisobtained as skinwool.
Merino influence could be injected at the hill stage and again at the longwool-cross stage
(Boaz,RyderandTempest, 1977).TheMerinobreedisuniqueincombining aheavy fleece
weightwithalowfibrediameter,andMerinowoolisalwaysinsteadydemandbecauseithas
the widest range of uses. But it should not be used in afirstcross with 'hair' sheep.A first
crosswithalongwoolprovidesafleeceandeliminateskemp.ThesecondcrosswiththeMerino
thenmakesthefleecefiner.
Producingdesiredwoolpropertiesduringfleecegrowth
MostIWSresearch funds gointo themodification of thefibre e.g. applyingmorecrimpand
creating shrinkresistance.Thephilosophy of thewoolbiologist is todothisduring growth,
either by diet (feltability and plasticity) or permanently through breeding (crimp) (Ryder,
1975).Thecurrentapplicationofgeneticengineeringtowoolmakesthismoreofapossibility.
References
Black,J.L. &P.J. Reis, 1979.Physiological andenvironmental limitations to wool growth.
University ofNewEnglandPress,Armidale,Australia.
Boaz, T.G., ML. Ryder & W.M.Tempest,1977. A role for the Merino in British sheep
production.J.RoyalAgricultural SocietyofEngland.138:98-115.
Doney,J.M., 1983.Factors affecting theproduction and quality of wool. In:P.W.Haresign
(Ed.):SheepProduction.Butterworths,London.
Howe,R.R. &HN. Turner, 1984.Sheep breed resources in developing countries. In:Proc.
2nd World Congress on Sheep and Beef Cattle Breeding. S. African Stud Book Assoc.,
Bloemfontein.
Ince, J. &ML. Ryder,1984.The evaluation of carpets made from experimental wools.J.
TextileInstitute.75:47-59.
Ryder,ML., 1975.Producingdesiredwoolpropertiesduringfleecegrowth.In:M.Cordelier
& P.W. Harrison (Eds.). Contributions of Science to the Textile Industry. Inst. Textil
Paris/TextileInst.Manchester,pp 18-31.
Ryder,ML., 1983.Woolsfor carpets.ABROReport,23-27.
Ryder,ML., 1985. Crossbreeding studies with selected fleece lines of Scottish Blackface
sheep.J.Textile Inst.76:362-376.
Ryder,ML., 1987.Themeasurementofwoolsinoldcarpetyarns.OrientalCarpetandTextiles
Studies, 3:134-152.
Ryder, ML., 1987.Wool.In: Marai, I.F.M. &J.B.Owen, (Eds.) New Techniques in Sheep
Production.Butterworth,London,p 3-10.
Ryder,ML. & S.K.Stephenson, 1968. WoolGrowth.Acad.Press.
96
Caractéristiquesnutritionnellesdeschèvresproduisantdupoils
etstrategiesalimentairesaleur appliquer
P.Morand-Fehr
StationdeNutritionetAlimentation(INRA) del'INA-PG, 16rueClaudeBernard75231
ParisCedex05 (France)
Summary
Thelevelof Angoragoatintakeislimited.Thedigestibility oflowqualityroughageisclose
in Angora goats andother goatsbutit islowerin sheep.The nitrogen retention ishigherin
Angora goats than in Merinos sheep.Energy requirements of mohair production for agoat
producing 6 kg per year increases maintenance requirement by 7-7.5%. Supplementary
nitrogenrequirements isabout2.5gDCPperday.
Largeunderfeeding resultfrequently in abortionsinAngoragoats.Anenergyornitrogen
underfeeding, particularly ifitlimitsthemicrobialproteinsynthesisintherumen,canreduce
hairproduction, butsupplementary feeding suppliescanimprovethisproduction.Whenthe
quantityofhairproducedincreases,generallythefiberdiametertendstoincrease.Heattreated
oilmealsorprotectedmethionine allowtoimprovehairproduction.
'
Thefeeding strategyofhairproducinggoatsmustbedefined accordinghairpricecotations
and price differences between hair qualities. Nevertheless the production of kid hair must
always bepromoted.Forthat,gestatingdoesmustbecarefully fed.
Introduction
Traditionnellementlachèvreproductricedepoils(Angora,Cachemire)s'estdéveloppéedans
des systèmes deproduction reposant surl'utilisation desparcours etexigeant trèspeu d'intrants. Il a été très tôtremarqué que cette chèvreposait des problèmes nutritionnels importants en raison de sa susceptibilité au froid et de ses fréquents avortements (Shelton, 1984;
Wentzel,1987).Maisenréalitécesproblèmessont-ilsdusauxaspectsspécifiques deschèvres
productrices de poil ou aux conduites alimentaires pratiquées? Malgré quelques articles
généraux sur la nutrition des chèvres productrices de poil (Huston, 1981; Shelton, 1982;
Wentzel,1987),lestravauxsurlemétabolismeetlanutritiondeschèvresAngoraouCachemire
sont encore limités par rapport aux connaissances acquises sur le mouton ou sur les autres
caprins (Morand-Fehr, 1981).Ainsi enraison du développement actueldelaproduction de
poil par les caprins depar le monde,il a sembléintéressant d'identifier les caractéristiques
nutritionnelles des chèvres productrices de poil par comparaison aux autres caprins et aux
ovins,etdeproposer lesdiverses stratégies alimentaires àleur appliquer.
Caractéristiques nutritionnelles
Comportementalimentaire etniveaud'ingestion
La chèvre Angoraestplusportée vers laflore arboréeet arbustive que lemouton,etencore
plus le bovin, (Huston, 1982;Knipe, 1982) bien qu'elle accepte, etparfois préfère la flore
herbacée.Ellesemblesecomporterdanslechoixdesvégétauxdisponibles surprairieousur
parcours,danssarapiditéàs'adapter auxmodifications dudisponible,etdanslasélectiondes
97
Tableau1. Ingestion, digestibilitéet rétention azotéedes chèvresangora et desmoutons
merinosrecevant3fourrages dedifférantequalité(Doyle etEgan).
Régime1
Espèce
Niveaud'ingestion (gMO/kgpO-75)
Digestibilité(%) Matièreorganique
Cellulose
Tempsderétentiondanslerumen (h)
Rétention azotée(mgN/100gMOD)
1
Chèvre
Mouton
Chèvre
Mouton
Chèvre
Mouton
Chèvre
Mouton
Chèvre
Mouton
1
2
3
67.6
60.7
72.1
71.3
68.8
67.4
17.1
13.9
673
794
45.5
48.0
64.9
57.3
67.4
58.9
29.1
20.5
-87
34.6
34.1
49.5
45.6
54.0
51.1
25.9
20.4
-246
-813
-200
régime 1: foin detrèfle souterrain (2.8% N,38.2%NDF)
régime2: foin deray-grass(0.7%N,73.6%NDF)
régime 3: foin detrèfle coupétardivement (1.1%N,75.8%NDF).
Tableau2.Influencedesniveauxénergétique etazotédurégime surlamortalitéperinatale
deschevreuxangora(Westhuysen, 1980).
Niveauazoté(en%/Entretien)
Niveauénergétique (en%/Entretien)
Poidsnaissance(kg)
Mortalité
100
100
2.5
8
100
50
1.9
83
50
100
2.0
42
fractions de végétaux suivant la saison (Taylor and Kothmann, 1990; Somlo et al., 1987)
commelesautrescaprins(MalechekandLeinweber, 1972;Narjisse, 1991).Laconsommation
d'herbe estdominante àlapériodedelapoussed'herbe (printempset automne).Lechoixse
tourne vers la flore arbustive pendant les périodes sèches ou les arrêts de la végétation. Le
choixdescaprinsestaussiinfluencéeparlavaleurnutritivedesvégétauxdisponiblesdansles
différentes strates.
Domingueetal.(1991) observent quelescaprinscroisésAngora xFeraipassent plusde
temps àmangeretmoins àruminerquelesovinscroisés BorderLeicester xRonney; cequi
confirme lesrésultatsobtenus surcaprinslaitiers (Morand-Fehr etal., 1991).
Commedanslespaysfortsproducteursdepoildechèvre,unepartieimportantedelaration
estprélevéesurleparcours,nousnedisposonspasdedonnéesprécisessurleniveaud'ingestion des chèvres Angora ou Cachemire et sur les facteurs qui le modifient. Même dans les
documentsduNRC(1981)oudel'INRA (1989)donnantlesrecommandations alimentaires,
aucunedonnéen'estindiquéesurl'ingestion descaprinsproduisantdupoil.Toutefois d'après
les observations trèsfragmentaires d'ingestion surleschèvres Angoradontnousdisposons,
les équations deprévision établies sur d'autres caprins auraient tendance à légèrement surestimer le niveau d'ingestion des chèvres Angora. Sahlu et al. (1989)pensent aussique les
Angora ontun moindre niveau d'ingestion que les Alpines autant surdesrégimes de faible
quedeforte valeurnutritionnelle.
98
50
50
1.5
100
Digestionetefficacitédel'utilisationalimentaire
Huston (1976)indiquequelachèvreAngoraaunpluspetitrumenetunpluscourttempsde
rétentiondesalimentsdanslerumen.Decefait, ladigestibilitédesfourrages chezcescaprins
pourrait être inférieure à celle du mouton et du bovin en raison d'un plus faible temps
d'exposition aux fermentations durumen (Huston, 1982).Toutefois danslaplupart des cas
(tableau 1),ladigestibilitédelamatièreorganiqueetdelacelluloseseraitplusélevéechezles
caprins Angoraquechezlesmoutons (DoyleetEgan, 1980).Enfait, d'autres facteurs pourraient intervenir tels que laplus grande sécrétion de salivequi apporterait de l'urée dansle
rumencommel'ontmiseenévidenceDomingueetal.(1991),ettelsqu'unrecyclagedel'urée
plusintensecommecelaaétédémontréchezd'autrescaprins(Tisserandetal.1991).Letemps
derétention desfourrages danslerumen apumêmeêtretrouvé supérieuràceluidumouton,
etcecid'autantplusprononcéquelesfourrages ingéréssontdefaiblequalité(DoyleetEgan,
1980,tableau 1).Cesdifférentes observations conduisent àpenserque ladigestiondes fourrages de médiocre qualité chez les caprins Angora serait tout à fait comparable à celle des
autrescaprins.
Larétention azotéeestsouventplusélevéechezlescaprins Angoraquechezlesmoutons
Mérinos (Tableau 1). Cela peut traduire le fait que l'Angora produit plus de fibres que le
moutonrapportéeaupoidsvif (Huston, 1982).Orl'efficacité del'utilisation alimentairepour
laproduction defibres estnettement supérieurechezlachèvre.Gallagheret Shelton (1972)
ont montréquelaproduction defibre parunitéd'énergie digestible ingérée est2.7 fois plus
élevée chez le bouc castré quechez lemouton castré,et 3.2 fois chez lechevreau quechez
l'agneau. Mais l'efficacité de l'utilisation alimentaire pour le gain de poids est plus élevée
chezl'agneau quechezlechevreau (+34%)etchezlebouccastréquechezlemouton castré
(+17%).Ainsilarépartition desnutrimentsestdifférente chezl'Angora etlemouton adulte;
leurorientation verslaproduction depoil seraitdonc supérieurechezlesAngora (Gallagher
etShelton, 1972;Huston, 1982).
Capacitéd'adaptationetsensibilitéaustress
Malgréleuraptitudeàbiendigérerlacelluloseetenconséquenceàbienutiliserles fourrages
demédiocrequalité,lescaprins Angoraontfréquemment étédécrits commetrès sensiblesà
dessous-alimentations,etenparticulier àcellesquiprovoquentdesavortements aucoursdu
quatrième mois de gestation (Shelton, 1979, 1984; Huston, 1982; Wentzel, 1987). Après
l'émission dediverses hypothèses,Wentzeletal.(1975)etWentzeletBotha (1976)ontbien
confirmélarelationdecauseàeffetentrelessous-alimentationsdeschèvresenfindegestation
etla fréquence des avortements.Reehet al.(1987)ontmis enévidence quec'estunesousalimentation énergétiquequiestlaprincipalecausedecesavortements.Enoutre,Wentzelet
al. (1975)ontpréciséqueles avortements auquatrièmemois etlamortalitépérérinataleont
lesmêmescausesnutritionnelles.D'aprèsWesthuysen(1980)lasous-alimentationénergétique
auneffet plusimportantquelasous-nutrition azotéesurlamortalitépérinatale (Tableau2).
Plusieurs travaux ont essayé derechercher lescauses physiologiques de ces avortements
consécutifs àunesous-alimentation.Unexcèsd'activitéphysique (Reehetal., 1987)ouune
perturbation delafonction thyroïdienne (WentzeletBotha, 1976)ontétémishorsdecause.
Lafaible glycémiedelachèvreAngoraparrapportàlachèvreAlpine(Sahluetal., 1989)ou
son hématocrite plus faible que chez le mouton ou les autres caprins peuvent être évoqués
comme facteurs favorisant l'avortement. En effet, la sous-alimentation abaisserait encorela
glycémie;cequimodifierait l'équilibrehormonal(Wentzel,1982).Letauxplasmatiqued'oestrogènes de la mère augmenterait alors fortement et provoquerait l'expulsion du foetus
(Wentzeletal., 1975).
Est-cequecettesensibilitéauxavortementsliésàdesdéficits nutritionnels estune spécificitédeschèvresAngora?Il semblequenoncommelereconnait Shelton (1979)puisquedes
99
avortementsliésàdefortes sous-alimentations ontaussiétéobservéssurdesraceslocalesen
zonetropicale(Shelton, 1979;UnanianetFelicianoSilva,1987)etaussisurleschèvresBOER
en Afrique du sud (Coetzer et Niekerk, 1987). Mais le degré de sous-alimentation auquel
étaientsoumisesleschèvresAngora:40%desbesoinsénergétiquestotauxenfindegestation
(Wentzel, 1982a,Westhuysen, 1980)estsuffisamment importantpournepasêtreétonnédes
accidentsimportantsqu'ilprovoquait.CommechezleschèvresAlpinesouSaanen,ilapparait
deshypoglycémieschezleschèvres Angora.Toutefois,chezleschèvresdetypelaitier,elles
s'accompagnent de graves toxémies de gestation alors que les avortements seraient moins
fréquents (Morand-Fehr et Sauvant, 1987) mais les sous-alimentations observées en fin de
gestationchezleschèvreslaitièresne sontjamais aussisévèresquechezleschèvresAngora.
Parailleurs,Wentzeletal.(1979)ontmontréaussiquelescaprinsAngoraétaientsensibles
austressdufroid, lesjeunesplusquelesadultes.Aprèslamiseenjeu desmécanismesdelutte
contre le froid (augmentation de la glycémie, du rythme cardiaque et de la production de
chaleur),il peut apparaître un effondrement dela glycémie, de la température rectale etdu
rythme cardiaque avec augmentation dela sécrétion de la thyroxine et des corticostéroïdes.
Despertesdéjeunessontfréquentes,duesàcettesensibilitéaufroid,notammentaprèslatonte.
Il apparait que lachutede la glycémiede 50 %de savaleurnormale seraitl'élémentdéterminant.Wentzel (1982b)préconisepourlutter contrecespertes,d'injecter du glucose oude
distribuerunerationricheenhydratesdecarbonetoutenévitantlesacidoses.
Besoins
Les besoins spécifiques descaprinsproducteurs depoil sont souventabsentsdesrevuesproposant des apports recommandés.Le NRC (1981)etl'INRA (Morand-Fehr et al., 1987)se
sontappuyéssurdesdonnéesobtenuessurchèvresAngora,enparticuliercellesdeHustonet
al.(1971).Avecuneefficacité del'énergiemétabolisablede33%,unkgdemohairbrutdemande6250kcalEN;cequicorrespondà0.01UFLparjouretparkgdepoilproduitparan.Ainsi
selonlessystèmesénergétiquesadoptés(NRC,1981;INRA,1988),l'augmentationdel'apport
recommandéd'entretiend'unechèvrede50kg(sanstenircomptedesesdépensesliéesàson
activitésurlaprairie)etayantuneproductiondeMohairde6kgestde7-7.5%,soitunevaleur
relativement faible.
Lespertesazotéespourlaproductiondepoilvariententre0.03get0.10g/kgP°-75/jselon
leniveaudeproduction (Hustonetal., 1971;Brun-Bellutetal., 1987).DanslesystèmeMAD
du NRC(1981),le besoin estfixéde 3gparjouretparkgdemohairproduitpar an etdans
lesystèmePDI(INRA,1988)compte-tenudurendementmoyendifférent desPDIparrapport
auxMAD,de2.5gparjouretparkgdemohairproduitparan.
Iln'existepasànotreconnaissancedebesoinsouderecommandationsminéralescalculées
àpartirdedonnéesenregistrées surdescaprinsproducteurs depoil.
Influence del'alimentationsurlaproductionetlaqualitédes fibres
Développementdesfollicules
WentzeletVosloo(1975)ontétudiéledéveloppementdesfollicules etdesfibres surdessecteursdepeaudefoetus etdechevreauxAngora.Ilsemblequ'àquelquesdifférences mineures
près,ilssonttrèsvoisinsdeceuxdesfolliculesetdesfibres delainedumouton.Lacroissance
desfollicules atteignentunmaximumauquatrièmemoisdegestationmaiss'arrêteaucinquième mois, probablement parce que le développement du foetus est alors prioritaire, pour
reprendreaprèslanaissance.Lesfibresproprementditesnesedéveloppentintensémentqu'au
coursdesquatremoisquisuiventlanaissance.
100
Bienqu'onmanquecruellementd'information àproposdel'effet del'alimentationdesmères
en gestation surledéveloppement desfollicules etdesfibres dujeune,ilestprobablequela
findegestation,notammentle4èmoisdegestation,estunepériodecruciale.Deplus,puisque
chez les autres animaux et en particulier les moutons, une alimentation insuffisante ou
défectueuserisquederéduirelepoidsàlanaissancedeschevreauxetquelasurfacedelapeau
dépend essentiellement du poids vif, cela peut avoir des répercussions importantes sur la
productionultérieuredefibres.
Effetduniveaualimentaire, énergétiqueouazotédurégime
Unerestriction alimentaire limitelaproduction defibre etunapport alimentaire supplémentaireaprèsunerestriction tendàl'améliorer.MacGregoretHodge(1989)ontmontréquepar
rapportàunrégimefaisant perdre5kgdepoidsàdesmâlescastrésAngorapendant84jours,
unrégimemaintenantleurpoidsvifpermetd'améliorerlaproduction deMohairde20%.De
mêmeleniveaud'énergieingéréeinfluence lapoussedupoilCachemirequandlesanimaux
perdentdupoidsmaispasquandilsengagnent(MacGregor, 1987a).Toutefois,unesurcharge
alimentaireengénéraln'améliorepaslaproduction.Ainsilaproductiondetoisondeschèvres
Cachemiredontleniveaud'ingestionpassede0.8kgMSà3kgMSparjourn'estpasaméliorée
(MacCall etal., 1989).Norton etal.(1990)observent lemêmerésultat surlamêmeraceen
diminuant la densité des animaux surprairie de 60 à 15animaux par ha. Cette absence de
réponseàl'améliorationduniveau alimentaireparaitêtred'autantplusfréquente quelaproductiondepoilestréduite.Shaluetal.(1988),Shahjlaletal. (1990,1991),DeavffleetGalbraith
(1991) ont observé une amélioration significative de la quantité de Mohair produite en
augmentantlateneurenmatières azotéesdurégimede 10ou 12%à 18%(Tableau 3);cequi
montrebienquelaquantitéproduitedepoilestsensibleàl'apportglobaldematièresazotées
maisseulementjusqu'à untauxde 18% danslerégimeetprobablement 20%pour lesjeunes
mâles (Shelton, 1979).
Enréalitélecaprin Angorarépond àlafois auxmodifications des niveaux énergétiqueet
azoté du régime (Huston, 1980; Shelton, 1984). Il semble même comme chez le mouton
(Dones, 1984),queleniveauénergétiquetendàavoiruneffet plusmarquéqueleniveauprotéique.Toutefois, Shahjalal etal.(1990et 1991)obtiennentuneamélioration supérieuredela
production de poil des mâles castrés Angora en augmentant la concentration protéique du
régimede 10à18%,qu'enfaisantvarierlaconcentrationd'énergiemétabolisablede 10.2MJ
à 11.9MJ ouen la maintenant à9.6 MJparkg MS (Tableau 3aet b).L'augmentation dela
concentrationprotéiqueestde66%etcelledel'énergiede16%seulement.Enréalité,ilsemble
comme le souligne Shelton (1984) qu'une amélioration de laproduction depoil n'apparaît
quedanslecasoùlasynthèsedesprotéinesmicrobiennesdanslerumenétaitréduiteenraison
d'undéficitenénergie(PDIE)ouenprotéinesfermentescibles(PDIN)(INRA,1988).L'apport
dufacteurlimitant(énergieouprotéines)permetuneaméliorationdeladisponibilitédesacides
aminésauniveau desfollicules. Oncomprend mieuxpourquoiunesurchargeénergétiqueou
protéique n'augmentant pasla synthèsemicrobienne etlaquantitéd'acidesaminés absorbés
(Huston, 1980)n'améliorepaslaproduction depoil.
Ilestaussitrèsimportantderemarquerqu'àchaquefoisquelaproductiondepoilestaméliorée quelle que soit l'origine (niveau énergétique ou azoté), il apparait une tendance àla
diminution delaqualitédelafibre(Shahjalal etal, 1990,1991;DeavilleetGalbraith, 1990;
MacGregor, 1987aet 1987b;Miiftiioglu, 1960).Lediamètredesfibresaugmenteetplusrarementlaproportion dejarres'élèveetlalongueurdesmèches diminue (Müftüglu, 1960).
101
Tableau3. Inluence des niveaux énergétiqueet azoté du régimesur la croissanceet la
productiondepoil déjeunes maiescastrésangora.
etal.(1990)
a. Expérience deShahjalal
Résultats sur112J.1
Niveau énergétique2
Niveau protéique3
Gaindepoids (kg)
Consommation énergétique(MJ)
Production deFibre (g/100cm2)
Diamètredesfibresduflanc(|i)
ExpériencedeShahjalal etal.(1991)
Résultats sur63j.4
Niveau azoté(%MATAIS)
Gaindepoids (kg)
Production defibres (g/100cm2)
Diamètredesfibres duflanc (|i)
ExpériencedeGalbraithet al.(1991)
Résultats sur 70j.5
Niveau azoté(% MAT/MS)
Gaindepoids (kg)
Production defibres (g/100cm2)
Diamètre desfibres((J.)
Bas
Bas
5.4
851
8.9
29.7
Bas
Haut
8.9
949
13.4
35.4
Haut
Bas
9.9
1010
10.7
32.4
Haut
Haut
13.0
1 110
12.9
35.4
10.2
1.50
3.43
29.8
12.6
2.63
3.99
31.5
16.5
3.36
4.89
36.1
18.5
4.34
5.20
33.6
11.0
3.70
9.84
28.0
17.8
5.96
11.2
30.1
Consomation limitée à30g/kgPV
10.2ou 11.9MJEM/kgmS
108ou 180gMAT
Régimeisocaloriquede9.6MJEM/kgMSrationnéà55gMS/kg0-75;
Sourcesazotées:tourteaude sojaetfarine depoisson.
Rationnement à37g/kgPV.
Tableau4. Effetdelateneurdesmatières azotéesdurégime etdutraitementpar la chaleur
dutourteaudesojasurlaproduction etlaqualitédupoilmohair(Sahlu etal.,1988).
Teneurenmatières azotéesdurégime(%)
Traitementdutourteaudesoja
Production detoisonen 150 j . (kg)
Rendement(%)
Diamètredesfibres (|i)
12
Non
2.57
70.1
34.4
12
Oui
2.70
70.5
36.0
18
Non
3.00
71.6
37.2
Effetdessourcesénergétiquesetazotées
Commenousvenonsdelepréciser,cesontlesapportsd'énergiefermentesciblequiontleplus
dechancesd'améliorerlaproductiondepoil,maisseulementsiceux-cisontfacteurslimitants
de la synthèse des protéines microbiennes dans le rumen. En général le gain de poids est
améliorépardeshautsniveauxd'énergiefermentescible alorsquelaproduction depoil n'est
plusmodifiée (Throckmorton etal., 1982).C'estlaraison pour laquelledes apports supplémentaires d'énergie, et notamment de céréales n'ont pas eu dans beaucoup dé cas, l'effet
escomptésurlaproductiondepoilMohair(Shelton, 1984).
102
18
Oui
3.42
73.5
36.9
Lestourteaux (soja,coton)dansl'aliment semblentdessourcesazotéesefficaces pouraméliorerlaproduction depoilàladifférence dutourteaudetournesol (Sahluetal., 1988;Ashet
Norton, 1987). Ces sources ont une fraction protéique fermentescible dans lerumen et une
autrenonfermentescible quiseradigéréedansl'intestincommechezlesmonogastriques.Des
traitementstechnologiques(chaleur,tannageàlaformaldehyde...) permettentd'augmenter la
fraction nonfermentescibleetainsid'éviterdespertesazotéesquandlescapacitésdesynthèse
protéiquedurumen sontsaturées,etainsid'accroître ladisponibilitéenacides ami-nés.Les
résultatssemblentdépendredupotentieldeproductiondeschèvres.Letraitementàlachaleur
dutourteaudesojaaaméliorélaquantitéproduitedepoilMohair(Sahluetal., 1981)(Tableau
4). Mais la caséine,ou les tourteaux de soja ou de coton traités àla formaldehyde n'ont eu
aucuneffet surlaproductiondeCachemireavecdesanimauxàplusfaibleniveaudeproduction
(AshetNorton, 1987).Demêmel'utilisation demethionineprotégéequiestbeaucoupmoins
fermentescible quelamethioninelibreaaussipermis d'améliorer laquantitédepoil Mohair
produitede0.8gparjouretpargdemethionineajoutée.Cerésultatn'estpasétonnantpuisque
la synthèse des fibres exige une quantité relativement importante d'acides aminés soufrés.
Toutefois une telle amélioration semble insuffisante pour que l'apport de methionine soit
rentableéconomiquement. Ainsicommechezlemoutonpourlaproduction delaine(Hogan
etWeston, 1967),lecaprin Mohairpeutréagirfavorablement àuntraitement technologique,
enparticulier s'il aunbonniveaudeproduction depoil.
Commepourleseffets desquantitésdenutriments,uneffetpositifdelanatured'unesource
énergétique ou azotée sur laproduction de poil, entraîne une détérioration, le plus souvent
légèredelaqualitédupoiletsurtoutuneaugmentation dudiamètredesfibres^
Effetsdesminéraux, desvitaminesoud'autresadditifs
D'après Shelton (1984), les caprins producteurs de poil ne présentent pas de problèmes
particuliers deminérauxetdevitamines.Toutefois, ilspourraient avoirunbesoin spécifique
en soufre quifavorise la synthèse des acides aminés soufrés dans lerumen, nécessaires àla
synthèse deprotéines microbiennes (Lu et al., 1992).En outre dans lapratique, les apports
supplémentaires de sel comme chez le mouton à laine semble favorable, probablement en
raison de l'augmentation des quantités d'eau bue et de la vitesse de transit qui limiterait la
dégradation desprotéinesdanslerumen.Lephosphorequiestparfois déficitaire surlesparcoursutilisésetlavitamineAquiévitelakératinisationdelapeauetlabaissedel'activitédes
folliculespeuventêtreajoutées àlaration.Demêmelasupplementationdecertainsoligo-élémentscommelemolybdènepourraitêtrebénéfique (Galbraithetal., 1991)maisilsagiraient
eninteraction entreeuxouavecd'autres minéraux.
Les anabolisants peuvent aussi avoir un effet favorable sur la production de toison sans
augmentationdudiamètredesfibres (Snowderetal.,1982).Eneffetl'introduction d'implants
dezéranoletdetestosteroneàdesjeunesmâlesAngoracastrésounonaméliorelaproduction
depoilde7à10%.
Enfin desprobiotiques dutypelevures n'ontpasaméliorélaproduction desmâlescastrés
Cachemire (Deaville et Galbraith, 1990) mais plusieurs expériences sont nécessaires pour
avoirunevueobjective surl'intérêtdesprobiotiques.
Enrésumé,leseffets del'alimentation surlaproduction etlaqualité despoils Mohairet
Cachemire sont proches de ceux enregistrés sur la production de laine. Les informations
disponibles actuellementnepermettentpasencored'identifier desparticularités nutritionnellesmarquéeschezlescaprinsproducteurs depoil.
103
Stratégiesd'alimentation
Influencedumarchésurlesstratégiesd'alimentation
L'objectifdeséleveursestgénéralementd'améliorerleurproductiondepoiltoutenmaintenant
unequalitédefibres satisfaisante.Enréalitél'orientationverslaproductionouverslaqualité
dépendradumarché,c'est-à-direduprixmoyenaukgvenduetdudifférentielentrelesqualités.
Or les facteurs alimentaires agissent de façon antagoniste sur les paramètres quantitatifs et
qualitatifs.En conséquence,l'éleveurdevra adapter sa stratégiealimentaire suivant lesconditionsdu marché.Pourconcrétisercetteproposition, analysonsdeuxsituationsopposées:
a. Leprixmoyen dukgdetoisonvendueestélevéavecunrétrécissement dudifférentiel du
prixentrelesqualitésdefibre.Danscecas,l'éleveuraintérêtàopterpouruneproduction
optimaleetd'utiliserlesmoyensalimentairespouryparvenir:apportsénergétiquesetazotés suffisants et éventuellement, utilisation de sources azotées spécifiques en évitant les
gaspillages.
b. Leprixmoyen dukgdetoison estbas,et souventdanscecas,lahautequalitékidfine se
vendrabeaucouppluscherquelaqualitégrossière.L'éleveuraintérêtàabaisseraumaximumsesprixderevientetàvendreleplusdequalitéfine.Alorsildoitlimiterlesaliments
complémentairesdistribuésjusqu'àunseuillimiteoùlesrisquesd'accidentssanitairessont
tropélevés:avortements,mortalitépérinatale,faibleprotection immunitaire etc..
Cela nécessite dedisposer d'animaux dotés d'une grandecapacitéd'adaptation autant àdes
programmes alimentairesrestreints.
Considérationstechniquespourdéfinirunestratégiealimentaire
Compte-tenu dumarchéquirecherchelestoisonsdesjeunesanimaux,nedoit-onpasadopter
une stratégie technique pour augmenter aumaximumlaproduction detoison de qualitékid,
quitteàperdreunpeu surlaproduction oulaqualitédestoisonsd'adultes?
Pourcela,ilestessentield'optimisersurlesperformances dereproductionetderéduireles
pertes surlesjeunes.Les chèvresreproductrices doivent arriver àlapériode delutteenétat
corporel suffisant. Un apport supplémentaire, surtout énergétique peut améliorer le taux de
fertilité des chèvres Angora (Shelton, 1979; 1984)et lerythme dereproduction. Mais cette
techniquedoitêtrebienmaîtriséepouréviterdesaugmentationsdepoidsquiprovoqueraient
tropdenaissancesgémellaires.Parailleurs,cettesupplementationdoitsepoursuivrependant
3semainesaumoinsaprèslesdernièressailliesafinquelespertesembryonnairesneréduisent
pasàzérol'augmentationdelaponteovulaire.Maiscommenousl'avonsvu,lafindegestation
est unepériode critique.Pouréviterles avortements etlespertesdechevreaux parmortalité
périnatale,maisaussilesatteintesparasitairesgraves(typecoccidiose)etlesconséquencesdu
stressduaufroid, notammentaprèslatonte,unecomplémentation seraitutilepourcouvrirles
besoins d'entretien et de gestation (voir recommandations NRC, 1981;INRA, 1988). En
gestation, elle doit surtout êtreénergétiqueplus queprotéique.Lesquantités distribuées,en
généralde 150gà300gd'alimentconcentréparjouretpartêtedoiventêtremoduléesselon
l'étatcorporeldesanimaux,lanatureetlaqualitédelarationdebaseoudesdisponibilitéssur
le parcours. En effet dans des systèmes utilisant du parcours, la fin de gestation peut correspondreàlafindelapériodedel'arrêtdelavégétationoùlesurpaturâgeetenconséquence,
les sous-alimentations sont fréquentes (Somloet al., 1987).Un supplément minéral et vitaminiquepeutêtreutiledanslecasoùlesfourrages ingéréssontdefaible qualité.Ledébutde
lactation coïncide aveclapériodedesbesoins lesplusélevés deschèvresreproductrices.On
doit rechercher une production laitière suffisante pour bien faire démarrer les chevreaux
pendant lesdeuxpremiers mois.Sionveutlimiterlasupplementation,ilfaut faire coïncider
cettepériodeaveccelledumaximumdedisponibilitésdelaprairieouduparcours.Sinon,un
104
apport supplémentaire decéréalesetdetourteau dansunrapportde2ou 3/1estnécessaireà
raisonde 100à500gsuivantlesdisponibilités etlaqualitédesfourrages ingérées.
Commeonmanquede donnéesprécises,la conduite alimentairedes mèresrisqued'être
approximativeenpratique.Pourlarendreplusrigoureuse,ilnoussembleimportantd'utiliser
lessuivisdel'étatcorporelavecdesnotes-ciblesauxpériodescritiquesducycledereproduction: saillie,mise-bas,démarrage de la végétation etc.. Laméthode despalpations d'abord
mise au point pour les brebis (Rüssel et al., 1969) a été adaptée pour les caprins et donne
satisfactionautantdanslessystèmesintensifsqu'extensifs(Santuccietal.,1990;Morand-Fehr
etal., 1992).
Quant aujeunechevreau, ilfaut luiassurerunbondémarrage enpériodelactée.Sinécessaire,lelaitdelamèrepeutêtrecomplétéeparunalimentconcentréauquelilauraseulaccès.
Ensuite pendant la période de croissance, il devra être essentiellement alimenté par des
fourrages etdesconcentrésénergétiquesouazotéss'ilestnécessaired'éviterdessous-alimentations quiréduiraient troplaproduction depoil.Cesapports doiventêtreraisonnes selonla
qualitéetlaproduction depoilquel'éleveurdésireobtenir.
Mais enréalité pour définir unestratégie alimentaire,ilnefaut pas considérer seulement
leseffets surlaproduction detoison et laqualitédupoilmais aussi leseffets surles performancesdereproduction etsurlegaindepoidspuisqu'un animalpluslourd auraune surface
de peau, donc une production de poil plus importante. Or le plus souvent les facteurs alimentairesn'ontplusd'effets surlaproduction depoilalorsqu'ilsontencoredeseffets favorablessurl'étatcorporel,lafertilitéoulaproduction laitièredesmères,etsurlegaindepoids
desjeunes (Sahluetal., 1988).
/
Conclusions
Les caractéristiques alimentaires des chèvres Angora ou Cachemire sont assez proches de
cellesdesmoutonsàlaine;toutefois elless'en différencient parlecomportement alimentaire
etcertainsaspectsdeladigestionquisontprochesdescaractéristiquesd'autrescaprinsélevés
dansdesmilieux difficiles.
Laproduction depoilexigentdes apports énergétiques etazotés permettant une synthèse
optimaledesprotéinesmicrobiennes danslerumen.L'apportdeprotéinesby-passpeutdans
certainscas,êtreintéressante.Maisdessurchargesalimentaires,oubiendessous-alimentations
enparticulierenfin degestation oupendantlapériodedeluttedoiventêtreévitées.Comptetenudesbesoinsrelativementlimitésdecesanimaux,laproductiondepoiln'estpasaméliorée
pardesapports supplémentairesénergétiquesouazotés.
Lastratégiealimentairedépenddesconditionsdumarchémaislarecherched'uneproductionoptimaledetoisonsdejeunesanimauxdoitêtreprioritaire.Celapasseparunprogramme
alimentairedesmèresprécisévitantlesavortements,lesmortalitéspérinatalesetlesaccidents
sanitaires.
Danslesystèmeextensif,larecherchedeladensitéoptimalesurprairieouparcourssuivant
le stade physiologique des mères pourrait améliorer l'efficience du système (Norton et al.,
1990).Demêmelestroupeauxmixtes(mouton,chèvre)peuventaboutiràuneutilisationcomplémentaireduparcoursoudelaprairieàuneintensitédechargeprécise,ouàuneutilisation
concurrente àuneintensité supérieure (MacGregor, 1987c).
Danslesystèmeintensif,ladiminutiondescoûtsalimentaires enréduisantlesgaspillages
etenadaptantmieuxlessourcesfourragères àcetteproductionafinqu'ellescouvrentuneplus
grandeproportiondesbesoins seraituneorientation derecherche àdévelopper.
105
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107
Comparison ofTurkishangoragoatswithAmerican xTurkish
crossbred generationsinbodyweightandmohair traits
B.C. Yalçin,P.HorstandH.Günes
FacultyofVeterinaryMedicine,UniversityofIstanbul,Avcilar,Istanbul,Turkey
Summary
This study hasbeencarriedoutatAnadoluStateProduction FarmnearEskisehirtocompare
theproduction levels of Turkish Angora goatswith those of crossbred generations obtained
from crossbreeding between Turkish (T) and American (A) strains of Angora goats.Least
squaresmeansfordifferent traitsinT,Fl,F2,ABl (backcrosstoAmerican)andTBI (backcross toTurkish) groups were found respectively as follows: birth weight 2.55,2.63,2.62,
2.64 and 2.60kg,weaning (105-day) weight 15.32, 15.59, 15.27, 15.21and 15.52kg,body
weightafter shearing31.00,30.24,30.26,30.01and30.38kg,greasyfleeceweight2.40,2.81,
2.58, 2.74 and 2.59 kg, staple length 17.17, 17.50, 18.02, 18.13 and 17.67 cm, and fiber
diameter29.83,29.37,28.33,28.29and29.60micron.Theseresultsindicatethat,bycrossing
Turkish AngoragoatswithAmerican stock,significantly highermohairproduction ofbetter
quality canbeobtainedatFl andABl stagesascompared tothoseinpureTurkishgoats.
Keywords:crossbreeding,Angoragoats,mohairtraits.
Introduction
InTurkey,AngoragoatsareraisedmainlyontheCentralAnatolianPlateau,about800meters
abovethesealevel.Thegreatestpartoftheregionisformed bypoorrangelands andtreeless
steppes.Theclimateissemi-aridwithdryhotsummersandcoldwinters.Duringthegrazing
season goatsdepend almostcompletely on short andpoorquality grasseson therangelands
andoncerealstubble.Animalsarewinteredforabout3to5monthinsimplesheds,whenthey
aremaintained oncereal strawandpoor-quality hay.Incriticalperiods,goatsinsome flocks
receivelimited amountof concentrates.Becauseof thispoorlevelof nutrition, thelevelsof
important production traits in the Angora goat flocks in Turkey are generally low. In the
producers'flock, averagevaluesfordifferent mohairtraitsofbreedingfemales werefoundas
follows: greasy fleece weight 1.6 kg,cleanmohairyield77.0percent, staplelength 13.8cm
andfiber diameter33.3micron (Müftüglu andÖrkiz, 1982).Correspondingfigures obtained
forbreedingfemales atexperimentalfarms are3.0kg,71.5percent, 16.4cmand35.8micron.
HeritabilityestimatesobtainedformohairtraitsandkidweightsofAngoragoatsinTurkey
aregenerallylow(From0.07to0.24)indicatingthatimprovingthesetraitsthroughindividual
selectionwillbeaslowprocess.(Yalçin,etal., 1979;Yalçinetal., 1989).Although selection
for these traits may be made more effective by combining individual records with half-sib
family averages andbyusing aselectionindex,increasing genetic variationinthesetraitsis
neededfor faster geneticimprovement byselection.
Theexistingliteratureindicatethatmarkedly higherlevelsfor mohairproduction andkid
weightsareattainedinAngoragoatflocks raisedintheU.S.A.andinSouthAfrica (Shelton,
1965; Shelton and Basset, 1970; Basset, 1966; Marincowitz, 1959; Uys, 1963; Van der
Westhuysen et al., 1981).If the superiority of theAmerican and South African goats tothe
Turkish goats is greatly genetic,crossbreeding of Turkish Angora goats with American and
SouthAfrican strainsmaydirectlyimprovethelevelsoffleeceweightandsomefleececharac-
108
teristicsincrossbredgenerations.Suchcrossbreedingmayalsobeuseful inincreasinggenetic
variationindifferent traitsandmake selectionmoreeffective inthesubsequentgenerations.
This study is concerned with acrossbreeding experiment initiated at Eskisehir-Anadolu
State Production Farm, in Central Anatolia, in 1983in order to investigate the value of y
betweenTurkish andAmerican strainsof Angoragoatsinimprovingtheproductivity of the
Turkish stockandforincreasinggeneticvariationindifferent mohairandbodyweighttraits.
Materialandmethods
In 1983,19bucksfrom AmericanAngoragoatstrainwereimportedfrom Texas,U.S.A.,and
broughttotheAnadoluStateProductionFarmnearEskisehir,inCentralAnatolia.Theywere
usedforinseminating arandompartofthebreedingfemales presentintheAngoragoatflock
of thatfarm, intheautumn of the sameyear.Theremainingpartof thebreedingfemales in
thesameflock wasusedinpurebreeding. Similarmatings weremadeinthefollowing years
(1984through 1987),andFl andpureTurkishgroupsofkidswereobtained.Duringtheperiod
from 1985to 1987,Fl doeswereallocated intothreerandom groups andwerematedto Fl,
AmericanandTurkishbucks.Allofthesematingsweremadethroughartificial insemination.
Inthisway,contemporary groupsofpureTurkish (T),Fl, F2,ABl (backcross toAmerican
strain)andTBI (backcross toTurkish strain)wereproduced.
Kidswereidentified andtheirbirthdate,sex,typeofbirthandbirthweightwererecorded.
Theywereweanedatanaverageageof 105days.Animalswereshornonceayear,usuallyat
theendofMarch,andgreasyfleeceweightandbodyweightafter shearingwererecorded.Before shearing,mohairsamplesweretakenfrom shoulder,ribandteighregions.Forthedeterminationoffiber diameterandstaplelength,respectively 200fibersand 10staplesfromeach
regionwere measured.
Improvedfeeding wasprovidedtothedoesfromabouttwoweeksbeforematingtotheend
ofthematingseason,andalsoduringthelast6weeksofpregnancy.Theyreceivedhayduring
thewinter andgrazedonpoorrangelandsfrom ApriltoNovember.Thelevelof nutritionin
theflock wasgenerally similartothatprovided toAngora goatsin themajority of flocks in
theregion.
Theeffects oftypeofgenotypeandknown measurableenvironmentalfactors on different
traitswerestudiedbyleastsquaresprocedure,describedbyHarvey(1960).Interactionsamong
thefactorsstudiedwereassumedtobenon-significant andthereforeweredisregarded.Bythis
procedure,meanvaluesforthegenotypicgroups,adjusted fortheknownmeasurableenvironmentalfactors, wereobtained.
Resultsanddiscussion
Meanliveweightsofkidsindifferent genotypegroups arepresentedinTable 1. Atbirth,kids
in crossbred groups were significantly heavier (2.60-2.64kg v.2.55kg) than pure Turkish
kids. Significant weight differences among genotype groups were also present at the subsequent ages,but their magnitudes were very small. At different ages, mean values in the
groups varied within thefollowing limits:birth weight 2.55-2.64kg,weaning weight 15.21
-15.52kg,6-monthweight 17.50-18.43kgand 12-month weight24.36-25.24kg.
Kidsurvivalratestoweaningageandto6monthsofagewerehigh(98-100%and97-99%,
respectively)inallgroups;withfewexceptions,differences betweenthegroupswerenotsignificant (Table 2). It appears that, in respect of growth and survival rates, kids in different
genotypegroupsperform similarlyundertheexistingmanagement andenvironmentalconditions.
109
Table 1. Meanliveweightsofkidsindifferentgenotypegroups.
Genotype
groups
Turkish
Fl
F2
ABl
TBI
Genotype
groups
]Birthweight (kg)
n
2394
1235
133
129
645
mean
s.e.
a
2.55
2.63b
2.62b
2.64b
2.60b
0.012
0.014
0.035
0.035
0.019
n
2357
1217
133
127
635
6-month weight(kg )
n
Turkish
Fl
F2
ABl
TBI
Weaningweight (kg)
2194
1 105
121
116
625
15.32
15.59b
15.27ab
15.21ab
15.52ab
0.073
0.087
0.209
0.210
0.114
n
mean3
s.e.
1505
737
64
71
391
a
0.147
0.174
0.430
0.414
0.214
s.e.
18.25
18.203
17.58b
17.50b
18.43a
s.e.
a
12-monthweight (kg)
mean
a
mean
0.095
0.114
0.276
0.279
0.146
25.24
24.58b
25.10*
24.36b
25.09ab
a b
' Differences between themeans withdifferent superscripts arestatistically significant.
Table2. Survivalrateofkidsindifferentgenotypegroups.
Genotype
groups
Turkish
Fl
F2
ABl
TBI
Numberoflivekids
Survivalrate(%)
birth
weaning
6months
2394
1235
133
130
645
2361
1218
133
127
635
2345
1203
132
126
630
toweaning to6months
98.6a
98.6a
100.0b
97.7a
98.4a
a,b
Differences between groupswithdifferent superscriptsarestatistically significant.
MeanvaluesobtainedforbodyweightofdoesaregiveninTable3.Amongthegroups,mean
bodyweightafter shearingvariedbetween30kgand31kg,andmeanbodyweightatmating
variedbetween 35.2kg and 36.7kg.Crossbred groupshad slightlylowerbodyweightsthan
pureTurkish group.However, this should not beconsidered adisadvantage for crossbreds,
becauseAngoragoats areprimarilymohairproducinganimals.
Fleecerecords were obtained from does agingfrom onetofive years old.Table4 shows
the mean values obtained for greasy fleece weight, staple length and fiber diameter. Mean
valuesforpureTurkish,Fl, F2,ABl andTBI groups are2.40,2.81,2.58,2.74and2.59kg
for greasyfleece weight, 17.2,17.5,18.0,18.1and 17.7cmfor staplelength,and29.8,29.4,
28.3,28.3and29.6micronforfiberdiameter,respectively.Crossbredgroupsare significantly
superiortopureTurkish groupinrespectof greasyfleece weight and staplelength and,with
110
97.9ab
97.4a
99.2b
96.9a
97.7ab
Table3. Meanbodyweightofdoesindifferentgenotypegroups.
Genotype
groups
Body weight after shearing(kg)
n
Turkish
Fl
F2
ABl
TBI
1955
1122
41
53
268
mean
s.e
3
31.00
30.24b
30.26ab
30.01b
30.38b
0.102
0.108
0.499
0.441
0.244
Body weightatmating (kg)
n
mean
s.e.
a
1502
940
33
33
183
36.73
35.15c
36.28ac
36.58ad
35.5l c d
0.119
0.126
0.585
0.583
0.308
a,b,c,dDifferences between themeanswithdifferent superscripts arestatistically significant.
Table4. Meanvaluesfor mohairtraitsofdoesindifferentgenotypegroups.
Genotype
groups
Greasyfleece weight(kg)
n
Turkish
Fl
F2
ABl
TBI
Genotype
groups
Turkish
Fl
F2
ABl
TBI
1980
1153
41
57
266
mean
a
2.40
2.81c
2.58 M
2.74cd
2.59b
Staplelength (cm)
s.e.
n
0.016
0.017
0.080
0.069
0.039
880
537
23
34
164
mean
n.n*
17.50b
18.02b
18.13b
17.67b
s.e.
0.106
0.102
0.412
0.351
0.212
Fiberdiameter (micron)
n
880
537
23
34
164
mean
29.83a
29.37c
28.33b
28.29b
29.60ac
s.e.
0.137
0.132
0.532
0.453
0.274
a b c>d
' ' Differences between themeanswithdifferent superscripts arestatistically significant.
theexception ofTB1group,inrespectoffiberfineness. Superioritiesingreasyfleece weight
ofFl andAB1 groups overpureTurkishgroupare 17% and 14%,respectively.
Theseresultsindicatethat,bycrossingTurkishAngoragoatswithAmericanstock, significantly higher mohair production of better quality can be obtained at Fl and ABl stages as
comparedtothoseinpureTurkishgoats,withoutchangingthegrowthandsurvivalrateinthe
latter.Cross-breedingbetweenthesetwolinesofAngoragoatsisalsolikelytoincreasegenetic
variationintheimportantproduction traitsinthesubsequent generations.
Ill
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to DFG, BMZ and GTZ agencies of the German Government and to the
authorities of Anadolu State Production Farm belonging to Ministry of Agriculture of the
TurkishGovern-mentfor supportingthisproject.
References
Aritiirk,E.,B.C.Yalgin,F.Imeryiiz,S.Müfiüoglu&N.Sincer,1979.Geneticandenvironmental
aspectsofAngoragoatproduction.I.Generalperformance levels andtheeffects ofsome
measurable environmental factors ontheproduction traits.IstanbulÜniv.Vet.Fak.Derg.,
5:1-17.
Bassett,J.W.,1966.Changesinmohairfleececharacteristicsasinfluenced byageandseason.
TexasAgriculturalExperiment StationResearch Report(PR-2402):27-28.
Harvey,WH.,1960.Least-squaresanalysisofdatawithunequalsubclassnumbers.Agric.Res.
Serv.USDA,ARS: 20-8.
Marincowitz, G., 1959.Fleece Sortiments overemphasized atexpense of conformation and
production.FarminginSouthAfrica, 34(1):38^U.
Müftüglu, S. & M. Örkiz, 1982.Astudyonmohairproduction andmohairqualityinTurkish
Angoragoats.LalahänZoot.Ara/t.Enst.Derg.,22:3-20.
Shelton, M., 1965. The relation of size to breeding performance of Angora does. Texas
AgriculturalExperiment Station ResearchReports (PR-2339):18-19.
Shelton,M. & J.W. Bassett,1970. Estimate of certain genetic parameters relating to Angora
goats.TexasAgriculturalExperimentStation ResearchReport(PR-2750):38-41.
Uys,D.S., 1963.Characteristics of the South African mohairclip.Angora Goat andMohair
Journal,6(1).
Van der Westhuysen, J.M.,D. Wentzel &M.C. Grobler, 1981.Angora goats and mohair in
SouthAfrica, NasionaleKoeranteBeperk,PortElizabeth.
Yalgin,B.C.,E.Aritiirk,F.Imeryiiz,N.Sincer&I.Müftüglu,1979.Geneticandenvironmental
aspectsofAngoragoatproduction.2.Phenotypicandgeneticparametersfortheimportant
production traits,ystanbulÜniv.Vet.Fak.Derg.,5:19-34.
Yalgin, B.C.,P. Horst,S. Gerstmayr &T.Öztan,1989.Research on thebreeding of Angora
goatsinTurkey.Anim.Res.Devel.,30:25-35.
112
Session4
Angoraandcashmeregoats
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
R.Sönmez
H.Aliko
Wooland mohair production in Türkey
A. Eliçin,N.AkmanandSM.Yener
UniversityofAnkara,FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofAnimalScience,Diskapi,
Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
ThenativesheepbreedsofTurkey,themajority beingfat-tailed, haveallmixedcoarsewool.
OnlytheMerinoanditscrosseswhichconstituteabout5%ofthepopulation arefine-wooled.
InTurkeytheaveragewoolyieldpersheepisbetween 1.6-1.8kg.andtherehasbeennosignificant progress in increasing the quality and quantity. To meet the needs of the country
approximately 30000tonsof woolisimportedperyear,asmallportion beingmixedcoarse
wool.
Turkey isoneof thethreeleadingmohairproducingcountries of theworldandisknown
asthehomelandoftheAngoragoat.Despiteofthistherehavebeenmarkeddecreasesinboth
thenumberofgoatsandmohairproductionparticularly after 1980.AsthenumberofAngora
goatsdroppedundertwomillions,mohairproductionwasatabout3000tons.Whileaconsiderableportionofthemohairproductionisexported,inrecentyearsimportations,eventhough
inverysmallconsignments,havetakenplace.
/
Woolproduction
Verylargepartof theworld animalfiber production comes from sheep which is the species
exhibiting thegreatest diversity withrespect towool.Today animalfibers in different forms
rangingfromthehairtothefinewooleasilyusedbythetextileindustrycanbeproduced from
sheep.Furthermorethefibersobtainedfromthemshowconsiderablevariationincolor.Turkey
isoneofthecountriesinwhichlargedifferences inwoolareobservedinsuchimportantquality
characteristics ascolorandfineness.
Contributing to this diversityinthewoolproduced inTurkey areboth thevarious native
breeds andtypes in thecountry and alsothe greatnumber of crossbred genotypes. Someof
the crossbreds mentioned wereobtained bycrossbreeding among native breeds. In addition
tothis,theimportation in thefirst placeof Merinos andvarious culture breeds andtheiruse
incrossbreedinghavecontributed tothisdiversely.
InTurkeythereareconsiderabledifferences inwoolyield,fineness, staplelengthanduniformitywithinbreedseventhoughnotatthesamemagnitudeasamongthebreeds.Thefactors
contributing tothe emergence andcontinuation of this situation arethedifferences inplace,
systemandutilizationoftheproductioninadditiontothatwoolisnotanimportantsourceof
revenueinthecountry.
Some characteristics of various genotypes raised inTurkey show that wool yields of the
nativebreedsareverylow,theirmajor similaritybeingtoproducemixedcoarsewool.While
somepartof thisproduction isutilizedincarpet-weaving amajor portion isusedinmeeting
thehomeneeds suchasbedsandquilts.
The sheep population of Turkey is about 45-50 millions and 4-5% of this are Merino
crosses.Theproduction of70-80thousand tonsofwoolisfarfrom meetingtheneedsofthe
country. Particularly almost all of the fine uniform wool required by the textile industry is
imported.
Thepast of the intensive efforts directed tomeet theneeds from the country is about 60
yearsiftheperiodbefore theRepublicisnottakenintoaccount.Howeveritisnotpossibleto
115
saythatasignificant progresshasbeenmadeduringthisperiod.Variousreasonscanbelisted
for this.The mostimportant of theseis that theproduction conditions inregionsof Turkey
where seep are raised are not suitable for fine-wooled sheep such as Merinos to be raised
economically.Infact,whenthesubsidiesforwoolpriceswereliftedtheefforts oftheproducers
to work with these animals have ended. Consequently the native breeds and their crosses
producingwoolof thesameorevenlowercashvaluehavebeenpreferred. Inthischoicethe
fact thatworkingwithnativebreedshaslessriskhasplayedanimportantrole.
InTurkeytheendeavorstoproducebetterqualitywoolthroughcrossbreedingwereinitiated
inSouthernMarmaraRegion.Theseworkswerecarriedoutbyapplyinggrading-up andthe
German Mutton Merinowas used astheimprover breed.When sufficient production could
notbeproducedfrom thisregiontheprojects wereshifted totheCentralandpartlytoEastern
Anatolia.Sincenoimprovementsintheenvironmentwereaffected parallelingtheincreasein
the proportion of Merino genotype the rate of mortality in lambs increased. Both this unfavorableresultand alsothenecessityof usingartificial insemination duetoallbreedsbeing
fat-tailed except Kivircik; in addition to the prices of wool remaining below the level to
compensate for the losses have prevented the production of wool of desired quantity and
quality.Asaresulttheproportion ofMerinoanditscrossesinthesheeppopulation couldbe
raisedtothelevel of 3-4% through theefforts ofnothingbutgrading-up.
Althoughtherearedifferent figuresabouttheproductionsofvarioustypesofwoolinTurkey
indifferent references,theamountofwoolobtainedfrom Merinoanditscrossesisestimated
atonly5%ofthetotalwoolproduction.
Thestudies towardsacquiringnewtypesbyutilizingMerinoshavebeencarriedoutatthe
researchinstitutes;butitcouldnotbeassuccessful toextendtheharvestedresultstothefield.
Indeed, despite the fact that there are new types and breeds whose wool quality meet the
demandsoftheindustryitisnotpossibletosaythattheyareraisedextensively.
Inrecentyears workson theproduction of quality wool havedecreased verymuch.Both
this situation and also thedevelopments in textileindustry haveled toincreased importsof
Turkeywhichisawoolimportingcountry.Forexamplewhiletheimportoffleece andwool
was 17thousand tonsin 1985,ithasraisedover 31thousand tons in 1990.Duringthesame
period theimport of wool yarn (tops) has increased from 800tons to2775 tons.There has
alsobeenchangesinthequalitiesofthewoolimportedbyTurkey.Forinstance,in1985import
ofwoolotherthanMerinowoolwasabout1 500tons,whereasthecomparablefigurefor1990
hasreachedapproximatelyto10000tons.ThusTurkeyhasstartedtoimportnon-merinowool
inlargevolumesinaddition totheMerinowoolofvarioustypes.
Compared to the quite high volumes of import, thequantities of exportremained rather
low.Duringtheyearsof 1985-1990underdiscussion thehighestamountoffleece andwool
exporthasmaterializedin 1989withabout2000tons.
Mohair production
Mohairisananimalfiberwhichisdurable,lustrous,elastic,hygroscopicandmoresoilresistant
than others.Mohair isamong thenatural fibers sought bythetextileindustry becauseof its
quitegoodqualitiesinreflecting dyesandkeepingdyes.Inthetextileindustrymohaircanbe
usedaloneorincombination withcotton,wool andsynthetic fibers.
Mohair andAngora goat from which itisproduced haveimportance for Turkeyin three
points.Thefirstof theseis thatmohair isan easily saleableexport item.The secondisthat
Angora goat constitutes an important sourceof food and revenue for itskeepers. As for the
third,mohairproduction meetstheneedoftheTurkish textileindustry.
As itisknown Angora goat has spreadto theWorldfrom the Central Anatolian Plateua
which is within the boundaries of Turkey.Angora goat breeding inother areas of theworld
116
hasapastof approximately 150years.Despitethistoday,Turkeyranksthirdamongtheimportant mohairproducingcountriesoftheworld.
The most important increases in the wealth of Angora goat of Turkey have taken place
between the years 1950and 1960.Thehighest value in thelast 150yearsis sixmillionsin
1960. In the following years adecrease is observed in the number of Angora goats.At the
beginningtherateofdecreaseisnotverymuch;butafter 1980ithasincreasedquitealotand
inrecentyearsithasdroppedundertwomillionsandbecamethelowestfigure ofthecentury.
There have been fluctuations in the mohairproduction of Turkey similar to those in the
number of goats.Unfortunately this situation, which isquite natural for short periods,continues.Inotherwordstherehasnotbeenanimportantdevelopmentinthedirectionofincreasing yieldpergoat.Theyieldpergoatisabout 1.6-1.8kgwhich ishalf of theandevenless
thanhalfoftheyieldintwoleadingmohairproducingcountries.Thenaturalandeco-nomical
conditions of the Angora goat breeding regions are quite effective in the formation of this
situation.Infact theCentralAnatolianranges,whichhasahighdensityof Angoragoats,are
poorinvegetation.Inthisregion,productionisalmostimpossibleonlybyutilizingtheranges.
Ontheotherhandthereareconsiderableproblemsintransitiontotheintensiveorsemi-intensivesystems.
ThefirstoftheseproblemsisthatAngoragoatsunderintensiveorsemi-intensiveconditions
cannotcompete withotherlinesofproduction inthoseregions.Infact itisobserved thatof
thosegoingoutofAngoragoathusbandryagreatmajorityundertakeproductioninotherareas,
sheephusbandry beingatthelead.
Thelowand unstableprices of mohairhaveanimportant contribution totherecessionof
Angoragoathusbandry.Whilethesubsidypricesformohairarequiteabovetheexportprices
inotherleadingproducercountries,itisgenerallylowerinTurkey.Inadditiontothese unfavorablefactors, decreaseintheacreageandqualityoftheranges;prevention oftheentrance
ofgoatstotheforest areas,anddifficulties infindingshepherd acceleratetherateofdecrease
inthenumberofgoats.
Mohair production of Turkey is around 3000 tonsand agreatpartof it isexported. The
amounts of exported mohair change depending on the demands of the world markets. For
examplein 1985atotalof about2250tonsofmohairwasexported,whereasthecomparable
figure in 1987hasreached to3890tons anddropped to 1 340tonsin 1989.Inthepastyear
amountofexportdecreasedtoverylowlevelandtheexportedquantityhasbecomeabout250
tons. One of the interesting developments in recent years is that despite being a traditional
exportingcountryTurkeyhasimportedmohairevenifinasmallquantity.
InTurkeygoatsareclippedonceayearandtheproduceismarketedwithout subjectingto
grading.Gradingisdonebythebuyerorusuallybytheexporter.
In contrast to other countries the Angora goats raised in Southeastern Turkey produces
coloredmohair.Thismohairisusuallyutilizedintheregioninmakingblanket,stockingsetc.
It is hardly possible to talk about extensive and effective efforts in the improvement of
mohair quality inTurkey.Nevertheless not to beignored is that thepresence of potential to
make it possible to easily reach the desired quality level after quite a shortperiod of work.
Angora goat should beregarded as the cultural wealth of the country and considering that
survival of it is dependent on mohair prices, efforts should be directed towards increasing
incomepergoat.
117
Originalitédelaproduction française demohair: la valorisation
destoisonspar laventedirecte
A. Billant,M.Joly
Missècle,81100Burlats,tél.:63358782,fax: 63510061
Abstract
This paper deals with the present situation of Angora goat industry in France. The french
productionofAngorafibresreaches2%oftheworldproduction.Feedingsystemsrangefrom
wholeextensive grazingtozero-grazing.
ThebreedingstockiscomposedofanimalsimportedfromTexasandAustralia.Animprovementscheme,basedonthecontrolofquantityandqualityofthefleeces,hasbeen setup.The
firstresultsshowthat50%ofthefibres haveadiametersmallerthan32(x.
French breeders areorganized in order tomasterevery stepof mohairprocessing andto
selltheirproduction directly.Theymay sellitonthefarm, in handicraft fairs, bymailorby
canvassing.
Introduction
EnFrance,l'élevagedeschèvresAngoraetlaproductiondepoilmohairsonttrèsrécents.Les
premièresimportationsd'animauxonteulieuen 1978maisledémarrageréelsesitueen1982
/83puis 1987/89. Cette filière présente descaractéristiques originales, malgrédes volumes
produitslimités.
Nousprésenteronslasituation actuelledelaproductionenFrance,eninsistantsuccessivementsurletroupeauactuel,sesperformancesdeproductionetlesqualitésdemohairproduites,
etenfinsurlesystèmedevalorisationdelaproduction.Eneffet, ils'agitd'un systèmeoriginal,
danslequelleséleveurssesontorganiséspourcontrôlertouteslesétapesdelatransformation
dumohairetrécupérerainsilemaximumdevaleur ajoutée.
UnélevageenpleindéveloppementenFrance
Au cours des dix dernières années, l'engouementpour laproduction de mohair aprovoqué
une croissance quasiexponentielledu troupeau français de chèvres Angora (Figure 1).Plus
de 170producteurspossèdent,en 1991,environ9000animaux.Lamoyennedetroupeauest
de50animauxparélevage,maisonrencontreplusieurstroupeauxdeplusde100mères.Avec
uneproductionmoyennede4kgdepoilsparan(2tontestousles6mois),laquantitéproduite
atteintles35tonnes,soitenviron 2%delaproduction mondiale.
Les conditionsd'alimentationdanslesélevages sonttrèsvariables selonla situation géographique,maisaussilatailledu troupeauetlaplacedecetteproductiondansl'exploitation.
En conséquence, les systèmes varient du pâturage extensif intégral jusqu'au zéro pâturage
(Tableau 1).LachèvreAngoraaunecapacitéd'adaptationremarquable,maisavecdesniveaux
deproduction etdequalitétrèsvariablesselonlessystèmes d'élevage.
Lesimportationsd'animauxinscritsetsélectionnésenprovenanceduTexasoud'Australie
constituentlabasegénétiquedutroupeau.Dèsledépart,leséleveursontcherchéàévaluerles
performances del'ensembledutroupeau.Le suividefiliation aétémisenplaceen 1983,le
contrôleindividueldeperformances en 1986.Cecontrôleporteessentiellement surlesquan118
Nbre d'éleveurs
Animaux Taille moyenne du
1{
9000»
200-
animaux
7000/
-9000
1
•6000
-60
-3000
30
troi
/
y/
eiBvsurs
150
53
13
'^ ^7
//*5000
45^
taille moyenne
\os/
/
36/"^
10028/__-—
2900
1
1988
1
1989
H-
1990
1
* •
1991
Figure 1. Evolutiondelastructure del'élevagefrançaisdechèvresAngora.
Tableau 1. Tailledestroupeauxetsystèmesd'élevageen1990(sur150 éleveurs).
Proportion detroupeauxconcernés(%)
Tailledes troupeaux
Moinsde50chèvres
De50à70chèvres
Plusde75chèvres
Systèmed'élevage
Pâturage semi-intensif (pâturageencultures fourragères)
Pâturagesemi-extensif (pâturageetbroussailles)
Zéro-pâturage
Autre
50
30
20
50
30
10
10
titésetqualitésdestoisons (finesse etabsencedejarre;lejarreestunefibre cassante,saprésenceconstituantuncaractèreéliminatoiremajeur dansl'évaluationdelatoison).Unschéma
collectifd'améliorationgénétiquedevraitpermettred'augmenterlesquantitésproduites,tout
en conservant une qualité largement supérieure aux niveaux moyens mondiaux observés
(Tableau2).
119
Tableau2. Performancesmoyennesdesanimauxde18mois,évolutionetobjectif.
Poidsdelatoison (kg/an)
mâle
femelle
Diamètredefibres(|J.)
mâle
femelle
De28à32M
(10tonnes) /
1990
Objectif
5.6
4.8
5.6
4.6
6.0
4.8
36.2
32
35.7
31.5
34.0
31.0
<28y
(7tonnes)
29%
20%J ;
< ^ 9 %
22%
De32à34|j \
(7,7tonnes)
1988
20%
j
\
Toisons
\ jarreuses
(de0,5à2%
~j dejarre)
/ (3,2tonnes)
De34à42p
(7tonnes)
Figure2. QualitésdumohairproduitenFrance (diamètredesfibres en \i).
Répartieparqualitésdefinesse, laproduction française estremarquableparlaproportion de
fibresinférieuresà32^dediamètre(Figure2):prèsde50%,contremoinsde25%enl'Afrique
du Sud.
Unevalorisation destoisonsparlaventedirecte
Face àunmarché mondial dumohair très fluctuant etdes prix moyens largement inférieurs
auxseuilsderentabilitédanslesconditionsd'élevagefrançaises, leséleveursontdûchercher
une valorisation supérieure de leur production. La solution est venue à la fois grâce àune
collaborationefficace aveclesindustriestextilesetàlapossibilitédetoucherdirectementun
potentiel d'acheteursdeproduitsfinis enmohair.
Lemohair,produitdehautdegamme,avaitdéjàunréseautrèsétablid'industriesdetransformation etdedistributeurs spécialisés.Importéd'Afrique du Sud,duTexasoudeTurquie,
onestimequelaconsommationdemohairenFranceserait,austadeconsommateur,d'environ
400tonnes.
L'analysedelachaînedesprix(Figure3)depuislestade 'toisonsbrutes'jusqu'au produit
fini (exempledufil àtricoter)nousmontrelesvalorisations successives.Ellescorrespondent
àchaquefois àdestravauxbiendéterminés(transformation textile,créationsdemodèles,publicité de marque, distribution,...) qui possèdent des coûts et des marges deprofit. Chaque
étapeestnéanmoinsindispensablepourprocurerauconsommateurunproduitfini achetable.
120
TOISONS"KID"BRUTES
50F
Réaliséeparlesgroupements
d'achatdeservicesetdesindustriels"façonneurs"
TRANSFORMATION
240F
FILATRICOTER PURKID
Parlesgroupements
d'éleveursetleséleveurs
CREATIONDEMODELES
PUBLICITE
DISTRIBUTEUR-BOUTIQUE
400F
Parleséleveurseux-mêmes
DISTRIBUTION
CONSOMMATEURS
800F
Figure3. Lesprix (parkg)etlesacteursdanslafilièremohair.
Leparideséleveurs français estdecontrôler toutes lesétapes de la filière afin de récupérer
lesvaleursajoutées. Cecin'estpossiblequeparunecollaborationétroiteavecdesindustriels
textilespossédantàlafoislamachinerieetlesavoir-faire,pourprendreenchargeles différentes
opérationsdetraitementdesfibres:lavage,cardage,peignage,filature,teinture,conditionnement.Pardesrelationsde'façonnage',leséleveursrestentpropriétairesdeleursproduitstout
aulongdelachaîne.Ilfautcependantquelesquantitésdematièrespremièressoient suffisantes
et de qualité homogène. Les éleveurs français se sont donc constitués en deux principaux
groupementsd'achatdeservices.L'opérationdetridestoisonsenfonction delaqualitépermet
devaloriser aumieuxchaquelot(Tableau3).
Lapartieessentielledemeureévidemmentlaventeduproduitfini.Plusieurs systèmes de
ventesontpratiquésparleséleveurs,pouratteindre,sansintermédiaires,le consommateur:
• venteàlaferme
• ventesurdesfoiresetsalonsartisanaux
• venteparcorrespondance
• ventepardémarchage.
L'éleveurdoitdoncégalementconjuguerdestalentsdecommerçant.LaFranceestsansdoute
leseulpays aavoiradoptécesystèmedecommercialisation dumohair.Ilpermetunevalorisationmaximale.
121
Tableau3. Différentsproduitsfinisselonlesdifférentesqualitéesdemohair.
Finessedelatoison
(diamètredelafibre)
Produits
23à27|0.
Rubanpeignéde26(i
- Fil 100%SuperKid
- Echarpes,étoles
Rubanpeignéde31m
- Filàtricoter—95% KidMohair
- Filàtricoter—75% KidMohair+25%soie
Rubanpeignéde35m
- Couvertures 100% mohair
- Plaids,tissus
Ruban cardé
- Filàtricoter—80% mohair+20%laine
25à34 \i
34à42 (i
Toison contenant
unpeudejarre
Conclusion
Cetyped'organisationdelafilièreporteenluisalimitedecroissance,carilsupposeundouble
savoir-faire delapartdel'éleveur:producteuretcommerçant.Or,lesquantitéscommercialisables par chaque éleveur sont limitées. Au-delà de certaines quantités àcommercialiser, il
doitfaire appelàdes grossistes etdesdistributeurs qui vontdiminuerd'autant lerevenu de
cetteproduction.
122
Cashmereproduction inChina
M.L.Ryder
4 OspreyClose, Southampton,SOI 8EX, UK
Abstract
China produces 60% of the 5000 t world cashmere production. Chinese fibre is only on
averagethefinest, butitismostly whiteandindividualproduction ishigh,reaching 500gin
theLiaoning breed.Whitemalesselectively-bred for improvedproduction aredistributed to
peasant goat keepers in a government cross-breeding programme. Cross-bred offspring of
blacknativegoats growing 100goffibreproduce300gofwhitefibre, whichisharvestedby
combing.
Keywords:cashmere,China,combing,fibre diameter,goatfibre.
Introduction
Goats were domesticated c. 9000BC probably where modern Turkey borders on Iraq and
Iran.Thebezoarwildgoat(Copra aegagrus) wasthemainancestorofthedomesticgoat(C.
hircus). Thereisnoevidencethatthemarkhorwildgoat(C.falconeri)ofAfghanistan contributedtodomestic goats,butitispossiblethattheibex (C.ibex)contributed tothe cashmere
typesinceithasmoreunderwoolthantheotherwildgoatsanditsAsiaticrangecoincideswith
thatofcashmeregoatswherewildibexmalesareencouragedtomatewithdomestic females
(Ryder, 1990a).
Thethreebasic goat fibres are:ordinary goat hair,inwhich theouter hairrather than the
underwoolisused,cashmere,whichistheunderwool,andmohair,whichlackshairandislike
thefleece ofasheep.Anewfibre,cashgoraoriginatedfrom the'grading-up'withtheAngora
ofordinarygoatstomohair(Ryder, 1990b).Itisappropriate tobespeakingaboutagoatfibre
inAdana because this areawasfamous for goathairweavingin antiquity, andTurkeyisthe
countryinwhichmohairoriginated.
Mostdomesticgoatshaveahairyoutercoat,whichobscuresshort,fineunderwool.Thisstructurehaschangedlittlefrom thatofthewildancestor (Ryder, 1985).Thethick 'guard'hairsof
theoutercoatprovidephysicalprotection, whiletheunderwool ('down')givesthermalinsulation.Cashmere fibre isthe soft underwoolofadouble-coated typeofdomesticgoatnative
tothemountainousregionofcentralAsia.Thenamecomesfrom theoldspellingofKashmir,
which is where in the 18th century Europeansfirstencountered thefibrein woven shawls.
Thereisnospecific breed,butcashmeregoatsaregenerallywhitewithspiralhorns.Theyare
distributedfrom northernChinathroughInnerMongoliaandXinjiang intoTibetandMongolia,toKirghiziaintheUSSR.Otherdown-producinggoatsarekeptintheUSSR, Afghanistan
andIran (Mason, 1981).
Chinesecashmere
Cashmerefibrehasasimilardiametertotheunderwoolof'ordinary'goats.Themeandiameter
ofcommercial Chinesefibre,whichisnotedforfineness,is 15.5microns,yetthatofBritish
dairy goats is frequently less than 14microns (Ryder, 1985).Even the softness of Chinese
cashmereisnotuniquesincethefinerany animalfibrebecomes,the softer itfeels.
123
Chinesecashmere goatshavethedistinction of growingmoreunderwool thanotherdoublecoatedgoat.Theyalsohavemorewhiteanimals.Greyfibre fetches only 80%ofthepriceof
thedesiredwhiteproductandtanfibreonly66%,therefore goatswithawhitecoathavebeen
selectively bred.Theouterhairsaverage 15cminlength andcanbecoloured. Manufacturers
prefer theunderwool tobeatleast4cminlength.Anywoolpigmentationispalerthanthat
ofthehair.Theamountofhairremaininginthedownafterharvestingcomesthirdafter fineness
andcolourinthegrading of therawmaterial.
40millionofthe70million goatsinChinagrowcashmere;30001oftheestimatedworld
productionof50001cashmereisproducedbyChinaanditslocalindustryuses1 0001.About
15%ofthegoatpopulationarekeptinthemixedfarmingareabetweentheYangtzeKiangand
Yellowrivers,and24%arekeptinthepastoralareatothenorthoftheYellowriver.Thishas
hotsummersandcouldwintersandiswheremostofthecashmeregoatsarekeptatanaltitude
of over 1 000m. Nearly half thetotalproduction comesfrom InnerMongolia.The Chinese
saythatitisimpossibletoproducecashmereataltitudeslowerthan1 000morsouthoflatitude
360,whereasgeneticfactors areimportant.
Althougheveryareahasitslocalvarietyofgoat,from whichcashmereisobtained,several
breeds areknown for theirfibre (Jiang, 1986).These aretheMongolian breed of thenorth,
and theXinjiang of theregion with the samenamein thewest,andtheTibetan breedofthe
south-west. TheLiaoning breediskept in thenorth-east and theChengdePolled andWuan
breeds arekeptinHebeiprovince, southofBeijing. Theadjacent province tothe south-east,
Shandong,hasthefiningGreen.
Eventhoughthesebreedsproducemorefibrethantheunimprovedbreedsofothercountries,
their production is very variable. The weight of cashmere grown by females ranges from
25-50g in thefiningGreen breed,i.e. similartotheweightproduced byBritishdairy goats,
through the 120-140gproduction oftheChengdeandWuanbreeds andthe200-300gofthe
Mongolian, Tibetan and Xinjiang, to the weight of 500 ggrown by theLiaoning. This impressiveindividualCashmereproduction,whilemaintainingfibrefineness,isdoublethenational averageof 250g, and hasbeen achieved by selective breeding. TheMongolian breedis
also beingselectively bredfor increased production, andtheLiaoninginparticularis being
usedincross-breeding toincreasetheamountofcashmeregrown bynativebreeds.
Goats tend tobekeptinareaswithpoorland thatwillnot supportmoreproductive cattle
andsheep,anddespitethehighpriceperkg,theincomefrom cashmerepergoatislow.Such
areashavebecomeeconomically backwardbecausetheexistingnativegoatsgrowverylittle
cashmere.ThereisaGovernment-inspiredimprovementprogrammeinwhichmalesfromimprovedbreedsandinparticular theLiaoning,arematedwithfemales oflocalbreedsinorder
to increase individual production. One such area I visited in 1988 was the Yanan area of
ShaanxiProvinceintheYenShuivalley.
Breeding
Avisitwasmadetothelocalgoatbreedingcentrerun bytheYananInstituteofAnimalHusbandrynearKanchuan.Theimprovementprogramme beganin 1979andalthough startedby
theGovernment,unlikeotherCommunistcountries,itisadministeredlocally.Hereimproved
animals of theLiaoning breed with at least 500 gproduction are being multiplied. Frozen
semen aswellassuperiormalesaredistributedtolocalpeasant-owned herds.Asyetembryo
transfer has not been used owing to a shortage of practitioners. However, by 1988,60000
femaleshadbeen'overed'bythecentreand100000improvedanimalsproduced.Eachcounty
hasasimilarcentreandsorapidandwidespreadprogressisbeingmade.
Liaoninggoatsarelarge,thefemales weighing45kgandthemalesover50kgcompared
withonly30kginnativefemales.ThelocalZhiWuLingbreedisblackandgrowsonly 100
goffibre,whereasfirst-crossanimalswiththeLiaoningarewhiteandgrow300gto400gof
124
Table 1. FibrediametermeasurementsofChinese cashmeregoats.
Identity
Wildgoat
(C. aegagrus)
(C.falconeri)
(C.ibex)
Shah-tush
NativeChinesebreeds
27/5(a)
Fibre
diameter
(microns)
Range
9-17
7-23
8-26
4-16
10-20
8-18
22-42
27/5(c)
8-18
2775(d)
8-20
Mode
±s.d.
22-32
27/5(b)
Means
27/5pm
14-20
26-30
34-58
12-30
11
9
14
12
14.0+2.8
26.1+3.1
14
28
0
0
35
100
12.8+2.4
33.7±4.1
11.1+2.4
12
34
10
0
7
0
4
100
54
13.1+2.8
14
0
'50
43
50
18.4±2.1
16
0
14.9±3.2
14
0
20
0
60
0
0
13.7±2.3
14
15.3±2.6
14
14.0±2.4
13.0+.3.8
12
12
0
100
0
20
0
0
100
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
14.3±2.4
14
0
100
0
34-50
NativeXLiaoning
27/5(a)
10-22
28/5(a)
10-20
28/5(b)
28/5(c)
10-18
10-16
Combing
56
24
38-72
24-28
34-56
10-20
30&64
Pig.
%
12.3
12.5
15.2
11.0
46&56
Liaoning
7/5 am
Med.
%
Fibrediameters outsidethemainrangearelisted separatelyonthenextline,andwherethesearehairs arenotincludedinthemean.
cashmere.Inthistypeofimprovement,thecommercialherdsarealsoexperimental.Insome
herdsthefirstcrosseswerebeingcrossedbacktotheLiaoningtogivethree-quarterLiaoning
goatsandinothersthefirst-cross animalswerebeinginter-bred.
Fibrediametermeasurements madeon samplestaken in ChinaareshowninTable 1 with
somemeasurementsfrom wildgoatsforcomparison.Theywerefrom goatsintheYananarea
oftheShaanxiProvince takenon27/28Maysomeweeksafter thespringmoultandcombing
on10April.Thefibreswerepluckedfromdifferent partsofthebodyandsowerenotstandard.
125
Separatemeansforthefinehairswerecalculatedforthefirsttwosamples,whichtheuninitiated
observer is likely to haveregarded as a singlepopulation of underwool fibres. I was led to
interpret these asregrowing hairs,however, by the bigcontrast inpigmentation-the coarser
onesbeingblack,whichisfeatureofhairs.Anotablefeatureofallthesesamplesisthenarrow
rangeofdiameter.Thesimilarityofthemodestothemeansindicatesadesirablesymmetrical
distribution.Theonlysamplewithameandiameteroutsidetheacceptablerangeisone from
aLiaoning,but thecrossbreds areallgood,havingthefinediameterof thenativebreedand
thewhitenessof theLiaoning.
Chinesefibrediameterfiguresfor theLiaoningindicate amean of 17microns,compared
with 15and 18inTable 1.TherewerenoChinesefiguresfor thenativebreed, whichrange
from 11 to 14microns.
Theproportionofpigmentedfibresrangedfrom 54%downto4%,showingthatevenblack
goats canhavenearlywhiteunderwool.Thediameter valuesfrom theLiaoningcross native
goatshadan acceptablerangefrom 13 to 15 microns.
Goat husbandry
Each 15km-long side valley has 30-40 herds of about40goats,and they aregrazedonthe
scrubabovethecultivation terracesonthesidesofthevalley.Thelackoffences necessitates
continous herding andthe goatsarebroughtback tothevillageeach night.They stillgoout
inwinter,butarethengivenhayandmaizestalksassupplementaryfeed.Inthegoat-breeding
centresalfalfa/lucerne isgrownasfeed.Thegoatsspendthenightincavestunnelledintothe
loessofthealmostverticalvalleysides.Thisefficient systemprovideswarmthintheextreme
coldofwinterandcoolnessinthegreatheatof summer.
Fibreharvesting
I also sawtheway in which thegoats arecombed toharvest thefibre,which has alsobeen
described and illustrated byLi (1988).Thecombsused aremadeof eightmetalrods,which
arefolded tomake ahandle and sixteen teeth, theendsof which arecurved and sharpened.
Changeinthetoothgapispossiblewithametalslidethatmovestherodseitherclosertogether
orfurther apart.Thegoatsarefirsttetheredinastandingpositionsothatthelengthoftheouter
haircanbeshortenedbyclipping.Theanimalsarethentetheredlyingdownforcombingwith
short,pulling strokes,first with acoarsecomb andthen with afine one.Thegreat lengthof
theteethallowsthefibretopassupthecomb,whichmeanslessfrequent clearingofthecomb
incontrasttotheshorter-toothedcombsusedintheWest.Thewholeprocesstakes30minutes,
andisjustified bythequality andvalueofthe fibre.
Inthiswaythefibreiscombedoutofthehairinaefficient system.Butitisimportanttohave
hairthatislongerthanthedown.Itmaywellbeimpossibletocombcashmeregoatsthathave
beenbredwithdownthatislongerthanthehair.Aftercombing,theremaininghairiscut off,
the two crops of hair providing another commodity for sale. This indicates that the hair is
replacedbeforethedownduringthemoult.Thecombingmustbecarriedoutduringthespring
moult(April-May)after thefibreshavebeenreleasedfrom theskin.Sincetheannualgrowth
cycleis controlled by day-length and to someextent bynutrition, which stimulates thenew
growth,somevariationinlatitudeistobeexpected.
Around Yanan, which is towards the south of the cashmere-growing region, combing is
carried outduring thelastthreeweeks ofAprilintoMay,andit was saidthatmost animals
wereready for combing aboutthe sametime.Early June used to bequoted as the combing
dateinChina,whichmayrefertoInnerMongoliatothenorth.Thiscompareswithsomedairy
126
goatsstudiedin Scotland (Ryder, 1966),butisin contrasttodeerand sheep,whichbeginto
regrowtheircoatinAprilafter thespringequinox.
GoatsarecombedinSiberiaasearlyasFebruary andarecombedasecondtime2-3 weeks
later.Thesecouldwellbegoatsofadifferent strainwithalongergrowthperiod.Trialscarried
outfrom 1984to 1987whileIwasattheMacaulayLandUseResearch Institutein Scotland
showed noadvantage in combing asecondtime.There,barren females and males might be
readyforcombinginApril,butlactatingfemalesnotuntilJune,whichindicatestheimportance
ofnutritional status.NutritiontakesusbacktoChinawheregoatsarestarvedfor aday before
combing,whichisinteresting because (a)nutritional stressisknown tobeonecauseof hair
loss,and(b)theRomansusedtostarveanimalsbeforecombingforfibre.InAfghanistan and
IranaswellasinmodernAustraliathegoatsareshorn.Thismakesthede-hairingduringtextile
processingmore difficult.
Marketing
At thetime of my visitduring 1988aspart of the liberalisation of theeconomic systemthe
governmenthadgivengreaterindependencetopeasantfarmers,permittingthemtoselldirect
to their customers. Although this gave higher prices tothe peasants,it became difficult for
buyerstoobtain suitablelotsof fibre throughlackofacentralcollectingandgradingagency.
Anunforeseen result was adeterioration in thestandard ofpresentation of thefibre. Central
control wasresumedin 1991toprovide strict qualitycontrol withrealisticpriées,which are
expectedtobringback stabilitytotheworldcashmere market.
References
JiangYing, 1986.GoatbreedsofChina.FAOWorldAnimalReview, 1986,(58), 31-41.
Li Jian-ping,1988.Cashmere combing in Shaanxi Province. FAO World Animal Review,
65:57-59.
Mason,I.L., 1981.Breeds.In:C.Gall(Ed.),GoatProduction.AcademicPress,London.
Ryder, ML., 1966. Coat structure and seasonal shedding in goats. Animal Production,
8:289-302.
Ryder, ML., 1985.Cashmere production in Scotland. Proc. 7th Int. Wool Textile Research
Conference.Tokyo,11:215-222.
Ryder, ML., 1990a.Theproduction of goatfibres.Proc.2nd Int. Symposium on Speciality
AnimalFibres.Aachen, 1989.p.175-194.
Ryder,ML., 1990b. Goatfibreanditsproduction.Proc.8thInt.WoolTextileResearchConf.
NewZealand,11:241-266.
127
Opportunities for cashmere production
R.C.Couehman* andE. Tuncel**
* WoolHouse369RoyalParkville, Victoria3052,Melbourne,3001Australia
** Universityof Uludag,FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofAnimalScience,Bursa,
Turkey
Abstract
Turkeyhasplayedanimportantpartinthedevelopmentofgoatfibreindustries.Itisthehome
of the Angora goat which has played a significant role in the improvement of down fibre
production intheUSSR,theMediterranean Basin,theMiddleEastandtheNewWorld.This
paperreviewstheinfluence oftheAngoragoatondown (Cashmere)production andpossible
development ofdownfibre production ofnativegoatsasasupplementaryform ofincometo
milkandmeat.DetailsareprovidedonthedownfibreproductionofnativeTurkishgoatsand
lowcostmethodsforselectionofhigherperformance forcashmereproduction.ItoutlinesdetailsofexperimentsinAustraliawhichincreaseddownproductionby57%bytheuseofcrossbreedingwithAngoragoats.
Keywords:Cashmere,CrossBreeding,Selection,Turkey
Introduction
Turkeyhasplayedanimportantpartinthedevelopmentofgoatfibreindustries.Itisthehome
oftheAngoragoatwhich hasahistory olderthanthewrittenrecords ofman (Tuncel, 1987).
Virtuallyallthefibre-producinggoatsinEuropeandAsiaarefoundinanarearoughlybordered
by350-55°latitudenorthand50°-120°longitudeeast.Fromwesttoeast,thedownproduction
ofthenativegoatsdecreasesprogressively asdownm.f.d.GoatsneighbouringTurkey,where
Angoras originated, havethehighestfleece weights and arecoarsest. The gradual spreadof
Angora influence in an easterly direction explains the down production andm.f.d. gradient
alongwiththereportedhighproductionofdownthenativeDonandOrenburggoats.Certainly
ofrecentyears,theRussianshavedeliberatelyusedAngorasinprogramstoincreasetotalfibre
production.However,thebreedingaimswithregardtofibrediameterwerenotclearlystated.
Cashmere
There is considerable debate and problems in defining cashmere fibre (Couehman, 1984a;
Teasdale, 1988;Tuckeret. al., 1988;Phan, 1988).There are alsoproblems defining abreed
type for Cashmere goats.This leads us to state that there is no such animal as a 'Cashmere
Goat'butmanytypesofgoatwhichgrowcashmere.Thisisasubtlebutimportant difference.
Manyanimalsaretwo-coated,producingaguardhairfromprimaryskinfollicles anddown
fibres from the secondary follicles. Most goats areincluded in this category. Angoras have
highly developed secondary fibre goats (mohair), produced from secondary follicles with
guardhairremnants (kemp)from theprimary follicles (Duerden and Spencer, 1930;Hardy,
1927).Some goats,particularly those from CentralAsia,produce sufficient down fibres to
makeharvestingeconomical.Theseformed thebasisfor suppliesof fine fibre, acceptableto
manufacturers as 'cashmere'.
128
Table 1. Reportedfibrediameterprofilesbyauthorandorigin.
Author
Type
5-10
10.1-15 15.1-20 20.1-25 25.1-30
(im
um
(im
34
33
55
34
um
|j.m
mfd
Burns
etal., 1962
Chinese
Afghani
5
1
1
1
VonBergen
etal., 1948
Chinese
Iranian
3
92
61
5
37
14.8
19.5
Utkanlar
etal., 1963
Turkish
Indian
Pakistani
Iranian
-
76
93
99
96
24
7
4
4
17.6
15.4
14.7
15.2
Altinbas, 1976
Turkish
-
81
18
16.3
5
11
15.1
16.5
Mean fibre diameter has traditionally been themostrecognised methods of separating fibre
types and thisis particularly sowith Cashmerewith individual animalsranging in diameter
from 11|imto26|0.m.Commercialquantitiesof cashmererangefrom 15-21(imdepending
ondefinition, useandauthor(Couchman, 1984a).
Fibrediameterprofiles havebeenusedbyvariousauthersindescribecashmereform differentorigins.Burnsetal.(1962)reportedfibre distribution profiles forcommercial shipments
ofChineseandAfghan cashmere,overa 15yearperiodupto 1959,inwhichthepercen-tage
fibresfallinginmicronrangeswerestudied.Utkanlar,Imeryüz,öznacarandMUftiioglu(1963)
given work by von Bergen andMauersberger (1948) when studying Iranian down and also
comparedprofiles ofTurkish,Indian,IranianandPakistanidown.Altinbas(1976)alsoreportedmfd profiles.
TheTurkishprofileprovidedbyUtkanlaretal.suggestsanAngorainfluenceinthosegoats.
ThemeanfibrediameterfoundintheIraniansamplebyUtkanlaretal.isfinerthanthatreported
elsewhere and that normally expected from Iranian cashmere;i.e. 19.5|im, has addingcredencetoWildman's argumentthatIraniandownhas,infact, beendevidedfrom animalswith
anoutsideinfluence. This influence may be from theAngora, due tothecloseproximity to
Turkey,thehomeoftheAngora.
Selection and crossbreeding over the last 50 years in Russia hasresulted in increases in
down production andm.f.d.Invirtually allthegoat strains studied theincreases arerelative
totheinitialproductionlevelsandincrossbreedingtosiretypes.Theupperlimitofacceptable
mfd. fordownhasbeen25\xmandnoattemptsareapparenttolimitmfd. toarangeaccepted
ascashmerebywesternprocessors,i.e. 19 |J.m.
Couchman (1987) warned about translations and terminology when referring toreported
production levels of cashmere goats.This warning is still veryrelevant. Method of harvest
and definition of yieldis extremely important in thisregard. There arehugedifferences betweentotalfleece weightobtainedbycombing (traditionalmethods)andthatbyshearing.To
illustratethispoint,Couchman(1984a)combedhalfthebodyandshearedtheotherhalf,with
sheep shearing equipment. Thefibre harvested weighed 132gand 217g, givingpercentage
yieldsbyweightof67%and47%,andtotalgreasydownweightsof88gand102grespectively.
Thelow greasy down weightfor thecombed sideindicates thequantity of down remaining
on the animal, as thedown fibres are not all shed simultaneously. Theserelationships were
confirmed inlaterstudies.
129
Crossbreedingstudies
Couchman (1984a,b)reported oncrossbreedinginAustralia between Angoraandcashmere
bearing goats. This led to the development of Cashgora and use of that technique in New
Zealand.Thesemethodswerenotdramatically different from thoseemployedbyPoloncean
nearly 170yearspreviously.HecrossedKinghirgoatswithTurkishAngora'sinFrance.Some
ofthosegoatsultimatelyfound theirwaytoAustralia (Riley,1982).
Couchman (1984a,b) suggested that ajudicious infusion of Angora genes intocashmere
goatscouldsubstantiallyimprovecashmereproduction.HeshowedthatbycrossingAngoras
withferal(ornativetype)goatsthenbackcrossingFl 'stoferais,increasesofdownproduction
of57%(P<0.001)forthe1/4Angoraanimalsascomparedtotheselectedferalstockoccurred.
Thiswasassociatedwithonlyanincreaseof0.6[uninmfd.Theseincreaseswereaspredicted,
withincreasesinfibrelength andyield.Itwasconcluded thatasthelevelofAngora infusion
increasessoalsodidalltherawfibrecharacteristics;totalfibre,yield,downmfd,downlength,
andgreasecontent.Increasesinmfd areobservedincrossbredprogenyhowever differences
in comeback (1/4 Angora) progeny were substantially less than in the first cross and fell
betweentheFl andthenative/feral strains.Increasesinmfd.aredocumentedduetoincreased
age,theincreasebeinggreaterincrossbredsinpurenatives.
Thishasbeen seeninAustralia butunderverydifferent climaticconditions.In temperate
climates where body weightincreases significantly in thefirst year,diameter alsoincreases
upto2 \im tosubtropicalclimateswithhighmoisturecontentpastures,animalstake longer
toreach the samebodyweight andasaconsequence takelonger toreach similarmean fibre
diameters.Thismay beexplained bywork byMcGregor (1988).Heshowedthatenergydeprived goats preferentially diverted nutrients towards cashmere growth although they grew
lessandfinercashmere.
Couchman (1988)alsoreported oncrossbreeding studieswithAustralian cashmeregoats
andSouthAfricanBoergoatsameatbreedcrossbreedingincreasedthedownproducingability
ofthemeatgoatandcouldprovidesupplementaryincometothemajorgoatenterprisewithout
detriment.Boerfemales,clossedaslowdownproducershad13g,of 17.7|0.mdownharvested.
Progenyoftheseandselectedcashmeremalesproduced43gof 16.2^.mdown.
It seems,therefore, thatit ispossible toincrease downproduction byusingeither highly
developeddownproducers orajudicious-Angora infusion toincreasecashmereproduction.
Turkishgoatfibreproduction
Turkishgoatfibreexportstatistics(Table2)for3yearsareshown withcorrespondingprices
received in$US.Whilstthemohairprices appeartobesimilartoworldquotations thevalue
for cashmereappearslow.
Table2. Turkish GoatFibreExports Value (1987-90).
Quantity (tonnes)
Price/kg($US)
Description
1987
1988
1990
1987
1988
1990
CoarseHair
FineHair
Cashmere
Mohair
222.3
29.4
3781.5
344.8
57.9
0.25
1335.0
338.1
196.7
1.5
193.0
1.19
9.09
5.23
1.08
15.70
28.50
4.06
1.22
11.17
16.33
3.77
130
Table3. Bodymeasurements,down-yieldanddiameterfromTurkishgoats.
Animal
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
mean
s.d.
Body Measurements
Cashmere
Girth
(cm)
LWT
(kg)
Area
Yield
(%)
MFD
(m)
s.d.
77
67
81
61
79
90
71
78
72
68
83
71
78
74
34.0
22.6
39.1
17.0
36.5
57.3
26.9
35.3
28.0
23.6
41.7
26.9
35.3
30.3
349981
325801
457796
219930
386252
441514
339283
426995
359916
258394
493772
396396
358070
404813
4.4
8.1
2.7
10.3
11.3
24.6
4.7
7.2
3.4
7.6
2.2
1.8
6.8
4.1
16.31
15.32
16.68
14.18
17.17
19.01
16.65
14.53
17.30
15.12
17.80
15.84
15.45
18.77
3.50
3.50
3.69
3.51
3.32
4.08
3.52
3.11
3.48
3.10
3.68
4.50
2.98
3.94
75.4
8.26
32.5
9.93
374400
73722
7.1
5.83
16.44
1.47
3.57
0.40
Downproductionfrom Turkishgoatsissimilartothatofothernon-selectedpopulationswith
animals producing between 50-100gcombed fibre which isusually harvestedin mid spring
(April-May).Australianstudiesshowapprox,67%yieldfromcombedfleece,whichtranslates
toacashmereproduction of about 33.6g/head.
Altinbas (1976) reported down weights ranging from 36-107 gm (mean 55±13.5) from
totalfleece weightsaveraging423gm(i.e. 13%yield).ThatstudyofadultfemaleKilisgoats
ranging in colourfrom light greytoblack showed noassociation between down production
andcolournorwithfibrelengthordiameter,Tuncel(1982)foundlow,butsignificant,correlationsfordownlength anddiameter.
Shorn fleece samples were collected from 14 females each of these animals had body
measurements taken in themannerreported by Couchman and McGregor (1983) and these
together with cashmere yield and diameter are shown in Table 3. Two other animals were
combed and thecombed fleece testedfor yield (49.9%and 62.8%) anddiameter (16.45 |im
and16.55|am).Bodyweightswereestimatedusingtheheartgirthmeasurementandaformula
developed from studies by Couchman and McGregor (1983).The correlation between mfd
andyieldwaslow (r=0.22) withthelinearmodelbeingY=0.85mfd- 0.698.Thelowyield
wasinfluenced considerablybythepresenceofextremelylongguardhair.Theapparentlylow
downproduc-tioncouldbeinfluenced bylactationandlowdietaryenergybothofwhichhave
beenshowntobesignificantinAustraliangoats.Inaddition,selectionforcashmereproduction
is likely toimprove down weights significantly. Higher down weights arepossible as some
fibre is undoubtable shedbefore combing.Twoothersamples,from thesegoatshaveshown
amfd of 14.01and 16.40|amwithboth showing aCVof24.5%.Thenumberof fibres >27
|imwas0.9%inbothcaseswhichindicatehighqualityof fibre.
131
Table4. GoatnumbersandproductioninagriculturalregionsofTurkey.
Region
Goats
Mid-North
(I)
Egean
(II)
Marmara
(in)
Medit'ean
(IV)
N.E.
(V)
S.E.
(VI)
BlackSea
(VII)
Mid.East
(VIII)
Mid.South
(IX)
Total
Hair/
Mohair
(tonnes)
Milk
(tonnes)
Meat
(tonnes)
type
number
(103)
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
Hair
Angora
419.7
1072.4
2055.4
9.6
364.4
260.0
2577.3
1.1
479.2
900.0
2 681.7
71.6
190.9
101.2
923.7
2.1
635.9
354.8
180
1310
685
225
665
195
1325
65
85
95
465
295
305
11.8
12.2
61.7
90.0
16.1
76.3
19.3
87.6
605.0
5.7
590.0
33.3
13.6
3.3
1840
1400
4310
1065
10
4775
50
620
5
4945
210
670
75
3280
805
210
10328.2
1613.9
4 120
1775
325.6
16.7
22310
1955
Hairgoats
Angora
GoatproductionisanimportantagriculturalenterpriseinTurkey.Thereareregional differencesinbothgoatnumbers,typesandfibreproduction (Table4).Coarsefibre isnotharvested
in all areas because of low valueordifficulty of harvest inherding operations. Commercial
dehairingofthefibre,toseparatethecashmerefromthecoarseguardhair,shouldnotbedifficultasthediameterdifferential isexcellent,withtheguardhairbeinginthevicinityof 70-75
\xmand 116mminlength (Tuncel, 1982).
Differences inthestatisticsfromTables2-4appeardifficult toreconcile,howeveritshould
bepointedoutthatdataintable2referstoaxports.Averagescalculatedfromrepliesreceived
from asurvey oftheDepartment ofAgriculturein70provinces,indicatethecoarsehairand
downproductiontobe9200and53tonnesrespectively.The53tonnesofdownatanACWC
yieldsof67% wouldequateto35.5tonnes.Atworldpricesthiswouldbevaluedat$US 3.1
m.Thesefigures,clearlyhighlighttheopportunityforTurkeytoearnvaluableexportreturns
from cashmereand with selection within thegoatpopulation for thosetypeswhich nodoubt
havesomeAngorainfluence toimproveproduction levelsconsiderably.
Selectionmethodsdonothavetorelyonexpensivetestmethods.Asaresultofresearchto
investigate heritability of production traits and selection programmes, it is now possible to
selectwithareasonabledegrésofcosteffectiveness onthebasisof totalfleece weightalone.
CouchmanWilkinson(1988)reportedontherelativeeconomicgainwiththeuseofaseries
of selectionindicesincludingtotalfleece weightalone.Comparedtoaselectionindexwhich
includedthemajorproduction traitsoftotalfleece,greasyyield,downweightandmean fibre
diameter, greasyyieldanddiameterrequiringrelatively expensive technology.
132
The selection of animals on the basis of total fleece weight alone had 81% of the relative
economicvalueandtherefore littlegainislostifthistraitaloneisused.Useofthismethodof
selectionreducestherelianceontechnology andreduces selectioncases significantly.
Luxford, ScheurmannandCouchman (1988)showedthatevenwiththeuseoftechnology
itwaspossibletoreducethecostofselectionsignificantly.Thiscanoccurwithoutasignificant
lossingeneticgainbyaseriesofselectionprocedures.Theseincludesubjective assesements
of females atweaning,measurement of fibre length on animals and totalfleece weight with
verylimitedtestingofyoungsiresformeanfibre diameter.
Thecorrelationsoffibrelengthanddownweightandmfdandyieldwithalimitednumber
of animalsinboth thepresent andAltinbas'study werenotgood andmore workisrequired
for thisrelationshipwithTurkishgoats.
Conclusion
Thereis ampleevidence thattheuseof crossbreeding nativebreedsof goats,maintained for
bothmeatandmilkproduction,withimprovedcashmereproducinggoats.Ofbackcrossingto
Angora/native goats will increase cashmere production substantially. It must be recognised
howeverthatagreatdealofattentionhastobepaidtoensuremeanfibrediameterisconstrained
toacceptablelimits,setbythespecialtyanimalfibreprocessors.Thereishowever,considerabledebateonthedefinition ofcashmereandcommercialvestedinterestsplayalargepartin
thatdebate.
As is common with all fleece producing animals, it is relatively easy to increase fibre
weights,itisnotsoeasytoachievethiswhilstresthictingfibrediameter.Techniquesdeveloped
in Australia and the USSR clearly indicate that significant supplementary income can be
derived from goats, maintained for meat and milk production, through the production of
cashmeredown withlittledetriment totheprimaryincomesource.
References
Altinbas,LI., 1976.Ank.Univ.Fak.Yilligi.26:598-610.
Burns,R.H.,vonBergen,W. &Young,S.S.,1962. J.Text.Inst.53(2):145-68.
Couchman,R.C.,1984a.Thecashmeredownproductionofgoats.M.Ag.Sc.Thesis,MelbourneUniv.
Couchman,R.C.,1984b.Proc.4thAAABGConf.Adelaide273-274.
Couchman,R.C., 1987. Proc.IV.WorldGoatConf.Brazilia.
Couchman,R.C.,1988.SmallRuminantRes. 1:123-126.
Couchman,R.C.&McGregor,B.A.,1983. J.AnimalProd.36:317.
Couchman,R.C.&Wilkinson, JL., 1988. Proc.Aust.Assoc.Anim.Breed.Genetics 7:517
Duerden, J.E.&dSpencer, M.,1930. S.Afr.Dept.Agric.Bull. 83.
Luxford, B.G.,Scheurmann, EA., &Couchman, R.C, 1988. Proc.Aust.Assn.Anim.Breed
andGenetics7:525.
Mauersberger, H.R., 1947."Mathews TextileFibres". 5th edpubl. J. Wiley and Sons'New
York.
McGregor,B.A., 1988. Aust.J.Exp.Agric.28:467-475.
Phan,KM., 1988.Proc.IstInt.Symp.onSpecialtyAnimalFibres.DWIAachen 103:137-162.
Riley,W.E., 1982.ReprintbyAust.CashmereGoatSoc.1984.
Teasdale,D.,1988.Proc.1stInt.Symp.onSpecialtyAnimalFibres.DWIAachen 103:23-38.
Tucker, DJ., Hudson,A.H.F., Ozolins, G.V., Rivett, D.E., & Jones,L.N., 1988.Proc. 1stInt.
Symp.SpecialtyAnimalFibres,DWIAachen 103:71-103.
Tuncel, E.,1982. Ank.Univ.Fak.ofAgric.Publ.No. 831.
133
Tuncel,E.,1987.Proc.4WorldGoatConf.Brasilia.169-175.
Utkanlar,N.,Imeryüz,F., Öznacar,K.&Müftüoglu,S.,1963.(transi.),LalahanZootek.Arast.
Enst.Derg.3:(2)8-25.
VonBergen,W., & Manersberger, HM.,1948.2ndEd.publ.TextileBooksInc.,NewYork.
134
BreedingobjectivesforAustraliancashmeregoats
R.W. Ponzoni*andDU. Gifford**
* DepartmentofAgriculture,AnimalResearchBranch,Box1671,GPO,Adelaide,
SouthAustralia5001
** DepartmentofAgriculture, TurretfieldResearchCentre,Rosedale,
SouthAustralia5350
Abstract
Inthispaperwedescribedallthestepsinvolvedinthedevelopmentofbreedingobjectives for
AustralianCashmeregoats.Wealsoassessedtheconsequencesofselectionforafewscenarios
thatmaybeencounteredinpractice.Themodeldevelopedenablestheincorporation ofadditional traitsthatmay becomeimportant, aswellastheinvestigation of severalaspectsofinterest,suchastheeffectofvariationsinherdcomposition,productvaluesandcosts,andphenotypic and genetic parameters.The objectives developed under different assumptions can be
compared,thusenablingustoprovidebetterinformedanswerstoquestionsraisedbybreeders.
TheAustralianCashmeregoatindustryisrelativelynew.Theinitiativeandvigourdisplayed
byitsleaders augurs wellfor itsfuture. Itisin auniqueposition, being abletobenefit from
the experience and knowledge accumulated by other Australian livestock industries, and
without any of the constraints sometimes imposed by tradition. The adoption of a scientific
approach, such asthatpresentedhere,fortheresolution oftheproblemofdefining breeding
objectivescouldhavehighlydesirableeffects intheoverallefficiency ofAustralianCashmere
goatbreedingprogrammes.
Introduction
Thedevelopment of thebreeding objective is acrucial stepinthedesign of aprogrammeof
genetic improvement. The breeding objective is thecombination of traits which wewish to
improvebecauseoftheirinfluenceontheprofitability ortheeconomicefficiency oftheCashmeregoatenterprise.Itisimportanttorecognisethatdefiningthebreedingobjectiveisaquestionofeconomics,notofgenetics(James,1987).Theeconomicvalueofatraitinthebreeding
objectivedoesnotdependonhoweasilyitmightbeimprovedormeasured,butrather,onwhat
effect achangein thetrait,ifitcouldbemade,wouldhaveonprofitability oreconomic efficiency.Bycontrast, geneticconsiderations arerelevantinthechoiceof selectioncriteria,the
characters measured or assessed onindividuals or theirrelatives,and usedinthe estimation
ofbreedingvaluesofpotentialreplacements.Traitsinthebreedingobjectivemayormaynot
beusedasselectioncriteria,dependingonthecost,feasibility andtechnicaldifficulty oftheir
recording.Theselectioncriteriamayincludecharactersnotpresentinthebreedingobjective.
An exact correspondence between the set of traits in the breeding objective and the set of
charactersusedasselectioncriteriaisveryrareindeed.
Breedingobjectives for Cashmere goatshavebeenproposed byanumberofauthors (e.g.
Gifford, 1988;MacLeod, 1988;Nicoll,1987;PattieandRestall, 1984,1987a,b).Inthispaper
wepresent aprofit equation for Australian Cashmere goats.Economic values were derived
expressingthisequation asafunction of biological traits.Based onprocedures describedby
Jones (1982)andPonzoni (1986a,b, 1988a,b)anumberofrefinements wereused,namely:
1. Application of thediscounting techniqueofMcClintock andCunningham (1984);
2. Separation oftraitsexpressedinnon-breeding animals (younggoats,upto 12moofage),
andbreedingdoes (1.5to5.5yrs);
135
Total number of breeding does - 1000
(assume4% mortality per year)
Age (years)
Number
3
255
4
245
1089 kids weaned
(3months old)
1035young goats
(10 months old)
265young does
needed as
replacements
770 surplus
young goats
235 cull for
age does
Sale
Figure1. Herdcomposition.
136
5
235
3. Accountingfor allvariablecostsassociatedwithproduction,harvesting,andmarketingof
downandsurplus offspring;
4. Maintainingstockingpressure(i.e.totalfeedintake)constant.Thelikelyconsequencesof
somepossible selection strategiesarediscussed.
Developmentofthebreeding objective
Anyfuturelarge-scaleCashmeregoatindustryislikelytohaveahierarchalstructureinwhich
breeding herds (breeding their own male and female replacements) and commercial herds
(purchasing replacement males from breeding herds) can be distinguished. With such a
structure the commercial herds would produce virtually all the fibre and surplus goats for
slaughter, but would be entirely dependent on the breeding herds for long-term genetic
improvement. Decisionson breeding objectives made bybuckbreeders would influence the
magnitude and direction of genetic changeoccurring in commercial Cashmere herds.Thus,
theobjectivesforbuckbreedersshouldbedevelopedfrom aconsiderationoftheirclients'(the
commercialproducers) goals.Thedevelopmentof thebreedingobjective involvesthefollowingfourphases(Ponzoni 1986a):
1. Specification ofthebreeding,production andmarketing systems
2. Identification of sourcesofincomeandexpenseincommercialherds
3. Determination ofbiological traitsinfluencing incomeandexpense
4. Derivation of theeconomicvalueofeachtrait.
'
Specification ofthebreeding,productionandmarketingsystem
Australian Cashmere goatsoriginatefrom selectedsamples offeral goats.In someinstances
crosses with Angora goats have taken place in an attempt to increase fleece production.
However,suchcrossesaresimplypartofanupgradingprogrammeaimedatamoreproductive
Cashmere goat. The nature andrequirements of specialised down production are similar to
thoseofwoolproduction.TheinterestsoftheAustralianWoolIndustryarewellservedbyone
breed(theMerino),whichisusedalmostexclusivelyinpurebreeding (forthepurposeofwool
production).Itisreasonabletopostulatethat,similarly,theinterestsoftheAustralianCashmere
industry would be well served by a specialised breed (the Australian Cashmere goat) used
almostexclusivelyinpurebreeding.
Specification of the production and marketing system involves consideration of how
animals are fed and managed, the age composition of the herd, the replacement policy and
age(s) of the slaughter animals. We assume an established and stabilised Cashmere goat
industry, suchthatallsurplusanimalsfrom commercialherds areslaughteredfor meat. The
feeding regime isthatof grazinganimals,withtheconstraint thatthetotalamountof forage
isfixed.Thisisajustifiable constraintforaproducerwhowishestomaintainthetotalgrazing
pressure on his farm constant (e.g. because an increase could lead to pasture degradation,
whereasadecreasewouldresultinfeed under-utilisation)(James, 1986).Itwasalsoassumed
that standard management practices (e.g. drenching, lice treatment, vaccination, veterinary
assistance,etc.)wereundertaken.Figure 1showstheherdcomposition.Defining herdcompositionaidsinidentifying ageandnumericaldistributionoftheherd,thenumberofreplacementsrequiredeachyear,thenumberofanimalsofallclassesavailableformarketeachyear,
andisrequired in thecalculation of theeconomic values,asnot all traits areexpressed with
the samefrequency, oratthe sametime.Thecommercial Cashmeregoatherd wasassumed
toconsistof breedingdoes,withallsurplusoffspring beingsoldatapproximately 10months
of age.Doesarefirst matedwhentheyare 18monthsold,and areculledfor ageat5.5years.
137
Identification ofsourcesofincomeandexpenseincommercialherds
The identification of sources of income and expense in commercial herds enables the
developmentofaprofit equation,whereprofit (P)isafunction ofincome(I)andexpense(E):
P=I+E,
whichcanbeexpandedas:
Income(I)
=younggoat'sfibre xvalueperkg
+breedingdoe'sfibre xvalueperkg
+surplusoffspring xvalueperindividual
+culldoexvalueperindividual
and:
Expense (E)
=offspring (birthtoyounggoat)feed intakexfeed costperkg
+breedingdoe'sfeed intakexfeed costperkg
+kidhusbandry costs
+younggoathusbandrycosts
+breedingdoehusbandrycosts
+younggoat'sfibre xcostofharvestingandmarketingperkg
+breedingdoe'sfibrexcostofharvestingandmarketingperkg
+surplusoffspring xcostofmarketingperindividual
+cullfor agedoesxcostofmarketingperindividual
+fixed costs
Fixed costs are those incurred by theproducer (e.g.rates, interest charges, business costs)
independent of thelevelof herdproduction.Allothercosts areknown asvariablecostsand
varywiththelevelofherdproduction.Note,however,thatinthepresentcaseweassumethat
totalfeedintake (i.e.offspring plus breedingdoes)isconstant andthatbothclassesofgoats
haveaccesstofeed ofthesamequality.
Pricesofdownandslaughteranimals,aswellashusbandry,harvestingandmarketingcosts
are shown in Table 1. Down prices were taken from the market report of the Australian
CashmereMarketingCorporation,December 1988.Otherproductvaluesandproductioncosts
wereobtained from thepublications "Farm budget guide 1989"(compiled byStock Journal
PublishersPtyLtd)andMowatt(1989).
Determinationofbiologicaltraitsinfluencingincomeandexpense
Nowtheprofit equationisexpressed asafunction ofbiologicaltraitsthatimpactonincome,
expense,orboth.SuchbiologicaltraitsarelistedinTable2.
Incomederivedfrom down wasassumedtobeaffected bytheweightoffibre soldandits
fibre diameter. Because of the differences between young goats and breeding does in the
quantityandqualityofdownproduced (e.g.Gifford etal. 1989),andbasedonevidence from
sheep(Leweret al., 1983; Atkins andMortimer 1987)itwasdecidedtoconsidertheexpressionsinthetwogoatclassesasseparatetraits (i.e.yDWandyDDforyounggoats,dDWand
dDDforbreedingdoes).Thisseparationalsofacilitates accountingforthecostsofharvesting
and marketingthefibre. Itwasassumed that thecolourof thefibre was white.This seemsa
reasonable assumption for long-termplanning,given thewidespread acceptance amongprocessorsthatwhitefibres(thisappliestowool,mohairanddown) arepreferable becausethey
posenolimitationtotherangeofcolourstowhichtheycanbedyed.Theinheritanceofcolour
in goats is not completely elucidated (Nicoll, 1987), but nevertheless some breeders have
succeededincombiningacceptablelevelsofdownproductionwithwhitecolour.Otherquality
traits such as fibre length and fibre diameter variability were not included in the breeding
objective becauseatpresent theireconomicsignificance isunclear.
138
Table la. Pricesofdownandslaughteranimals.
Product
Classofgoat
Down
Younggoat(10moold)
Breedingdoe
Younggoat(10moold, 16.6kgliveweight)
Breedingdoe(34.0kgliveweight)
Surplus offspring
Cullfor ageanimals
Value
136.481 ($/kg)
92.792 ($/kg)
18.00 ($/head)
12.00 ($/head)
Table lb. Husbandry, harvestingandmarketing costs.
Activity
Classofgoat
Husbandry
Younggoat
Breedingdoe
Younggoat
Breedingdoe
Younggoat
Breedingdoe
Fibreharvestingandmarketing
Marketingof surplus goatsfor slaughter
Cost
($/head)
1.25
0.80
2.803
3.333
4.773
4.473
Weighted average (if the averagefibre diameter is 15.8microns(|i.)
andthestandarddeviationis0.94|i,thentheproportionoffleecesof
< 16.0 \i, 16.0 to 16.5 n and > 16.5 |i is 0.58, 0.19 and 0.23,with
pricesperkgequalto$ 149.50,$ 142.30and$98.10,respectively).
Weighted average (if the average fibre diameter is 17.5 (0.and the
standarddeviationis 1.28m,thentheproportionoffleeces <16.0m,
16.0to 16.5m, 16.5to 18.5mand > 18.5mis0.12,0.10,0.56 and
0.22, withprices per kgequal to$ 149.50,$ 142.30,$98.10 and$
25.50,respectively).
Someofthecomponents ofthesecostsarecalculatedonaperkgor
pervalue ($)oftheproductratherthanonaperheadbasis.Thiswas
takenintoconsideration inthederivation ofeconomicvalues.
Incomederivedfrom surplusoffspring isinfluencedbythenumberavailable(NKW)andthenweight (yLW).The sametraitsaffect thecosts of husbandry andmarketing of animals. The
number of cullfor agedoes was assumed tobeconstant, soincome andexpense from their
saleisaffected bytheirliveweight (dLW)only.
Feedingrepresents amajor costof thegoat enterprise.Feedintakeof offspring (oFI)and
of breeding does (dFI) were considered as separate traits,in a format equivalent to that in
Ponzoni (1986b)forMerinosheep.
Derivationoftheeconomicvalueofeachtrait
Here we define the economic value of a trait as the change in profit (P,as defined earlier)
resulting from a unit change in that trait, assuming all other traits remain constant. The
constraint of maintaining constant stocking pressure (oFI plus dFI) was imposed. This
constraint affected the economic values of NKW, oFI and dFI, but not of other traits. All
139
Table2. BiologicaltraitsincludedinthebreedingobjectiveofAustralianCashmeregoats.
Effect on
profit
Productor
activity
Classof
goat
Traits
Income
Fibre
Younggoats
Younggoatdown weight(yDW),
younggoatdowndiameter(yDD),
numberofkidsweaned(NKW)
Doedown weight(dDW),
doedowndiameter(dDD)
Does
Expenses
Surplus offspring
Younggoats
NKW,younggoatliveweight
(yLW)
Culldoes
Does
Doeliveweight(dLW)
Feeding
Offspring (birthto
younggoatage)
Does
Offspring feed intake (oFI),NKW
Doefeedintake(dFI)
Husbandry
Offspring (birthto
younggoatage)
NKW
Fibreharvesting
&marketing
Younggoats
Does
yDW,yDD,NKW
dDW,dDD
Marketingof
surplusgoatsfor
slaughter
Younggoats
NKW, yLW
Does
dLW
Table3. Characterschosenaspossibleselectioncriteria.
Sourceofinformation (relative)
Younggoat (individual)
Breedingdoe (dam)
1
Characters1
Down weight (yDW)
Downdiameter (yDD)
Down staplelenght (yDL)
Liveweight(yLW)
Numberofkidsweaned—
onerecord(dNKW)
Often onlyasub-setofthecharacterslistedherewouldberecorded.
Thesub-setinvolved isgivenfor thecasesstudiedhere.
economicvalueswerecalculatedbyevaluatingPnumericallyattheaveragevalueforalltraits,
thenevaluatingitafterincrementing byoneunitthetraitinquestion(thusobtainingP*),and
takingthedifference P*-P.
140
Not alltraitsin thebreedingobjective areexpressed withthesamefrequency, oratthesame
time in commercial herds. To account for this we used the 'discounted gene flow' method
(McClintock andCunningham, 1974).Adiscountrateof5percentwasapplied andaperiod
of 15years and all generations in which therewas trait expression wereconsidered. Details
of allthecalculations aregivenelsewhere (PonzoniandGifford, 1990).
Choiceofselectioncriteria
Thedevelopmentofthebreedingobjectiveinvolvesmakingdecisionsofaneconomicnature.
It is not until we begin making considerations about the evaluation of animals that genetic
considerations are strictlyrelevant. Sometraits inthebreeding objective maybedifficult or
expensivetomeasure,whereastheremaybecharactershighlycorrelatedgeneticallywithtraits
in theobjective, but that arenot themselves included init. Thisisthereason why only very
rarelytherewillbeanexactcorrespondencebetweenthesetoftraitsinthebreeding objective
andthesetofcharacters used asselection criteria.
Table3showsthecharacterschosenasselectioncriteriaandtheinformation fromrelatives
assumedavailablefortheexamination oftheconsequences of selection.Thecharacters were
chosen because theirrecording is feasible on-farm andbecauseof their genetic correlations
withthetraitsinthebreedingobjective.Theheritabilities,geneticandphenotypiccorrelations
assumed (appendix,TableAl) among all traits (breeding objective) andcharacters (criteria)
inourcalculationswerechosen after asearchoftheliterature (Gifford etal., 19^89; Pattieand
Restall,1989;RestallandPattie,1989;WickhamandParratt,1988).Insomeinstances(notably
for feed intake)information wasverylimitedandsomeguesseshadtobemade.
Resultsanddiscussion
Economicvaluesandcontributionofeachtraittooverallgainineconomicunits
Table 4 shows the traits included in the breeding objective and their economic value, the
absolutevalueof theproductofeconomicvalueandadditivegenetic standarddeviation,and
thepercentagegainineconomicunitsaccountedfor bygainineachtrait.Selectionwasonan
index combining information on yDW, yDD, yLW and dNKW (see Table 3). A positive
(negative) economic value indicates that'greater (smaller) values of the trait are associated
with increased profitability. However, the magnitude of the economic values expressed in
actualunitsof thetraitsisnotagoodindicatoroftheirrelativeimportance sinceitis affected
bytheunitschosen for expression.Forinstance,yDWisexpressed ingrams (g),andthusits
economicvalueisthechangeinprofitresultingfromanincreaseof1 ginyDWwhileallother
traits remain unchanged. The economic value would, of course, be much greater if we
expressed yDWinkg.Inordertoobviatetosomeextentthisproblemwealsoexpressed the
economic valuesinunitsof additivegenetic standard deviations.Thiswayof expressing the
economic values gives us anindication of the 'economic-genetic' variation thatis available
for selection,anditisindependentoftheunitsinwhich thetraits areexpressed.
Responsetoselectiondependsnotonlyonavailable 'economic-genetic'variation,butalso
onourabilitytoaccuratelypredictthebreeding valueof eachtraitinthebreeding objective.
In thepresent case,for example,wecanmeasureyDWandyDD,butnotoFIanddFIwhich
areextremely difficult torecord in agrazing system.Thus,theaccuracy with which weare
abletoestimatethebreedingvaluefortheformertraitsislikelytobegreaterthanforthelatter.
Ingeneral,traitswithahigheconomicvalueandforwhichthebreedingvaluecanbeestimated
more accurately will make the greatest contribution to overall genetic gain expressed in
economic units (%G).Table4shows thatcollectively down traits (yDW,dDW,yDD,dDD)
141
Table4. Economicvalue(EV),additivegeneticvariation(aa) ineconomicunits(/EV/x oj
andpercentagegenetic gain in economicunitsaccountedfor by gain in each trait (%G)
following index selection'.
Trait
Down weight (g)
Younggoat(yDW)
Breedingdoe(dDW)
Down diameter((J.)
Young goat (yDD)
Breedingdoe(dDD)
Numberofkidsweaned(%)(NKW)
Liveweight (kg)
Younggoat(yLW)
Breedingdoe(dLW)
Feedintake(kgofdrymatter)
Younggoat(oFI)
Breedingdoe(dFI)
EV($)
IEVIx a a
%G
104.55
55.31
2413.50
2098.87
35.9
25.8
-1 310.37
- 3 088.82
96.63
870.98
2795.68
1 894.54
10.6
28.7
0.5
641.66
47.61
948.92
109.52
-2.1
-0.3
-53.40
-52.45
658.09
1904.67
0.3
0.6
Theselectionindex combinedyDW,yDD,yLWanddNKWasselection criteria.
Table5. Two-stage selection—allrecords takenat10to
12moofage:percentage oftotalgeneticgainin economic
unitsachievedselecting differentproportionsofbucksat
thetwo stages.
Proportion selected (xlO2)
First
stage1
6
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
.3
Gain (%)
Second
stage2
.3
60
30
20
15
12
10
8.6
7.5
6.7
6
Selection criteria:length andliveweightat 10to 12mo
of age,anddam'snumberof kidsweaned (onerecord).
Selectioncriteria:asfor first stageplusdownweight
anddiameterat 10to12moofage.
Noselection atthisstage.
142
27
56
76
85
90
93
95
97
98
99
100
contribute virtually all the economic gain resulting from one round of selection on index,
whereasothertraitscontributeverylittle.Thisresultisconsistentwiththeperceivedbreeders'
view that among Australian Cashmere goatstheimprovement of down quantity andquality
hasthehighestpriority,whereasothertraitsmayremain atthecurrentlevel.
Nevertheless,thisdoes not necessarily mean those 'other' traits should beignoredin the
designofbreedingprogrammes.Quitethecontrary,theyshouldbetakenintoaccountbecause
oftheireconomicimportance,despitethesmallcontributiontheymakewithcurrentselection
procedures.Completely neglecting suchtraitscouldleadtotheirgradualdeterioration.Inthe
exampledevelopedherethecontributionofNKWto%Gwaspositivebutnegligible.However,
wefound thatignoringNKWinthebreedingobjective (i.e.settingitsEVatzero)couldlead
toaslightdeteriorationofthattrait.
Two-stageselection
Performance recording is laborious and costly. The laboratory analyses required for the
determinationofdownweightanddowndiameterareparticularlyexpensive.MacLeod(1988)
andPattieandRestall (1987a)indicatethat someform oftwo-stage selection could assistin
reducing performance recording costs. The idea behind two-stage selection is torecord all
candidates in a first stage of selection based on characters that are cheap to measure, thus
leavingtherecordingofmoreexpensivecharactersfor thesecondstage.
Weassumedthatinformation ondown staplelength (yDL),liveweight (yLW)anddam's
number of kids weaned (dNKW) was available for the first stage, whereas information on
downweight(yDW)anddowndiameter(yDD)wouldbeavailableonlyinaselected sample
atthesecondstage.Table5showstheconsequencesofselectingvaryingproportionsofbucks
atthefirstandsecondstages,assumingthefinalproportionselectedwas6percent.Theresults
aretotalgenetic gainsineconomicunits (gain%)expressed asapercentageofthatachieved
bysingle-stage selectionbasedonallthecharactersrecorded.Single-stageselectionbasedon
thecharactersrecordedin thefirst stagewasonly27percentaseffective asselection based
onthecomplete setofcharacters.Theeffectiveness oftwo-stage selectionincreasedwiththe
proportion of individuals selected atthefirst stage.Selectionof 40percentormore animals
atthefirst stageresultedin90percentormoreofthepotential gain.Thismeansthatalarge
reduction of the proportion of animals from which fleece samples are sent for laboratory
analyses could be made without seriously reducing total genetic gain in economic units.
Halvingthepopulation sizeatthefirst stagereduced gainby7percent.
Theresults presented in Table 5 are encouraging. They are based on thepredicted total
genetic gain in economic units, which is auseful statistic combining genetic and economic
information.Notehowever,thatagiventotalgainineconomicunitsmaybeachievedinmany
ways by different changes in thetraits in the breeding objective. Table 6 shows the genetic
gainpergenerationineachtraitinthebreedingobjectiveusingsingle-stage(yDW,yDD,yLW
anddNKW)andtwo-stage (1.yDL,yLWanddNKW;2.asin 1.plusyDWandyDD)indices.
Itwas assumed thatthefinal proportion of bucks selectedwas 6per cent and that therewas
noselection amongdoes.Withtwo-stageselection50and 12percentofbuckswereselected
atthefirst and second stages,respectively. Two-stage selectionresulted in greater emphasis
indownweight(yDWanddDW)attheexpenseoflessemphasisindowndiameter(yDDand
dDD).Withsingle-stageselectiondownweightanddowndiametercontributed61.7and39.3
of the total gainineconomic units,respectively (Table4),whereas with two-stage selection
theircontributionwas70.8and30.9,respectively.Thischangeinemphasismaybeconsidered
intuitivelyobvioussincewithtwo-stageselectionthefirstroundwillfavourheavycuttingbut
coarserthan averagefleeces, anditisonlyinthesecondroundthatpressuretokeepdiameter
downcanbeexperienced.Smallastheymayseem,differences suchasthoseobservedintable
6have tobeexaminedcarefully intermsofthelikely long-termconsequences of alternative
selection strategies.
143
Table6. Geneticgainpergenerationusingsingle-stage andtwo-stageindicesassuming the
finalproportionofbucksselectedwas6per centandthere wasnoselectionamongdoes.
Single-stage1
Trait
Down weight (g)
Younggoat(yDW)
Breedingdoe (dDW)
Down diameter(|i.)
Younggoat(yDD)
Breedingdoe(dDD)
Numberofkidsweaned (%) (NKW)
Liveweight(kg)
Younggoat(yLW)
Breedingdoe(dLW)
Feedintake(kgofdrymatter)
Younggoat(oFI)
Breedingdoe(dFI)
Two-stage2
9.1
12.3
9.8
12.8
-0.21
-0.25
0.13
-0.15
-0.18
0.14
-0.08
-0.18
-0.19
-0.29
-0.1
-0.3
-0.5
-1.1
1 Selectioncriteria:yDW,yDD,yLWanddNKW.
2 Selectioncriteria:first stage(50%selected),down staplelength,yLWanddNKW;
secondstage (12%selected),asforfirststageplus yDWandyDD.
Appendix
Table Al. Phenotypicand geneticparametersfor Australian Cashmere goats(phenotypic
correlationsabovediagonal, geneticbelow).
Mean
h2 !
°P 2
yDW(g)3
yDD (microns)
yDL(mm)
dDW(g)
dDD(microns)
NKW(%)
yLW(kg)
dLW(kg)
oFI(kgDM)4
dFI(kgDM)
1
2
3
4
yDW
yDD
yDL dDW
dDD NKW
yLW
dLW
oFI
dFI
96.7
0.4
36.5
15.8
0.5
0.94
58.0
0.5
16.2
170
0.4
60
17.5
0.5
1.28
109
0.1
62
16.6
0.3
2.7
34.0
0.3
4.2
150
0.3
22.5
414
0.3
66.3
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.35
0.3
0.7
0.2
0.4
0
0
0
-0.2
0
0.1
0.2
0
0
0.1
0.15
0
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.15
0.7
0
0
0
0
0
0.15
0.6
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0.35
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.8
0.3
0
-0.15
-0.1
0
0
0.3
0.3
0.8
0
-0.1
0
0
0
0.35
0.2
0.4
0 -0.1
-0.2 -0.1
-0.1 -0.15
0
0
0
0
=heritability
=phenotypic standard deviation
Seetables2and3formeaningof symbols
DM=drymatter
144
0
0
-0.1
0
0
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.35
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
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145
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146
Phenotypic and genetic parameters for production
characteristics ofAustralian cashmere goats
D.R. Gifford!,R.W.Ponzoni2,NJ. SimonEllis3,F.CR. Levinge4andML. Milne5
1
DepartmentofAgriculture, TurretfieldResearchCentre,Rosedale,
SouthAustralia,5350
2
DepartmentofAgriculture,AnimalResearchBranch,Box1671 GPO,Adelaide,
SouthAustralia,5001
3
DepartmentofAgriculture,MtBarker, SouthAustralia,5251
4
"Messamurray",Naracoorte, SouthAustralia,5271
5
DepartmentofAgriculture,Naracoorte,SouthAustralia,5271
Abstract
PresentlytherearefewsoundlybasedbreedingprogramsintheAustraliancashmereindustry.
ResultsarisingfromourstudyandthatofPattieandRestall(1989)providethenecessarybasis
for the design of efficient selection programs for the industry. Ponzoni and Gifford (1990)
provided acomprehensive definition of abreedingobjective for Australian Cashmeregoats.
Thetwo Australian sets of phenotypic and geneticparametersnow available aUowtheestimation of breeding values for production characteristics and the construction of selection
indices.Thisisamostappropriate scenariofor theestablishmentofaperformance recording
scheme.
Thedevelopingcashmereindustrynowhastheidealopportunitytodevelopaco-ordinated
strategyforgeneticimprovement,basedondocumentedresearchfindings.Everyeffort should
bemade tomaintain aclose liaison between studbreeders,commercial producers andgeneticists.
Introduction
TheAustralian cashmereindustrycontinuestoexpand,butitslong-term viability willbedependent on the successful establishment of a commercial sector and on an increase in the
productivityoftheAustralian Cashmeregoat.Ultimately thecommercial sectorwillproduce
themajority ofthefibreandmeatfrom theindustry,withthebreedingsectorrepresentingonly
asmallproportionofthetotalpopulationofthebreed.However,thebreedingherdswillcontrol
therateofgeneticimprovementinthecommercialherdsviathesupplyofreplacementbucks.
The design of efficient selection programs in cashmere breeding herdsrequires accurate
estimatesofheritabilitiesandgeneticandphenotypiccorrelationsforthecharacteristicschosen
asselection criteriaandof geneticcorrelations between theselectioncriteriaandthetraitsin
thebreedingobjective.Also,aknowledgeoftheeffects ofenvironmentalfactors, suchasage
of dam and typeof birth, on the selection criteriaisrequired prior to selecting replacement
animals.
There is very little documented information on the inheritance of cashmere production
throughouttheworld(Millar, 1986).Findingsofthefirst comprehensive studyofthegenetic
basis of cashmereproduction in Australian goats werereported recently (Pattie andRestall,
1989;RestallandPattie.1989).InthispaperwereporttheresultsofastudyinaSouthAustralianherdincludingtheeffect ofageofdoeonfleececharacteristicsandliveweight,the effects
ofenvironmentalfactors onfleececharacteristicsandliveweightofgoatsat10monthsofage,
147
estimatesofphenotypic andgeneticparameters forproduction characteristics of goatsat 10
monthsofageandlevelsofreproductive performance.
Methods
The study was conducted on aprivate property, "Messamurray", near Naracoorte in southeastern South Australia. Foundation breeding females were obtained from feral populations
intheCobarareaofwesternNewSouthWalesandtheFlindersRangesareaofSouthAustralia
in 1982.Fourdropsofprogeny, 1984to 1987inclusive,wereinvolvedinthestudy.Progeny
werefromsingle-sirematings,withdoesrandomlyallocatedtosires.Thirtyonesiresproduced
1485progeny.
KiddingtookplaceduringthemonthofOctobereachyear.Kidswereweanedpriortothenfirst shearing at 4 months of age, in late January, with the second shearing occurring at 10
monthsofageinlateJuly.Alldoesweresubsequently shorninlateJulyeachyear.Atthefirst
Table1. Least-squares meansfor fleece characteristics and liveweight of doesofdifferent
ages.
Characteristic
l
4
Fleeceweight (g)
No.1 2
740
Mean
97.7a
S.E.3
3.27
Yield(%)
No.
723
Mean
24.2a
S.E.
0.56
DownWeight(g)
No.
719
Mean
28.3a
S.E.
2.16
Down diameter(um)
No.
Mean
S.E.
Standard deviationofdown diameter(|j.m)
No.
Mean
S.E.
Liveweight (kg)
No.
740
Mean
15.3a
S.E.
0.15
1
2
3
10
"\geofdoe(months)
22
34
721
228.2b
3.24
512
415.4C
3.86
318
434.5d
4.69
127
454.5e
6.97
702
42.6b
0.56
502
39.4C
0.66
303
40.8C
0.82
125
40.4e
1.21
678
99.l b
2.17
492
168.8C
2.55
300
183.1d
3.12
123
182.6d
4.59
738
15.8a
0.05
516
17.3b
0.07
317
17.5C
0.08
125
18.0d
0.12
735 a
3.8
0.03
502b
3.2
0.03
317 b
3.3
0.04
125 e
3.4
0.06
729
15.5a
0.15
512
26.8b
0.18
319
32.6C
0.21
127
33.6d
0.32
No.=Numberofdoesobserved
Withineachcharacteristic,meansfollowed byacommonletterdonotdiffer significantly
(P>0.05)
S.E. =Standarderrorofleast-squares mean.
148
46
shearing, all progeny were recorded for fleece weight (FW), yield of down (YLD), down
weight (DW) and liveweight (LW).Atthe second and subsequent doe shearings,down diameter (DD) and standard deviation of down diameter (SD ofDD) were alsorecorded. The
measurements of down yield and down diameter of fleece samples taken from the side of
animalswerecarriedoutbytheAustraliaWoolTestingAuthority,Sydney,N.S.W.
Theexperimental doesbornintheperiod 1984-1987inclusiveweresingle-siremated for
6weeks eachyearcommencingonMay 1,thefirsttimeatapproximately 18monthsofage,
andtheirreproductiveperformance wasrecorded.Statisticalanalyseswerenotconductedon
anyofthereproductivevariables,butmeansfor2,3,4 and5yearolddoesarepresented for:
number of doeskidding perdoejoined andpresent atkidding (fertility, DK/DJ), numberof
kidsbornperdoekidding (fecundity, KB/DK),numberofkidsbornperdoejoined (kidding
rate, KB/DJ) and number of kids weaned per doe joined (weaning rate, KW/DJ). The
distribution oflittersize(ie.percentageofdoeswith singles,twinsandtriplets)isalsogiven.
The effects of environmental factors, including year of birth, age of dam, type of birth and
sex, on production characteristics were examined by least-squares analysis of variance.All
factors weretreatedasfixed effects, withdayofbirthincludedasalinearcovariate.Amodel
was fitted to estimate sire and error components of variance and covariance for thecharacteristicsdescribed earlier.Themodelincluded theeffects of siregroup (thisclassification is
theyearofbirth of thesire),sirenestedwithin siregroup,yearof birth,periodofbirthinthe
kidding season, ageof dam, typeof birth and sex.Except for sire nested within siregroup,
whichwastreatedasrandom,allothereffects inthemodelweretreatedasfixed.Varianceand
covariance components wereestimated byrestrictedmaximumlikelihood.Heritabilities and
the phenotypic and genetic correlations between production characteristics were estimated
from paternal half-sib correlations. Estimates were based on 29 sires. The total number of
observations variedfrom onecharacteristic toanotherfrom 1 320to 1 421.Averagesireprogenygroupsizewasatleast45.5,withgroupsizerangingfrom4to95.Someoftheheritability
estimatesmaybebiaseddownwardstoasmallextentbecausethesiresusedwerenotchosen
completely atrandom,butratherwereselectedbythebreederprimarilyonthebasisofdown
weight,downdiameter and liveweight.
Resultsanddiscussion
Productionlevelsandageeffects
The fleece characteristics and liveweight of doesvarying in mean agefrom 4 to46months
aregiveninTable 1.Significant annualincreasesinliveweightofdoesoccurredbetweenthe
agesof 10and46months.Theliveweights of thesedoes were slightly greater than thoseof
thegoatsobservedatequivalentagesbyRestallandPattie(1989).Significant annualincreases
insomefleececharacteristicswerealsoobserved;forfleeceweightfrom 10to46months,for
down weight form 10to 34 months and for down diameter from 10to 46 months. Similar
trends in these characteristics wereobserved by Restall andPattie (1989).The mean fleece
weights,down weights anddowndiameters of theSouth Australian doesatthevariousages
werehigher than those of thecorresponding goatsrun atWollongbar,N.S.W.Theobserved
differences infleece characteristics andliveweight betweenthetwogroups ofgoatscouldbe
due to the fact that the foundation goats of the two groups came from different feral goat
populationsorduetodifferences intheenvironmentalconditionsunderwhichthegoatswere
run.
149
Effectsofenvironmentalfactors
Theeffects of someenvironmental factors, including typeof birth,sex,ageofdam andday
ofbirth,onfleece characteristicsandliveweightofgoatsatameanageof 10monthsarepresentedinTable2.Fortheanalysisoftheeffects oftypeofbirth,allkidsbornastripletswere
treatedastwin-bornanimals.Typeofbirthhadasignificant effect onallcharacteristicsrecordedexceptdownyield. Single-born animals wereheavier,grewmoredown andhadcoarser
downthantwin-bornanimals,thesefindingsbeingsimilartothoseofRestallandPattie(1989).
Thevariabilityof downdiameter,measured asthestandarddeviation ofdowndiameter,was
significantly greaterinfleeces oftwin-born goatsthaninfleeces of single-born goats.
Malegoatswereheavierandproducedmorefleece thanfemales, buttheyieldofdownin
theirfleeces waslower.Thedown diameters of males andfemales were similar, again consistentwiththefindingsofRestallandPattie(1989).Inourstudy,themalesandfemaleswere
separated soonafter weaning,withthetwogroupsbeingsubjected toassimilar management
conditionsaspossible.
Ageofdamhadasignificant effect onliveweight,fleece weight,down weightandvariability of down diameter. Goats from young dams (1 or2years old) and from old dams (6+
years)tendedtobelighterat 10monthsofagethanthosefrom three-andfour-year-old dams.
Downdiametervariabilitywassignificantly lessinfleecesofprogenyfrommaturedamsthan
intheprogenyofyoungdams.Therewerenosignificantdifferences duetoageofdaminyield
anddowndiameter.
Table2. Least-squaresmeansforfleececharacteristicsandliveweightofbucksanddoesat
theirsecondshearing, adjustedfor dayofbirth.
Environmental
factor
Characteristic1
FW2
(g)
YLD
(%)
DW
(g)
DD SDofDD
(Um)
(Um)
LW
(kg)
Typeofbirth
Single
252.6ba
40.9
105.0b3
15.9ba
3.7a
17.8a
b
Twin
236.0
41.9
100.2
15.7
3.8
16.3b
Sex
Female
231.6a
42.8a
100.7
15.8
3.8a
15.5a
Male
257.0b
40.l b
104.5
15.8
3.7b
18.6b
Ageofdam(yr)
1
249.9ac
46.0
118.3a
15.7
3.9ab
17-0 abc
2
15.8
223.l b
41.6
90.6b
3.8b
16.2a
a
C
b
241.6
41.5
100.2
15.9
3
3.8
17.3^
4
252.9C
40.5
104.6ac
15.9
3.7a
17.6C
C
ac
a
5
254.4
39.2
102.9
15.8
3.6
17.4 te
ac
C
a
6+
243.8
39.7
98.9
15.8
3.7
16.9b
Regr.coeff. on
***
###
dayofbirth
-0.13
0.01
-0.02
-0.01
0.001
-0.05
1
FW,fleece weight;YLD,yieldofdown;DW,downweight;DD,downdiameter;SDof
DD,standard deviation ofdowndiameter;LW,liveweight
2
Withineachcharacteristic,meansnotfollowed byaletterorfollowed byacommon
letterdonotdiffer significantly (P>0.05)
***P>0.001
150
Dayofbirthsignificantly influenced liveweightanddowndiameterofprogeny at 10months
of age.Kidsbornearlierinthekiddingseasonwereheavierandhadcoarserdownthanthose
bornlater.Incontrast tothefindings ofRestallandPattie (1989),theearlybornkidsdidnot
havegreaterdownweights.
Theenvironmentalfactorsaboveareimportantsourcesofvariationinfleece characteristics
andliveweightofcashmeregoatsat 10monthsofage.Whenselectingbreedingherdreplacementanimals at 10monthsof ageallowances shouldbemadefor :
• twin-born animals
• progenyofmaidenandveryolddoes
• animalsbornlaterinthekiddingseason.
Adjustments for sexeffects areusuallynotnecessary because selection normally takesplace
within sexgroups.
Phenotypicandgeneticparameters
Heritabilityestimatesforfleece characteristics andliveweightofmaleandfemale goatsat10
monthsofagearepresented inTable3.
Theestimatesrangedfrom0.23(±0.11,standarderror)fordownyieldto0.70(±0.19)for
down diameter. Down yield and liveweight could beclassed as moderately heritable, while
fleeceweight,downweight,downdiameterandvariabilityofdowndiametercouldbeclassed
ashighly heritable.Pattie andRestall (1989) alsofound down weight and down diameter to
be highly heritable, and liveweight to be moderately heritable. Our heritability estimate for
down yield (0.23)variedfrom theN.S.W.estimateof0.90.
Ourresults andthoseofPattieandRestall (1989)indicatethatthereisconsiderablescope
for the genetic improvement of down weight, quality of down and liveweight in cashmere
goats.Allcharacteristicsmeasuredwouldrespondreadilytomassselection.
Mostofthephenotypiccorrelations areofmoderatemagnitude(Table3).Thephenotypic
correlations betweenfleece weightanddownweight,downdiameter andliveweight indicate
that selection of an animal with above-average fleece weight relative toits contemporaries
willalsoresultintheselectionofananimalwithabove-averagedownweight,downdiameter
andliveweight.Similarly,animalswithabove-averagedowndiameterarelikelytobeheavier
andproducemoredown.
Thestronggeneticrelationshipbetweenfleeceweightanddownweightinourstudy(Table
3)suggeststhatfleeceweightcouldbeusedasaselectioncriterionforthegeneticimprovement
of down weight. Fleece weight is easier and cheaper to measure on the animal than down
weight.OurfindingcontrastswiththatofPattieandRestall(1989)inthisrespect.Unfavorable
geneticassociations existbetween somecharacteristics measuredinourgoatpopulation,and
havealsobeenreportedbyPattieandRestall(1989).Thenegativegeneticrelationshipbetween
downweight andliveweight isanexample.However, thegeneticcorrelation estimates from
bothstudiesarenotlargeenoughtoprecludethesimultaneousimprovementofdownweight
andliveweight.Detailed scrutinyofbothdatasetshasshownthattherearesiresthatproduce
offspring with above-average down weight and liveweight. Use of an appropriate selection
indexwouldcombinethesimultaneous geneticimprovementofdownweightandliveweight
inanoptimumway.
Thegeneticcorrelationestimatesbetweendownweightanddowndiameterobtained from
ourstudyandbyPattieandRestall(1989)differ,being0.04and0.62respectively.Ourestimate
has a very large standard error (± 0.23) so we can place only limited confidence in it. The
estimateofPattieandRestall (1989)hasalowerstandarderror(+0.10).Ifthetwocashmere
goatestimateswereconsideredtogetherwecouldreasonthatthe'true'valueincashmeregoats
might approximate +0.3.If this were the case, therelationship would be in an unfavorable
direction, butnotof sufficient magnitude toprecludethesimultaneous genetic improvement
of down weight anddown diameter. Siresexistedin the twopopulations studiedthatwould
151
Table 3. Phenotypic variance, heritability (± standard error) and phenotypic and genetic
correlation estimates for production characteristics of down-producing goats.
FW1
(g)
Phenotypic
variance
Heritability
(+SE)
FW2
YLD
DW
DD
SD of DD
LW
YLD
(%)
DW
(g)
(H-m)
SD of DD
(Um)
(kg)
129.6)
1 333.9)
0.89)
0.36)
7.37)
0.42
(0.16)
0.23)
(0.11)
0.36)
(0.13)
0.70)
(0.19)
0.38)
(0.14)
0.26)
(0.11)
-
0.14)
0.67)
0.79)
0.36)
0.25)
-0.07)
0.29)
0.36)
-0.12)
0.85)
(0.08)
-)
0.39)
0.15)
0.12)
0)
0.04)
(0.23)
0.14)
(0.26)
-0.13)
(0.27)
-)
0.25)
0.23)
0.06)
(0.23)
-0.16)
(0.23)
-)
-0.12)
-0.48)
(0.30)
-)
2 568.7
0.39
(0.25)
0.83
(0.08)
0.12
(0.23)
-0.14
(0.26)
0.17
(0.27)
-)
0.46)
(0.23)
-0.39)
(0.26)
DD
LW
1 FW, fleece weight; YLD, yield of down; DW, down weight; DD, down diameter; SD of
DD, standard deviation of down diameter; LW, liveweight
2 Phenotypic correlations above the diagonal, genetic correlations (standard error) below
the diagonal.
Table 4. Reproductive performance of cashmere goats.
Characteristic
Age of doe atkidding (years)
2
Number of does joined
Fertility (DK/DJ) 1
Fecundity (KB/DK)
Kidding rate (KB/DJ)
Weaning rate (KW/DJ)
Litter sizedistribution (%)
singles
twins
triplets
1
3
5
696
437
252
75
0.73
1.59
1.16
0.98
0.83
1.76
1.46
1.29
0.89
1.77
1.57
1.40
0.83
1.87
1.55
1.28
42
57
1
27
70
3
29
66
5
22
68
10
DK, does kidding; DJ, doesjoined; KB,kids born; KW,kids weaned.
152
4
have improved down production in their offspring while maintaining or decreasing down
diameter.Ourgeneticcorrelation estimatebetween downdiameterandliveweight (-0.16)is
weakbutinafavorable direction.
Reproductiveperformance
Thefertility,fecundity,kiddingrateandweaningratelevelsoftheadultdoeswerehigherthan
for themaiden does (Table4).Inbroadtermsourfiguresareconsistent withthe generalised
industry perception that Australian Cashmere goatshave ahighreproductiverate.Note that
theseresults were achieved under single-sire mating, and that, everything else being equal,
multiplesirematingcouldhaveresultedinimproved performance.
Distribution of litter sizevariedbetween theagegroups ofdoes,with thethree-and fouryear-olddoeshaving agreaterproportion oftwinsthan themaiden does.Notethatfew does
ofanyagegroupproducedtriplets.Reasonsfor thepreponderanceoftwins,whetheritbedue
toahighincidenceoftwinovulationsortoaninabilityoftheuterustosupportmorethantwo
kids,have sincebeeninvestigated (Kleemannetal.,theseProceedings).
Acknowledgements
ThisprojectwasfinancedbytheAustralianSpecialRuralResearchCouncil,theKinrossCashmereCompany,theSouthAustralianRegionoftheAustralianCashmereGrowersAssociation
andtheStateGovernmentofSouthAustralia.
The assistance of Mr.RM.C. Ancell,Mr.RJ. LampeandMr.J.E. Stafford, of the South
AustralianDepartmentofAgriculture,andofthefarmstaffof"Messamurray"inthecollection
ofresearchdataisgratefully acknowledged.
References
Kleemann, D.O.,Gifford,D.R.,Grosser,T.I., Trengove, CL. & Levinge, F.CR., 1991.(these
Proceedings).
Millar, P., 1986.Anim.Breed.Abstr.54:181-199.
Pattie,WA. &Restall,B.J.,1989. Livest.Prod.Sei. 21:251-261.
Ponzoni,R.W. &Gifford,D.R.,1990. J.Anim.Breed.Genet. 107:351-370.
Restall,BJ. & Pattie,W.A., 1989. Livest.Prod.Sei.21:157-172.
153
Session5
Woolandfleececharacteristics
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
T.Treacher
E.Tuncel
Wool associated to other sheep products in different production
systems and breeding programmes in Europe
S.Jankowski—for EAAPWoolandHairExpertWorking Group
WarsawAgriculturalUniversity, Warsaw,Poland
Summary
Aquestionnaire on domestic woolproduction elaborated for EAAPwas sent out in 1988to
the EAAP Member Organisations. It requested information about production volume and
quality of wool, its use, economic importance in national economy, and interest of sheep
farmers inwoolproduction indifferent sheephusbandry systems.
Apreliminary comparison of woolproduction andits conditions based on theresponses
received from 3 main regions of Europe i.e. North-West, Mediterranean, and Central-East,
couldbeconcludedasfollows:
1. Netself-sufficiency inwoolvariedwidelyfrom countrytocountryinthesameregionand
seemednotcharacteristic traitof anyregion.
2. Therelativeeconomicimportance ofincomefrom woolsaleswhen compared tothetotal
incomefrom sheepfarming occuredtobecharacteristic.ItwasthebiggestinC-Eregion
(20-60%).Inrecentyearsinthisregionthesituationhaschanged.Introducingthemarket
economy,coincidenttodramaticdropofwoolpricesintheworldmarket,resultedindecline
of demandfor domestic wool,whatinturncause adeepdecreaseinnational sheeppopulations.
3. In someof theresponding countries eventhedecreaseof thevolume andquality ofwool
producedcouldbeacceptedonfarms specializedineithermeatormilk+meatproduction.
4. Programmes of genetic improvement of wool productivity exist now in a few countries
only.
5. In N-W region, the intensive production of slaughter lambs predominates over other
systems.C-Ecountries ingeneral willalsofollow thismodel.InMediterranean countries
and along Balkan-Carpatian mountain chain sheep milk + lambs production, based on
summermountain grazingisthemostcharacteristic system.
Keywords:woolproduction,regionsofEurope,sheepfarming systems
Introduction
Woolisnot atpresent themainproductof sheepfarming inmostofEuropean countries,but
inmanyitisamuchappreciatedby-productoflamband/orsheepmilkproduction.Formany
years,however, domestic woolisonly averymarginal matterof concernofEuropean internationalbodies,interestedinsheepproduction.
Itwasonlyin 1987thattheEAAPSheepandGoatCommissioncreatedtheWoolandHair
ExpertWorkingGroup,whichwaschargedwiththeorganization ofasurveyonwool,goat's
hairandotherhairfibreproduction inEurope.Aquestionnairewaselaboratedandsenttoall
memberorganizations.Itconsistedof4mainparts: 1. Volumeandqualityoffibres produced
and theiruse,2.Interest intheconcerned country in wool/hairproduction and its economic
importance,3.Existingprogrammesandactivitiesleadingtoincrease/improvementofdomesticwool/hairproduction anditsbetteruse,4. Sheep/goatproduction systems adoptedin the
country,with specialreference towoolorhairproduced.
157
ThefiguresandconclusionspresentedinTable1 summarizetheresultsofasurveyconducted
in 1988-1991 by the EAAP Sheep Woolexperts in 3mainregions of Europe: North-West,
Central-East andMediterranean. TheSovietUnion andTurkeywere surveyed separately,as
bicontinental countries,adjacent totheCentral-EastandMediterraneanregions,respectively.
Resultsanddiscussion
Thisinformation basedentirelyonFAOdatacollectedfromallcountriesbelongingtoregions
orgroups,showsdifferences betweenregions,wherewoolisconcerned.TheUSSRandother
Central-East European countries are the best in wool production, but the poorest lamb and
mutton producers.TheEastEuropeancountries,namelyBulgariaandRumania arenearlyas
goodinsheepmilkproductionasneighbouringMediterranean countries.
CountriesoftheN-Wregion arebyfar thebestinlambandmutton production andquite
goodwoolproducers,especiallywhencleanfleece weightiscompared.Thisregiondoesnot
produce any significant quantityof sheepmilk.Thepoorestwoolproducers aretheMediterraneancountries,butthey arethebestin sheepmilkproduction andfairly goodinmeatproduction.
Table1 showsthequantitativeimageofsheepproductivityinthe3mainregionsofEurope
andadjacent areas,butitgivesonlyalittleinformationontheaveragequalityofwoolproduced
there.Thehighestcleanwoolyield/rendement/appearedintheN-WregionofEurope.Itmay
meanthatwoolproducedinthatregionisstrongerthaninotherpartsofEurope.Indeed,very
few merino sheeparebredthereandtheirinfluence onwooltraitsisnegligible.On theother
hand,thesheephousingperiodinmostcountriesofthisregionisshorterincomparison tothe
CentralEastregion.Inthelatterregionsome50-60yearsagomanynative,coarsewoolbreeds
of sheep were improved by means of crossbreeding: with merino rams in a more dry
environment,orwithWestEuropeanbreedsinmorehumidareas.Inlateryears (1960-1980)
crossbredwoolproducing sheep (Corriedale type)werewidely introduced inthewhole area
of the region toimprove fleece weight and staple length as well as body conformation and
Table 1. Sheepproductivityin3regionsinEurope, inTurkey, andintheUSSR (source:FAO
Production Yearbook, 1989).
Region orcountry
1. Totalsheepnumber (103)
2. Totalgreasy woolprod. (MT)
3. Averageclean woolyield(%)
4. Averagegreasy fleece wt.(kg)
5. Averageclean fleece wt.(kg)
6. Averagemeatproduction
per 1 sheep(kg)
7. Averagemilkproduction
per 1 sheep(kg)
1
2
3
Northwest3
Mediterranean2
Turkey
CentralEast1
USSR
47300
113 900
69.7
2.41
1.68
12.3
66300
86700
54.3
1.31
0.71
8.5
34850
49000
55.0
1.41
0.77
9.8
37700
118900
54.8
3.15
1.73
6.7
139500
474000
60.0
3.40
2.04
6.1
0.0
42.4
28.8
21.2
0.6
Bulgaria, Czecho-Slovakia, GermanDemocratic Republic,Poland, Rumania
Albania,SouthernFrance,Greece,Italy,Portugal,Spain,Yugoslavia
OtherEuropean countries,notmentionedabove.
158
growth potential. Coarse wool breeds remain mainly in more difficult mountain and hill
countries.Improvement of woolquality inthewholeregioncouldbeillustratedwith figures
publishedbyVasiliev(1964)fortheUSSR.Duringaperiodof 10years(1954-1964)thetotal
volumeofwoolproducedincreasedby80%andatthesametimethecontributionoffinewool
increasedfrom 17%to43%,whilethecontributionofcoarsewooldroppedfrom 61%to37%.
In the Mediterranean area, which many centuries ago was the world centre of fine and
semi-fine wool,wherethemerinobreedofsheep,famousforitswoolproduction,wascreated,
wool seemslessimportant nowthan anywhere elseinEurope.Opinionsof ourrespondents,
summarized inTable2,fully confirm this.Woolproduced inWest-Mediterranean countries
ontheaverageisfinerandshorter(Ryder,1978)thanthatproducedintheEastMediterranean,
whereitismainly semicoarse andcoarse.
Interestinwoolproduction existinginthe3regionsofEuropecouldberoughly measured
bythenumberofrespondingcountriescomparedtothetotalnumberofcountriesintheregion.
The percentage figures were 22%, 17% and 50%,for the North-West, Mediterranean and
Central-Eastregions,respectively.
In Table 2 a summary of all responses to the questionnaire is shown. When comparing
responses according totheregion from which theycame,it can be stated thatnet self-sufficiencyinwoolvariedwidelyfrom country tocountryinthesameregion andseemstobenot
characteristicfor anyregion asawhole
On the contrary the economic importance of income from wool when compared to total
incomefrom sheepfarmingvariedfromregiontoregion.ItwasthehighestintheCentral-East
region (20%—>60%)andthelowestintheMediterranean countries (4%).If theranking lists
according to economic importance of sheep products were compared, in the C-E countries
wool took 1stor 2nd place,while in N-WEurope only 2nd place and in the Mediterranean
areausually3rdplace.
As aconsequence of theeconomicindices mentioned above,nointerest inincreasing the
volume of wool production occurred in the North-West and Mediterranean regions. On the
contrary,anincreaseinwoolproduction wasdesiredinmostof theC-Ecountries.Itwasnot
thecaseinHungary,whereingeneral woolproduction remained stable.
Interestinimprovingwoolqualitygenerally accompaniespositivetrendsinthevolumeof
woolproduction.InthisrespectanexceptionalsituationcouldbeobservedinIceland.Income
fromwoolsalesreceivedbyIcelandicsheepfarmersislow,typicalfor allN-Wcountries.The
interestingoodqualityandgrowthofwoolinthiscountrycouldbelinkedwithbettersurvival
oflambscoveredwith arichfleece when grazedduringsummeronmountainpastures.
Insomeoftherespondingcountries,mainlyN-WandMediterranean,evendecreaseofthe
volumeofwoolproducedanditsworsequalitywereaccepted,onfarms specializingineither
meatormilk +meatproduction.
Programmesofgeneticimprovementofwoolproductivitywerewidelyadoptedinthesheep
industriesoftheC-Ecounties.Programmesoractivities aimedatbetterfleece evaluationand
purchaseoperated inmostofNorth-West andCentral-East countries.They seemnottoexist
intheMediterraneanregion.TheoppositesituationcouldbeobservedintheNorth-Westand
Mediterranean regions as far as domestic wool or hair marketing programs are concerned.
TheyusuallyexistinNorth-Westerncountries,butareabsentintheMediterranean region.
Informer ComeconC-Ecountrieswiththeirnon-marketeconomy,marketingitselfdidnot
existed. This was especially true where raw materials such as wool were concerned. As to
production systems,intheNorth-Westregionintensiveproductionof slaughterlambspredominates,butinparticularconditions,for examplein Scandinavia, extensive summer grazing
ofewesandlambscouldbeincludedintothisintensivesystem.IntheMediterranean areaas
wellasinC-Ecountriesthemostimportantwereeitherintensivesystemsoflambproduction
or systems of intensive production of milk + lambs. In some Mediterranean countries and
alongtheBalkan-Carpatian mountainchain,thesheepmilkingperiodcoincideswithsummer
159
Table2. Theeconomicimportanceofwoolproduction, interestinincreasing itorimproving
the qualityof wool,activitiesin thisfield,wool in differentsheepproductionsystems in3
regionsofEurope.Summaryfrom theresponses tothequestionnaire ofEAAP wool experts
working group(received1988/1989).
Region/Country:
A.a. Placeofwoolamongall
sheepproducts (ranking)
b. Contribution ofwoolto
totalincomefrom sheep
farming (%)
B. Interestin:
a. increasingwoolprod.
b. improving woolquality
c. increasingmilk/meet
prod,andkeeping wool
prod,anditsqualityon
aconstantlevel
d. likec.but acceptinga
decreaseinwoolprod.
andquality
C.Programmes of:
a. geneticimprovementof
woolprod.
b. betterevaluation and
purchaseofwool
c. bettermarketingof
domesticwool
D.Production systems:
a. extensive apparelwool
production
b. specialwoolprod,in
family flocks
c. intensiveprod,of
slaughterlambs
d. intensiveprod,ofmilk
andlambs
e. anyothersystem
1
2
3
North- MéditerWest3 ranean2
Turkey
CentralEast1
USSR
2
2-3
3
2-1
1
5-7
4
9.1
20->60
>60
-/+
-
-
+
+
-/+
+
-/+
+
-
-/+
-
+/-
-/+
-
-/+
-
-
+
+
+/-
-
-
+
+
+/-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-/+
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
+
+
+
+/-
-/+
-/+
+/-
-/+
-
-
+/-
Bulgaria, Czecho-Slovakia, GermanDemocratic Republic,Poland, Rumania
Albania, SouthernFrance,Greece,Italy,Portugal,Spain,Yugoslavia
OtherEuropean countries,notmentionedabove.
grazingof ewesonextensivemountainpastures,while theweaned lambs arefattened inthe
valleys,moreorlessintensively.
ThespecializationofsheepflocksinextensivewoolproductionwhichexistedinsomeC-E
European (former Comecon) countries should be stressed. In former GDR in these flocks
merino wethers were kept up to 4-5 years of age for wool production before they were
slaughtered. They were grazed on stubble and during winter fed cheaply with agricultural
160
+
+
by-products.Suchflockscould beshepherdedby less skilledpeople.Thelowpercentageof
ewesin theGDR national sheeppopulation showthatsuchwetherflockswerenumerousin
theGDR. All theseflocksdisappeared after reunification of Germany in 1990becausethey
becameunprofitableinnewmarketeconomyconditions(Strittmatter,1991).Anotherexample
ofextensivewoolproductioncouldbeobservedinmanyeweflocksintheUSSR,whereyoung
ewesareusuallymatedfor thefirsttimeat2,5yearsofage(Vasiliev, 1964).
TheimageofwoolproductioninEuropeshownabove,wastrueuptotheautumnof 1989.
PoliticalchangesinCentralandEasternEurope,whichbeganatthattime,resultedinprogress
fromacentrallyplannedtoamarketeconomy.Woolprices,subsidiedearlier,suddenlybecame
dependent on world prices. According to Strittmatter (1991), thereunification of Germany
caused adramaticchangeintheGDRinthewooltolambmeatpriceratiofrom about 6:1to
0.7:1.On theotherhandthechanges inC-EEuropecoincidewithacomplete breakdown of
theSovieteconomyandseriousproblemsintheChineseeconomy.Boththesecountrieswere
hugeimporters of wool from the Southern hemisphere.Theseimports of wool abruptly decreased, which wasthemaincauseof abreakdown of woolprices on theworldmarket. All
theseeventsresultedinaconsiderabledecreaseofnationalsheepflocks andwoolproduction.
Intheformer GDR,from 1989to 1990,a44.5%dropin sheeppopulation wasregistered.In
Polandinthesameperiod,a5.7%decreaseinsheepnumberwasobserved,butin 1991amore
severedropisexpected.
InthefuturetheeasternpartofGermany,Czecho-Slovakia,HungaryandPolandwillfollow
more or less the development of sheep production in North-Western Europe. Bulgaria and
RumaniamaydeveloptheirsheepproductionsimilarlytoneibouringTurkeyandGreece.Only
thesouthernterritoriesoftheUkraineandRussia,havingnaturalconditionsforextensive fine
woolproduction, wouldkeeptheirsheepindustrynearlyunchanged.However,eventherean
intensification of slaughterlambproduction seemsnecessary.
References
Brooke,C.H. & M.L.Ryder, 1978. DecliningBreedsofMediterranean Sheep.FAOAnimal
Production &Health Paper,8,Rome.p.4-47.
FAO.Production Yearbook, 1989. FAO,Rome.p.237-268.
Hodowla Owiec i Kóz w Polsce w 1990roku, 1991.Centralna Stacja Hodowli Zwierzat,
Warszawa.p.7-8.
Jankowski,St., S. Kukovic, K. Strittmatter, E. Tuncel&O.Staniszkis,1989.Wool and hair
production inEurope.In40thAnnualMeeting oftheEAAP,Summaries,Vol.II.S4b. 1,
Dublin,p. 133-134.
Strittmatter,K., 1991. Entwicklungstendenzen der Schafhaltung auf dem Territorium der
ehemaligenDDR.Typescriptinthedocumentation of42ndAnnualMeetingoftheEAAP,
Sheep&GoatCommission, Session4,Berlin,p. 1-2.
Vasiliev,N.A.,1964. Organizacija itechnikatonkorunnogoipolutonkorunnogo ovcevodstva.
"Kolos",Moskwa,p. 8-28.
161
Objective measurements ofwool:state of the art
C. Sergent
ITFSud,81200Mazamet,France
Abstracto
Themaincharacteristicsofkeratinicfibresmaybeestimatedbyobjectivemeasurementsinternationally admitted.Thefirst difficulty consistsinthe guaranteeofthetest specimenrepresentativity. Official procedures aredescribedforeach stageofthesampling.Theprincipleof
standardized andexperimental methods is given for fineness, length, strength, feltability,
colour,coulouredfibrescompressibility, yield.
Introduction
Thereisageneral trendinallindustrial branches tooffer therightqualitytotherightprice.
TextileIndustry,andwooltradeparticularly involvesinthatstrategy.Towards sheep,tobea
marked increase inthedesignation offabrics and knittings, yarns,fibres.So,thegroweris
induced tooffer onthemarket perfectly described lots,with wellknown criteria. Objective
measurementshelphimalsotosurveythequalityofhisflock andclip.Weexaminethemain
methodsusedinwooltradeandindustry.
Methodofsamplingrawwoolinbulkforfibrediameterand/orlength
measurement (IWTO13-64)
All methods oftest woolfibre propertiesrequire selection ofacomparatively small number
offibresfrom alargebulkorlotoffibres.Thusthelotmayconsistofatleast400kg (e.g8 x
109fibres)whereasthesampletestedisunlikelytoexceedafewgrammes(e.g4x 104fibres).
The actofselecting thissmall numberfrom thelotiscalledsampling'.Itisusually assumed
that theresults of tests onthesmall sample of fibres also apply tothewhole lot.Forthis
assumption tobetrueitisnecessary that the sampling method gives atruly random sample
from thelot,that is a sample in which each fibre in thelothasan equal chance of being
representedinthesample.Ingeneraltherewillbevariations from placetoplacewithin alot
ofraw wool.Itisnotpossible togive generally applicablefiguresforvariances since these
willdependon thehistory andoriginofthelot.
Definitions
Lot:Thewholebulkorpopulationoffibres availableforsampling.Zone:Aplaceinthebulk
from whichfibresaretaken.
Principlesofsampling
Foratrulyrandom samplethedifference betweentheestimateofthemeasuredproperty(e.g.
fibre length)obtainedfrom thesampleandthesamepropertymeasured onthewholelotwill
bethewell-knownstatisticalsamplingerror,whichcanbecalculated.Ifthedifference between
162
theproperty of thesampleandthatof thelotissignificantly greaterthan thatduetorandom
sampling,thesamplingprocedureissaidtobe 'biassed'.Biasoccursinthreeways:
a. if theproperty ofthe lotvaries from placetoplace butthe sampleistakenfrom onlyone
ortwoplaces,thesampleislikelytobebiassed.
b. Nearly all methods depending on personal choice of fibres lead tobiassed samples.For
instance, fibres selected by eye are often thethickest, probably because they are easy to
see.
c. Iffibres aretakenbypullingthemfrom theoutsideofthelottheyarelikelytobepartially
length-biassed, sincethechances of fibres crossing aparticularplace aregreaterfor long
fibres.
Samplingmethod
This procedure will often berequired for lots of 500kg and above, which will consist of a
largenumberoffleecesorpartsoffleeces.Thetotalvariabilitymaybeconsideredintwoparts:
a. Thevariability within afleece orpartfleece.Thiswillbetermedwithin-zonevariation
b. Thevariability betweenfleeces orpartfleeces.Thiswillbetermedbetween-zonevariation
It cannot be assumedin general that thelotis homogeneous andit is thus necessary to sort
throughittoobtainanunbiassed sample.Consequently itisgenerallyconvenienttocarryout
thefollowing samplingmethodwhilethelotisbeingtransferred toahopper,binorlatticefor
thenext stageofprocessing.
Choiceofnumberofzones
LetVI, betheresidual variancewithin zonesof theproperty tobemeasured.LetV2,bethe
variancebetween zones.Letnbethenumberof zones.LetNbethetotalnumberoffibres to
betested,N/nwillbetheaveragenumberoffibres tobetakenfrom eachzone.The standard
errorof themeanvaluefor theNfibres (length ordiameter) willbegivenby:
1
S.E. =
N
n
Itmaybeseenfrom thisthattoobtainasmallstandarderrorthenumberofzonesnshouldbe
aslarge aspossible.
Selecting thezones
Theprocedure to bedescribed usesthe simplest apparatus. Mechanical handling equipment
such asconveyor beltsmaypossibly beused tomakeitquicker.Decideonthetotalnumber
of fibres tobetested Nand thenumberof zonesn.Obtain acardboard box which willhold
about 0.5 kg of fibres. If theweight of thelot isWkg it will consist of 2Wboxfuls, andof
these n are required to be taken uniformly thoughout the lot. Calculate the nearest whole
numberto2W/n.Filltheboxrepeatedlywithfibres anddiscardthefibres untilboxNo2W/n
isreached.
Fill this box with handfuls of fibre, then reduce the number of fibres in the box by the
proceduredescribedabove.Againfilltheboxwithfibresanddiscarduntilbox4W/nisreached
and reduce this by the procedure described. Continue theprocedure, reducing boxes 2W/n,
4W/n,6W/n, 8W/nuntilthewholelothasbeensorted through.
163
N
t o t a l 3ample
Alternativemethodforfibrediameter
Ifthewoolisbeingsampledforfibrediameteronly(projectionmicroscopemethod),thezones
maybeselectedbycore-boringthebales.Inthiscasecoresshouldbetakenatseveral different
positionsfromeachbaleandthetotalnumberofzonestakenfromthewholelotshouldexceed
100.
Reducingthefibresfromthezones
Each boxful or core-boring is quickly divided into two halves by hand and the right half
retained.Theretainedhalfisagaindividedintotwohalvesandthelefthalfretained.Sincethe
fibres are often naturally grouped in a parallel arrangement the division into two halves is
madelengthwises,i.e.in adirectionwhich avoidsbreakageand selectionbyfibre ends.This
process ofreduction iscontinued until asjudged byeye approximately thenumber of fibres
required per zone (N/n) has been arrived at.Thesefibres aretransferred toa velvet-covered
boardandcovered with atransparentplate.
Finalsample
Thefinal samplewillconsistof anumberof groupsoffibre onthevelvetboardandtoavoid
biasitisessential thatallthefibres ineach groupbetested.
Determination offibrediameterinwooland otheranimalfibresbythe
microscopeprojection (IWTO8-89)
Concerns the diameter and themedullation of wool and other animal fibres such as mohair,
cashmere,alpaca,camel'shair,intheirvariousforms,bymeansofmicroscopemeasurements
onindividual fibres.
Outlineofthemethod
Magnified imagesoftheprofiles ofshortlengths(snippets)offibres areprojectedonascreen
andtheirwidthsmeasured byusingagraduated scale.Theindividualfibremeasurementsare
recorded and when sufficient fibres have been measured the arithmetic mean, standard
deviation,CVofthefdistributionarecalculated.Ahistogrammaybedrawn.Atthesametime
thenumberofmedullatedandunmedullatedfibresmaybecounted:thedegreeofmedullation
isthenumber ofmedullated fibres counted,exprimée!asapercentage of thetotal numberof
fibres counted.
164
Cutting
Forcuttingthefibres topredeterminedlength thefibreholderandpushersdescribedmustbe
provided.Theholderis ashortpieceofsmoothsteel.
Mountingmedia
Provide amountingmediumwithfollowing properties
• arefractive index between 1.43 and 1.53
• suitableviscosity
• doesnotabsorbwater
Cedarwoodoilandliquidparaffine areexamplesof suitablemedia.
Focusing
Whenthemicroscopeobjectiveistooneartheslidetheedgeoftheimageshowsawhiteborder.
When themicroscopeobjectiveistoofarfrom theslidetheedgeoftheimage showsablack
border.When in focus the edge of the image shows afine line with no border.Howeverin
generalbothedgesof theimagewillnotbeinfocus together, sincewoolfibres areingeneral
non-circularincrosssection.Whenmeasuringanimagewhoseedgesarenotinfocustogether,
adjust thefocusing sothatoneedgeisinfocus andtheothershowsawhiteline.Measurethe
widthfrom theedgethatinfocus totheinsideof thewhiteline.
,
Useofreferencewools
Toassistinreducingdifferences thatmayoccurbetweenoperators andbetweenlaboratories,
Interwoollabs suppliesthreeReference sliverscovering arangeof meandiameteralongwith
their agreed values.These should be measured at intervals by operators engaged in routine
measurements.
Exempleofcalculation
The major source of variance in wool is the between-fibres component and is notcorrectif
400ormoresnippets aremeasured (usually 600snippets aremeasured):
95% Confidence limits
Wools
to26|im
400fibres
1000fibres
0.6
Wools
above26|J.m
1.2
1
Themicroscopicfinenessisthereference method.Itistediousandexpensive,duetotimeand
technician immobilisation with a low productivity. For theses reasons other methods were
investigated.
FibreDiameterAnalyzer(FDA)
Needs asimilar test specimen, but snippets areintroduced in aflow of anon swelling agent
(isopropylicalcohol)andmeasuredinacellbyalaserradiation.Theattenuationofthisdepends
165
onthesnippetsdimensions,infew minutes 2000crossings areoccured.Eachisstoredinthe
systemwhich calculatescontinuously theaverageanddistribution.Withthelargenumberof
individualmeasuresintimeunitthesubjectiveinfluenceandfatigueoperators,focusing,bias,
are suppressed. The apparatus needs calibration with each type of fibres measured: wool,
angora,cashemere.Neverthelessthesystemdoesn't'see'eachqualityandisnotabletodistinguishotherelsethandiameter.Themethodisinexperimentalphasebefore standardization.
Imageanalysis(ASTMD3510-81)
Themeasurementofmeanfibrediameteranddiameterdistribution offibre snippetsmounted
betweentwoglassslides,isperformedusingachargecoupleddevice(CCD)camerainterfaced
toaP.C.Priorto any measurement, fibre snippets arecollected using amicrocoring device
andaremounted on amicroscope slideusingaspreadingdevicewhichrandomly distributes
snippetsin asinglelayerofevendensityoverthewholeslide.Thecameraimageiscaptured
using an analogue todigital converter which digitises thelight intensity values to 128 grey
levelsandstoresthemincomputermemory.Eachsnippetcanbemeasuredseveraltimesalong
its length.The mean fibre diameter anddiameter distribution information arecalculated for
the whole slide. A histogram can be produced showing the distribution of diameter. The
instrument is initially calibrated usingreference wools oretched graticule which contains a
serieoflinesofknownwidthsrangingfrom8to132|im.Thiscalibrationisstoredasalook-up
tableincomputermemory.
Determination ofthemeanfibrediameterbyair-flow (IWTO28-89)
When acurrentof airispassedthrough amassoffibres packedinachamberwith perforated
endstheratioof air-flow todifferential pressureisprimarily determined bythetotal surface
areaofthefibres.Thiswaspredictedfrom thehydrodynamicequations.Forfibresofcircular
ornearcircularcross-section andconstantdensity, such asnon-medullatedwool,the surface
areaofagivenmassoffibresisinverselyproportionaltothemeanfibrediameter.Thisprinciple
can be utilised toconstruct an apparatus giving estimate of MFD. The Air-Flow Method is
simple andrapid. Since the method is indirect, the apparatus must first be calibrated, using
fibres of known mean diameter. It has been shown that the estimate of MFD given by the
Air-FlowMethodisd(l+c2)wheredistheMFDgivenbythemicroscopeandcthe fractional
CV.Sincecnormallylieswithincomparatively smalllimitsitisusualtocalibratedirectlyin
terms of d. Raw wool must be scoured, cleaned to remove vegetable matter, opened and
randomised. Atleast two2,5 gtest specimens must bemeasured,withtworeadings oneach
oftwoAir-FlowApparatus(IWTO28-89standard).Laboratorysamplesmustbeconditioned
toequilibrium with measurements made in this atmosphere 20°,65%HR. Theestimates of
the95% confidence limitsoftheMFDare+0.2^mforMFD26[imand±0.3 |imforMFD
26 |im.Thecurrent of airmaybereplaced by ultrasonic vibrations and theloss soundwave
passing through aplugof woolfibres converted togiveamean fibre diameter, theapparatus
being calibrated with standard wools of known mean diameter. For all these methods the
standardconditions for testing are20°C± 1°Cand65%HR± 2 %.Iftestsarecarriedout
in anon standard atmosphere, theresults in micrometers may be corrected by a factor. For
example:withRHof
• 40% «factor =1.022
• 65%«factor =1
• 85%« factor =0.969
166
Determinationofpercentageofmedullatedfibres(IWTO8-89)
Immersion liquids with arefractive Index close to that of wool are used torender thewool
substanceinvisible.Themedullaisexposedbythereflection lightatthekeratin/airinterface.
Advantage of this principle has been taken by several researchers who have developed
instruments withanappropriateopticalarrangementbasedonalightsourceandphotodiode.
Theseinstruments can becalibrated against thedirect methods of medullation measurement
suchastheIWTO8.Thislateristedious,reliesheavilyonoperatordiligenceandbecausethe
massof thewoolmounted onaslideitraises thequestionofrepresentation. NIRAisknown
tobe sensitivetoparticle sizedifferences aswell astothepresence of chemical bonds.The
instrumentmeasuresthereflectance atupto 19discretewavelengths.Themedullationresults
areregressedontheNIRabsorbancedatacorrespondingtoselectedwavelengthes,thesemade
bypurelyon statistical performance.
The precision of the estimates using this technology is very strongly influenced by the
reference methods used in the calibration. The standard error of prediction between NIRA
estimates anddirectprojection microscoperesults hasbeencalculatedonNZwools givinga
95%Confidence Limitsof±5.7%bynumber,therangeofwooltestedbeingfrom 0to40%.
Determination ofthekemp
Thereis, asyet, nostandard oruniversally accepted definition andpractical test method for
measuringkemp.FrominternationalkemproundtrialsmadebyCSIRofS.Africa itappears,
for the mohair, and considering various instrument methods, that FDA and Medullameter
reading holdthemostpromise.Thepercentage offibres coarser than2xdiameteristhebest
estimate of the relative kempiness of the sample, the absolute values matching the average
percentage bynumber values,determinedvisuallyfairly closely.
Woolfibrelengthdistribution (IWTO5-66)
Noautomaticapparatusbutamanualone,onfibres sampledfrom thelotorfleece.Thewhole
available bulk is spread on a large table and about 40 handfuls are taken, equally spaced
throughout thebulk. Oneof each handful iscarefuly divided intwo,andhalf rejected. This
procedureiscontinueduntilabout20fibresareleft.Eachofthehandfulisreducedinthisway,
the40remaining groupoffibres beingstored separately onalargevelvetcoveredboardand
coveredwithglassplate.Thegroupsof20or30fibresarethentransfered separatelytoasmall
velvet-covered board;from wheretwomeansofmeasurecan beused.
• WIRAmachine:each fibre taken with forceps isintroduced undercontrolled tension and
thelengthsclassified in0.5cmgroups.
• GILLSSystem:with 1 cminterval (Zweiglecombsorter) wheretheweboffibres areput
aligned,thenextractedbygroupandweighed.
Thelength distribution maybeexpressedindifferent following waysfor example.
• Afrequency polygon showing thepercentage, in number or weight, in each 0.5 or 1cm
length interval,plotted against thefibre length.
• Acumulativefrequency curveshowingthenumber(orweight)offibresgreaterthanagiven
length plotted against thefibre length. Confidence limits as Percentage of average fibre
length:
± 10%with 60measured fibres
± 5%with250measuredfibres
± 3%with700measured fibres
167
Bundlestrengthofwoolfibres(IWTO32-82)
Accordingtosomeexperiments,thereisafairlygoodcorrelationbetweenthetenacityoffibre
bundlesandthatofsinglefibres.Itshouldbenoted,howeverthatthemeanstrengthofabundle
of fibres depends not only on the tenacities of the individual fibres, but also on the mean
extension of theindividual fibres, itsCVand theslopeof themeanrheological curveofthe
individual fibre intheplasticzone.Thisiswhythemeanstrengthof afibre bundleisalways
lowerthanthesumof thestrengthsoftheindividualfibres constituting thebundle.Tenacity
is defined as theratio of breakingforce to lineardensity; it depends on thetype of strength
testerused, theduration of breaking test.Thisiswhy theresults obtained ondifferent types
ofapparatus arenotenecessarily identical.
Principle:Abundleofseveralhundredparallelfibres,cuttoequallength,isdrawnfroma
representativesample,insertedinthespecialclampswithauniformpre-tension,just sufficient
to remove any crimp, and then broken on a strength tester. After breaking the fibres are
weighed.If
L:Bundlelengthin|im,towhichthefibres arecut,measured undertheinitial tension
G:WeightinmgofthebundleoflengthL
F: Breakingforce ofthebundleinCN
TisthelineardensityinTex=G/L.103.Tenacity is=F/TinCN/Tex
Obviouslysamplingrequiresspecialpreparation.Arepresentativebundlemaybeobtainedby
mixingandparallelisationontheZweiglecombsorterbyrepeatingseveraltimesthealignment
anddrawingoffibres.Thenumberofbundlestobetesteddependsontheprecision required.
TheCVisgenerallylessthan 3%andobtainedwith 10tests.
Determination ofthefeltingproperties(IWTO20-69)
Principle:Onegrammeofwoolisshakenforaspecifiedtimewith50mlofafeltingmedium,
buffer solution , in a standard container on a shaking machine with three dimensional
movement. The loose fibre is formed into afelt ball, thediameter of which is measured.A
smalldiameterfeltballindicatesgoodfeltingproperties,andalargediameterfeltballindicates
poor felting properties. Standardised procedure exists to:Prepare samples— Set and adjust
theshakingmachine(AachenerFilzTest)—Determinethediameteroftheball— Calculate
andexpress theresults
Measurementofthecolourofrawwool(IWTO-E.14-88)
Theeventual requirements for samplepreparation for colourmeasurement arethat thewool
shallbecleanedofcontaminants (grease,dirt,vegetablematter)wellblended,andconditionned.Theproceduresusedin samplepreparation— scouring,removalofvegetable contamination,drying,conditionning in astandard laboratory atmsophereof20°C± 2°,65%HR±
2%—shouldbesuchthatmodificationofthecolourofthetestspecimeniskepttoaminimum.
The prepared test specimen is measured to give the CIE tristimulus values X, Yand Z for
illuminant Cand the2°observer.Between instrument variations arereduced bytheuseofa
referencewooltocalibratethecolorimeter.Aworkingcalibrationtilewhichhasbeenmeasured
againstthereference woolmaybeused.Forspectrophotometers,whichcannotbecalibrated
in thisway,themanufacturer's calibration ischecked atleasteveryfour hoursof operation.
Thesystemofco-ordinates CIELAB,where:
L represents thebrigthness.
a*represents thegreen-redaxis,
b*representstheblue-yellowaxis,
168
gives a more understandable expression of colour. Also a degree of whiteness may be
calculated following formula:
2
2x±
W = [(100-0.94Y) + (2.84X-2.35Z) J
representingthecolourdifference from awhitestandardreference, lowerisWmorewhiteis
thewool.
Colouredfibers(IWTO-E.13-88)
Thedeterminationoftheexistenceandlevelofcolouredfibrecontaminationisacomplicated
problemfor severalreasons.Thediversityofthecontaminantfibresfound—thedifficulty of
defining anddescribingthemprecisely—thedifficulty fortheoperatorstoworkalongaday
withoutocularfatigue andlossofrepeatibility Today,loneatestmethod underexamination
isavailable before registration after interlaboratory trials succeedin achievingresults.Principle:Woolisopened,eithermechanicallyorbyhandtoawebareadensitywherebycoloured
fibre faults may be detected andcounted. Illumination of the opened web is by uncoloured
lightadjusted sothatuncolouredarenotvisible.Ascaleforgradingblackandbrownfibresis
described.Fivelevels(4—» 8)withtristimulidata(X,Y,Z)aredefined andalsodyerecipesto
prepare thesereference fibres, detection apparatus (CSIRODarkFibreDetecfor) conditions
ofillumination, worksite,conditionsofcontamination,counting,aregiven.
Bulkandresistancetocompression
There are various ways of quantifying the bulk of wool, the two most often-used methods
being themeasurement of theresistance tocompression (Australian principle standard) and
themeasurement of thespacefilling properties (NewZealandprinciple standard).Generally
itconsistsof acylinderintowhich thewoolisintroduced and apistonwhich lowered onthe
wool.Forone,theforce required tocompress atest specimentoafixed volumeis measured
andconvertedtokilopascals.Fortheother,afterashortcyclingroutine,theheightoftheoccupiedspaceismeasured andthebulkofthewoolcanbethenbeexpressedincm3/g.However
these two methods are not yet internationally accepted and almost more suitable for wool
growers thanfor commercial objectives.
Determination ofwoolbaseandvegetablematterbase-yield(IWTO19-90)
Principle. Arepresentativesampleofrawwoolisobtainedfromeachbaleinthelotbycoring
methods.Representative subsamplesofthecoresareweighed,scoured,driedandreweighed.
Tests specimens are then taken from each scoured subsample for the separate determination
ofvegetable matter (which canbeexprimedasVegetableMaterBase),ashandethyl alcohol
extractives.Thepercentages of these non-wool constituents found areneedtodeterminethe
drymassofwoolfibres freefrom allimpuretieswhich,whenexpressedasapercentageofthe
massofthesampleistheWoolBase.Methodsforscouringthesubsamples,determiningmass
of scoured sub-sample.
• TheOvendry
• TheAshContent
• TheEthylAlcoholextractable
• TotalAlkaliInsolubleimpuretiesandVegetablematterare standardised
169
Analyse colorométrique etdétermination quantitative des
mélanines dans lemanteau de chèvres avec différents genotypes
de pigmentation.
C.Renieri*,L.Ramunno**,N.Montemurro**, V.M.Moretti***,M.TrabalzaMarinucci*.
* IstitutodiProduzioniAnimali,Perugia,Italie
** Dipartimento déliaProduzioneAnimale,Portici(NA),Italie
*** IstitutodiZootecniaGenerale,Milano,Italie
Abstract
A colorimetric analysis (Munsell method) and chemical determination of mélanines were
carriedoutusing 15samplesofpigmentedgoathairoflongcoatedgoatsfrom SouthernItaly.
The quantity of mélanine was determined by permanganate oxidation of eumelanines in
2,3,5-tricarboxilicpyrrolicacidandbyhydrioticacidhydrolyseofphaeomelaninesinaminohydroxyphenilanine.Liquidchromatography athighpressurewasusedforthedetermination.
The black and white samples are achromatic; theothers vary between 'red' 2.5 YR 4/6 and
'reddishyellow'7.5YR6/8.Eumelanines aswellasphaeomelanineswerepresentinallsamples;theratiovariedbetween224.3and0.54.Theblackphenotypeischaracterized bystrong
activity of theeumelanine synthesis.Theexistenceof asmall activity of biosynthesis seems
toprovethatmotleycoloursaretheresultofthelocalinhibitionoftheactivityofmelanocytes.
It seems that adistinction between red and brown phenotypes cannot be made when using
thesetwomethods;theirgeneticdefinition remains uncertain.
Introduction
L'espècecaprinesecaractériseparunevariationdephénotypesdecolorationnotable.Jusqu'à
présent presque une dizaine de patrons pigmentaires (noir, rouge, badger face, noir et feu,
mantelé,manteléinverse,oeilrouge,gris,sauvaae),différents typesd'altérationsdelapigmentation de base (blanc uniforme, grisonnement) et quelques types de panachure (irrégulière,
cinture)ontétéinventoriés(Lauvergne&Howell,1978;Lauvergne,1983;Millar,1986).Dans
son dernier rapport le Cogovica (1989) arecensé 4 loci (Agouti, Brown, Frosting et Roan)
tousbialleliques sauf l'Agouti quipresentetroisallelesbienidentifiés (badgerface blackand
tanetnonagouti)etunesériequinécessiteencored'analyse deségrégation.Cenotablepolymorphisme aétéd'abord utilisépourl'étude despopulationscaprinestraditionnelles selonla
definitiondonnéeparLauvergne(1982,Renierietal.,1986;Lauvergneetal.,1986;Lauvergne
etal., 1987;Matassinoetal., 1984).L'autredomainederecherche estreprésentéparlesanimauxspécialiséspourlaproduction defibresetfourrures,notemmentlesracesquiappartiennentaugroupe 'cachemire'etl'angorapourleslignéesnaturellementcolorées.IlestPossible
àpresentd'associer pour l'étude de lacoloration des mammifères le simpleexamen colorimétrique avec une séried'analyses chimiques,physiques et microscopiques, indispensables
pour une définition correcte de l'aspect biologique et génétique des phénotypes colorés
(Renieri, 1990).UnepremièreébaucheaétéréaliséesurlesracesAngoraetToggenburgdes
Etats Unis par Sponenberg et al. (1988). Cet articlereprésente une contribution ultérieureà
l'interprétation de lacoloration deschèvres àtravers l'étude de la correspondance existante
entre un examen colorimétrique réalisé avec un atlas et la détermination chimique des
mélaninesprésentesdansdifférents patronsPiqmentaires.
170
Matérieletméthodes
L' analyse aétéréalisée sur 15femelles àpoil long échantillonéesdansdeux élevanes dela
régionCampanie,dansl'ItalieduSud,etclasséesen4groupe:noirs,blancs,rougesetmarrons.
Les échantillons de poil ont toujour été prélevés dans la region des flancs. Pour l'examen
colorimétrique,uneméthodederepéragevisueldescoleursàpartirdel'atlasMunsell (1975)
aétéutilisé.Danscetteméthode,baséesurunecomparaison visuelledirectedescouleurspar
l'oeilhumain,chaqueteinteestdécritepartroisvariables:lateinte,'Hue',quidéfinilacouleur
etvarieentre0et 10enfonction del'augmentationdujauneetlaréductiondurouge;lavaleur,
Value',quipermetdedistinguerunecouleurclaired'unecouleurfoncée etquivarieentre0,
noirabsoluet 10,blancabsolu;lasaturation 'Chroma'quipermetdedifférencier lescouleurs
ternes des couleurs vives et qui varie entre0 et 20.L'adas seprésente comme une suitede
planches colorées etpermetdedonneràchaqueteinteune-ualeurouundegréde saturation.
LanomenclaturedelacouleurestdoncconstituéeparlenometParlanotation Munsell.Les
tablesutiliséespourlesmammifèresvariententreHue5RetHue5Y.Ladéfinitiondelacouleur
est faite directement par l'observateur sur unéchantillon depoils déposés surfond blanc et
éclairéparlalumièreartificielle d'unelampede60wattquisetrouvea20cmdedistance.Le
noir, le blanc et les variations absolues du gris sont des couleurs achromatiques (no Hue,
Chroma =0)pour lesquelles unenotation spécifique existe (N).Ladétermination desmélanines aétéobtenue aveclaméthodeproposéeparItoetFujita (1985).Ellesecaractérisepar
l'oxidationpermanganatiquedeseumélaninesenacidepyrrole-2,3,5,-tricarboxilique (PTCA)
etparl'hydrolyseiodhydriquedesphaeomélaninesenaminohydroxiphenilalanfhe (AHP).Les
rendements sont, respectivement, du 2% et du 20%. Les standards utilisés ont été l'acide
5-hydroxi 2-indocarboxiliquepourleseumélaninesetla5-S-cysteinildopapourlesphaeomélanines. La détermination a été réalisée avec la Chromatographie liquide à haute pression
(HPLC).
Résultatsetdiscussion
Lesrésultatsdel'examencolorimétriquesontprésentésdansleTableau 1.Quatreéchantillons,
deuxnoirs etdeuxblancs,sont achromatiques.Tousles autres sontclassés àl'intérieur dela
variationdeteinte2.5-7.5 YR.LesvaleursobtenuepourlePTCAetpourl'AHPsontprésentéesdansleTableau 2;cesvaleurs,transformées eneumélanines (PTCAx50)etphaeomélanines (AHPx 5),sontmisesen relation aveclanomenclature Munsell.des couleurs,dansle
Tableau3.
Toutd'abordilfautnotélapuissancepigmentairedeséchantillonsnoirsencequiconcerne
leseumélanines; letauxdecespiqments est énormémentplus grand deceuxqu'on observe
dans tous les autres patrons et les rapports eu/phaeo sont les plus hauts. Au contraire, les
échantillonsblancsprésententlaplusfaiblequantitédepigments;detoutesfaçons, l'existance
mêmedespigmentsquipeuventêtrerelevésnousexpliquequelapanachureenquestionaété
produite paruneinhibition localedel'activité desmelanocytesquiontpudoncmigrerdela
crêteneurale.Lesrapportseu/phaeonenouspermettentpasd'interpréterlacolorationdebase
éfasée par la panachure. A l'intérieur de la variation de teinte 2.5-7.5 YR des situations
biochimiques très différentes existent. Dans 4 cas, la quantité des phaeomélanines dépasse
celle des eumélanines. Ceci arrive avec des situations de teinte très différentes, 2 étant des
échantillons 'yellowish red' 5 YR qui varient seulement pour value et chroma et 2 des
échantillons 'reddish yellow' 7.5 YR qui varient seulement pour la valeur de chroma. Dans
tousles autrescas,lerapport eu/phaeoesttrèsproche àl'unité (variation entre 1.05 et 3.77)
et la quantité de melanisation semble être semblable. La seule exception est donnéepar un
échantillon 'reddish yellow'7.5YR6/8quiprésenteuneénorme supérioritéquantitativedes
eumélanines (eu/phaeo=33.35).
171
Tableau 1. Analysecolorimétrique. Pourlanomenclatureonutilise la
notation anglaise.
Nom
iue
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
2.5
5
5
5
5
5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
Black
Black
Red
Yellowishred
Yellowishred
Yellowishred
Yellowishred
Reddish yellow
Strongbrown
Strongbrown
Reddish yellow
Reddishyellow
Reddish yellow
Whithe
Withe
Value/Chroma
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
YR
4/8
3/6
4/6
4/6
4/6
6/8
5/6
5/6
6/6
6/8
6/8
Tableau2. LesvaleursdePCTA etAHP.
Phénotype
PTCA
ng/mg
AHP
ng/mg
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
783.5
647.6
65.1
57.5
57.15
86
52
52.6
28.25
33
58
99.75
170.1
32
24.75
31
31
509
597
545
1175
394
139.5
138
279.5
1068.5
1 158.5
51
34
33
Black
Black
Red2.5YR4/8
Yellowishred5YR3/6
Yellowishred5YR4/6
Yellowishred5YR4/6
Yellowishred5YR4/6
Reddish yellow5YR6/8
Strongbrown7.5 YR5/6
Strongbrown7.5YR 5/6
Reddishyellow7.5YR 6/6
Reddishyellow7.5YR 6/8
Reddish yellow7.5 YR6/8
White
White
L'interprétation decesrésultatsesttrèsdifficile. Leséchantillons quipossèdent une majorité
de phaeomélanines pourraient représenter les phénotypes 'jaunes-rouges' génétiquement
déterminés,maislaquantitédeseumélaninesresteencoretrèsélevées.Dansles mammifères
ou il aétédémontré (souris,homme),lephénotype 'jaune-rouge' secaractérisetoujours par
un rapport nettement favorable aux phaeomélanines. Il faut considérer à part l'échantillon
'reddishbrown'7.5YR6/8quisecaractériseparunpapporteu.phaeode33.35etquiprésente
172
Tableau3.Lesvaleurscorespondencedeseumélanines etdesphaeomélanines.
Phénotype
élanines Phaeomélanines
ng/mg
ng/mg
Eu/Phaeo
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
36925
32380
3258.7
2875
2857.5
4300
2610
2630
1412.5
1650
2900
4987.5
8505
1600
1237.5
155
155
2545
2985
2725
5 875
1970
697.5
690
1 397.5
5 342.5
5790
255
177
165
224.3
209
1.3
0.96
1.05
0.73
1.32
3.77
2.05
1.18
0.54
0.86
33.35
9.4
7.5
Black
Black
Red2.5YR4/8
Yellowishred5YR3/6
Yellowishred5YR4/6
Yellowishred5YR4/6
Yellowishred5YR4/6
Reddishyellow5YR6/8
Strongbrown7.5YR 5/6
Strongbrown7.5YR 5/6
Reddishyellow7.5 YR6/6
Reddish yellow7.5YR6/8
Reddishyellow7.5YR6/8
White
Withe
unatrèsfaible quantitédephaeomélanines (255ng/mg);ilpourraitreprésenterlepatronbrun
lié àl'action des mutations au locusBrown.Lesrésultats obtenus sont en accord avecceux
décrits par Sponenberg et al. (1988);laplupart deséchantillons analisés par cesAuteurs (et
classés subjectivement rougeetmarron)présententunrapporteu/phaeoquisedisposeautour
del'unité;lesnoirsonttresfortement éumélaniques;l'échantillonblancpresenteunemelanisationréduite.
Conclusions
Une sériedeconclusions nous semblepossible.D'abord,lacaractérisation colorimétriqueet
biochimiqueduphénotypenoirestassezclaire,étantdonnéel'énormequantitéd'eumélanines
qu'onpeutretrouver.Lacouleurblanchedelapanachurenecorrespondpasàl'absencetotale
depigments qui sont toujours relevables,mêmesien quantité très faible. Il est très difficile
dedifférentier lephénotyperougedumarronicesphénotypessontdeterminespardessystèmes
génétiques différents. Ace propos,il faut observer que ni l'examen colorimétrique ni celui
biochimiquesemblentêtrecapablesdepermettrecettedifferentiation, parcequetouslesdeux
présentent un polymorphisme puissant; la plupart des phénotypes classés jaune-rouge ou
marronsecaractérisentparunmélangedeeuetphaeomélaninespresqueparitaire,cequicompliquelapossibilitéd'interprétationgénétique;trèspeud'échantillonsavecuneprépondérance
dephaeomélanines(possiblephénotypephaeomélanique)etseulementunquiapparaitmarron
avecunefortequantitéd'eumélanines(possiblephénotypebrun)ontétéobservés.Engénéral,
donc, la correspondance entre analyses colorimétrique et biochimique reste très faible et
limitée seulementauxphénotypes noiretblanc.Leurutilisation contemporaine sembledonc
inutileet,detoutefaçon, ladistinction entrejaune-rouge etmarron peutêtrefaite seulement
avecuneanalyseaumicroscopeélectroniquepourmettreenévidenceletypedemélanosome
plus représenté dans le melanocyte. En conclusion, donc, pour une approche correcte et
complète àl'analysebiologique etgénétiquedelacoloration desmammifères ilfaut utiliser
enmêmetemps soitl'analysebiochimique soitl'analysemicroscopique ou ultramicroscoip173
que, parce que la plupart des variations qu'on observe sembent erre liée aux modifications
mélanosomialesetmélanocytaireetnon auxvariationsbiochimiques.
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Cogovica, 1989. Locifor coatcolourof sheepandgoats.Tec&DocLavoisier,Paris.
Ito,S.&K.Fujita,1985.Microanalysisofeumelanineandpheomelanininhairandmelanomas
bychemicaldegradation andliquidchromatography. Anal.Bioch. 144:527-536.
Lauvergne, JJ., 1982.Genetics inanimalpopulations after domestication: theconseauences
forbreedconservation.Proc.2ndWorldConf.Gen.APP1.Liv.Prod.,Madrid, 6:77-87.
Lauvergne,J.J., 1983.Utilisation du principe d'homoloqie interspécifique pour l'étude du
déterminisme héréditaire de lacouleur dupelage des Ruminants domestiques:l'exemple
dulocusAgouti.Bull.Soc.ZoologiqueFrance2:231-243.
Lauvergne,JJ. &W.E. Howell,1978.Un premier inventaire génétique de la chèvre Corse
(gènesàeffets visibles).Ethnozootechnie 22:86-93.
Lauvergne,JJ., C.Renieri&C.Pieramati, 1986.Lescénariodupeuplementcaprin méditerranéen ancien.ColloquesINRAn.47,Paris253-265.
Lauvergne, JJ., C.Renieri&A.Audiot,1987. Estimatingerosionof phenotypic variationin
aFrench goatpopulation.J.Hered.78:307-314.
Matassino,D., JJ. Lauvergne,CarloRenieri,L. Ramunno,N. Montemurro, R. Rubino, F.
Valfre &E. Cosentino,1984.Ricerchepreliminari sulprofilo genetico visibile di alcune
popolazioni caprineautoctone allevatein treregionidell'ItaliaMeridionale.Prod.Anim.,
3:71-82.
Millar, P., 1986.Locifor coatcolourof sheePandgoats.Tec&DocLavoisier,Paris.
MunsellSoilColorCharts,1975. Kollmorgen Corp.,Baltimore,Maryland.
Renieri,C, 1980.Biologiedelacouleurdesmammifères. Ethnozootechnie45:11-22.
Renieri,C,R.Rubino,D.LaTessa,F. Muscillo, G. Sarrica&G. Zarriello,1986.Profils
génétiquesvisibles delachèvredu Suddel'Italie.ColloquesINRAn.47,Paris.
Sponenberg, P., S.Ito,K.Wakamatsu & LA. Eng.Pigmenttypesin sheep,goatsand
Harmes.PIgm.Coll.Res. 1:414-418.
174
Carpet wool,production and requirements
RA. Guirgis
DesertResearch Centre,Matareya, Cairo, Egypt
Summary
Indigenous breeds of sheepin the Mediterranean basin and MiddleEast vary in theirfleece
type,where somehighqualitycarpetwoolisproduced.
In carpet wool breeds,increasingfleeceweight should be themain selection target, with
improvementofbulkandwhitenessasthenextmoreimportant.Kempfibres areobjectionable
and shouldbeeliminated. Thebirthcoat of lambs,atan ageofonemonth,might serveasan
aidforearly selectionofadultfleecetype.
Aregional plan for improvement of carpet wool would include the storage of potential
breeds in reservoir flocks. Carpet wool stud ram flocks would be established and selection
would be within and amongst breeds. Combination of local genetic resources of potential
breeds (Awassi,Karaman,Karakul,Kurdi)mightcontributetowardsincreasingproductivity,
whileretaining adaptability.
Anintegratedmarketing system,composedofharvesting,clippreparation andpackaging,
isrecommended.Itissuggestedtoestablishacarpetwoolmarketingorganizationonaregional
basis,thatwouldmarketwoolonbehalfofproducersandmaintainliasionwithallprocessors.
Salebysampleofcarpetwoolwouldbebasedonacertified testandvisualappraisalofagrap
sample.Marketing would be assisted through theintroduction of objective measurement as
wellasreservepriceshemebytheorganization.
Keywords: fleece weight, kemp, birthcoat, carpet wool marketing organization, objective
measurments, salebysample.
Introduction
Sheepandgoatraisingforms animportanteconomicactivityintheMediterrneanbasin.In24
countriesof theMediterranean basin andMiddleEast,thetotalaveragegreasyfleece weight
of 1.594 kgproduced was very lowin comparison with theworld total average of 2.712kg
and those of 5.708 kg and 5.531 kg in Australia and New Zealand, respectively (F.A.O.
Yearbook, 1990).Thiswouldinviteefforts toimprovewoolproductivity oftheseindigenous
breeds.Theareaunderstudyproducesomehighqualitycarpetwoolwhichisinhighdemand
ontheworldmarket.Itistherefore thatthisworkispresentedtooutlineinformation required
forimproving andpromoting carpetwoolintheregionunderstudy.
Carpetwool
Carpetwoolbreeds havearelatively lowsecondary toprimaryfollicle (S/P)ratioandahigh
ratioofprimary tosecondaryfollicle diameter.
Carpetproductionisoneofthemostimportantendusesofwoolandmanufacturers usually
spin blends of different types of wool, in a ratio depending on availability, characteristics
requiredinthecompletedcarpet andprice.Inthecarpetwoolblend,threecategoriesofwool
areused:
175
1. Speciality carpetwool;usuallyhighlymedullated andfrequently verybulky.
2. Basicorgeneralpurposewool;ofgoodcolour,strengthandspinnabilityascoarsecrossbred
fleeces.
3. Filler wools; cheap types that are usually short, tender and areof ten pigmented such as
crutchings,pieces,belliesandpooroddments.
In carpet wools fibre length is much moreimportant tothemanufacturer than that of mean
fibre diameter. Medullation in carpet wool blends ismorefavourable inwoollen processing
than that of the semi-worsted. Wickham (1978) associated medullation in speciality carpet
wools withresilience that allowsrecovery of thepilefollowing treading.Resilience andthe
ability towithstand hardweararethetwospecialrequirments for carpet wool.Bulkisassociatedwithresilienceandgivesbettercovertothecarpetandwithhelicalcrimpandmedullation.
Marketingsystem
Itisrecommended touse anintegrated marketing system composed of harvesting, clippreparation andpackaging.Harvesting woulduseanefficient wayof shearinginwhich mobile
electricshearingmachines areused.
Todevelopefficient woolclippreparation,onehastoconsidertheimportantcharacteristics,
their sources of variability and the ability of growers, classers and buyers to influence this
variability. Work on clip preparation emphasies therole of raw wool characteristics onprocessing.
Itisnecessary toestsablish 'acarpetwoolorganization',onaregionalbasis,intheMediterranean basin and Middle East. The organization should beindependent and aware of the
international atmosphere.Itwouldmarketwoolon behalf of producers andmaintain liasion
withallprocessors.Itwouldinfromproducers,processorsandthecommunityofdevelopments
inthecarpetwoolindustry.Itwouldhavearesponsibility tosellandsetdownprinciples for
growth, andpreparation andhavepower overthefibre once itmovedfrom thefarm intoits
orbit. Itwouldorganizeextension tocarpet woolproducers on clippreparation.It isrecommendedtoproduceafewstandardgradeswhichcouldbereliablystandardised.Guirgis(1973)
devised a simple grading systemfor coarse woolBarki,composed of three grades,basedon
staple length and kemp content, and that produced lines different in length, diameter, their
variability andfibre typepercentages.
Themajortaskaheadisthatofdevelopinganintegratedtotalspecification systemthatfully
exploits all available information to reduce marketing costs and simultaneously provide a
productwhoseperformanceishighlypredictable.Theintroductionofobjectivemeasurements
intogreasywoolmarketingandtheintroduction ofareservepriceschemeataboutthesame
timerepresent twoofthemost significant changesinwoolmarketing.
Trading would be carried out on the basis of specification of characteristics of raw wool
thataredirectlyrelatedtoitsprocessingpotential.WorkinNewZealand(Edmunds,1990)led
totheestablishmentofsixessentialparametersforspecifying ablendformakingasatisfactory
carpet yarn meeting specific processing performance criteria atoptimumraw material cost.
Parameters are,meanfibrediameter,colour,length-aftercarding, bulk,vegetablematterbase,
andmedullation content.
Intheareaunderstudy,where woolis soldonagreasybasis,clean yieldwouldbeadded
to a test certificate, performed by an independent authority, and visual appraisal of a grab
sample.Parametersrequiredforspecifyingcarpetwoolwouldbe"meanfibrediameter,colour,
% clean yield, staple length, staple strength, bulk, vegetable matter base and medullation
content".
176
Potentialbreeds
Potentialbreedsoftheregioncouldbeusedtoimproveproductivityofthelocalstock(Guirgis,
1988).Theestablishmentofbreedingstudflockswouldproducesuperiorsires,fordistribution
toflock owners.Thestorageofpotentialbreeds(Awassi,Karaman,Karakul,Kurdi,Baluchi,
Churra)inreservoirflocksonaregionalbasisundertheauspicesofsomeregionalorganization
issuggested.Thiswouldbefinancially supportedbymembercountries,from certainpercetagesontheirsaleofcarpetwool,andthesireswouldbemadeavailableforbreedingpurposes
throughouttheregion.Wellorganizedresearchprogrammescoordinatedthroughregional,and
internationalorganizations,wouldexpandthecontributionofpotentialbreedsoftheMediterraneanbasinandMiddleEastonanintra-regionalbasis.Turner(1987)postulateda20percent
increaseinclean woolweightin 10years,through selection.
Breedingobjectivestoimporvecarpetwool
Incarpetwoolbreeds,Rossetal.(1980)reported thatincreasing fleece weight shouldbethe
main selection target, with improvement of bulk and whiteness,asthe nextmore important.
Kemp should be largely eliminated and the proportion of very heavily medullated fibres
reduced. However, formation of breeding schemes requires knowledge of the estimates of
economicimportanceandgeneticparametersofmanycarpetwooltraits.InNewZealand,the
mainselectiontraitsinthebreedingofthespecialitycarpetwoolDrysdalebreedarethenumber
oflambsborn (orreared),fleece weightandfleecegrade.
Guirgis (1988) drewattention totheroleoffleece inthermoregulation andrecommended
selectionforincreasedwoolproductionbasedongreasyfleeceweightthroughincreasedfibre
length.Thiswouldbefavourable tothatbasedonincreasedfleecedensity,thelatterwouldbe
undesirableinhothumidclimates asitwouldencourage thefaulty canaryyellowing.Heritabilities andrepeatabilities offibre lengthrangefrom mediumtohigh.
Acharya(1986)recommended theselectionfor first sixmonthlygreasyfleece weightand
againstmedullation percentage in extremely hairy breeds.This would improve greasy wool
production and quality towards better carpet wool. The organization of sheep breeders into
cooperativeswhichwouldundertakegeneticimprovementprogrammes,improvefeedresources,providehealthcareandmarketingexpertisemaybeaneffective systemforraisingproductivity,Acharyaadded.
Kempsareshort,heavilymedullated shedfibres andRoss(1978)suggested that4percent
byweightis themaximum that shouldbepresent.However, Guirgis andGalal(1972) found
thatkempshowedhighly significant positivecorrelations withbirth andweaningweights,as
indicating theanimalvigour,andwasnegativelycorrelatedwithfleece weight.Guirgisetal.
(1982)reportedahighheritabilityestimateofkempscore,of0.43,inBarkicoarsewoolbreed.
Thus,thepossibilityofgeneticimprovement,throughselectionagainstkemp,couldbeeasily
obtained,butonehastoconsideritspositivecorrelation withbodyweights.
Requirements
Ross (1978) summarized specifications required bytheindustry andproducers,tomaximise
financialreturns.Tothecarpetmill:staplelengthofabout 10cm;fibrediameter,highpreferably36|J.mormore;medullation,asmedullatedaspossible,providedfibrestrengthandelasticity are satisfactory; nokemps;reasonably sound;high spinnability; high settability; helical
crimpashighaspossibleforbulkandresilience;freefromvegetablematterandothercontaminants;maximumfleeceopenness,withnocotts.Tothefarmer,highfleeceweight,highfertility
ofthesheepandconsistentacceptablepricepremium.
177
An important requirement for almost all stylesof carpet wouldbe highyarn bulk (covering
power),leadingtogoodapparentvalueinthecarpet,thatgivesthefeelingasifthereisplenty
of woolinthepile.
InceandRyder (1984)found a goodcorrelation between wool bulk and yarn set figures.
Thebulkyorcrimpywools,whichproducedthebetter-setyarns,inturnproducedcarpetswith
a preferred appearance. Settability (fixation of yarn twist) affects the important aspect of
appearanceretention whichisconsideredasignificant determinantof goodappearance.
Ross and Carnaby (1978) looked atthe behaviour of arange of carpet woolfibres when
spunintoawoollen carpet yarn andreportedadistincteffect offibre typeanddiameter.The
finecomponentsoftheWelshMountainfleeceweremuchclosertothecentreoftheyarnthan
the medullated fibres and those again than the kemps. These findings were significant in
relationtotheappearanceandhandleoftheyarn;kempsormedullatedfibresintheblendend
upontheoutsideoftheyarn andgive adistincthairyappearance andaharshhandle.
Inastudyof thecortical structureofcoarsewoolBarki (BB),Merino(MM)andsomeof
theircrosses(3/8M,1/2M, 5/8M),Guirgis(unpublished)foundthatpercentagesoffibreswith
radialcorticaldisposition comprised 34-35% oftotalfibres inBB,3/8M, 1/2M afterwhich a
drop to20and 3% occurredin 5/8M andMM,respectively. Radialfibres werecoarserthan
thosewithbilateral structure.Diameterof bilateralfibres corresponded to70,63,71, 68and
94%of thatofradialfibres inBB,3/8M, 1/2 M,5/8 MandMM,respectively.Therefore the
ortho-para-cortical distribution might beexpected to affect yarn setting,where hairy fibres,
mostlyradial,wouldbemostlydistributedontheoutsideoftheyarnandthatfinefibres,mostly
bilateral,wouldbeclosetothecentreoftheyarn.Whenforming therightcarpetwoolblend,
one would consider the cortical structure differentiation and distribution of the component
wooltypes.
Early selection
Lambsborninadverseconditions,mountainsanddeserts,asmostof thebreedsunderstudy,
require ahairy birthcoat for survival,especially during their earlypost-natal life. Usually in
coarse wool breeds, hairy birthcoats develop into kempy adult fleeces; kemp fibres are
objectionable tothecarpetindustry.Kempcontentshowedahighheritabilityof0.43incoarse
woolBarki (Guirgisetal., 1982)andcouldbeeasily bredout. Thebirthcoatof lambs,atan
age of 4 weeks, might serve as an aid for early selection, against kemp in the adult fleece
(Guirgisetal., 1979a,b)andforsomecarpetwoolcharacteristics(Guirgis,1979),inpotential
breeds.
Recommendationsfor research
Forlocalcarpetwools,itisrequiredtoconductworkon:
1. Spinning trials toevaluatedifferent blendsof localcarpetwoolswithimported speciality
carpet wools,inaneffert toachievetheoptimumblendfor different typesofcarpets.
2. Commercialobjective tests for:
a. Medullation, theestimateof amedullation index (Guirgis, 1978)toquantify medullation, as it varies from kemp to medullated fibres with different volumes of medulla
whethercontinuous orinterrupted.Theimportant itemiscortex tomedullaratio.Very
coarsefibres with littlefibre cortexinthecross section can haveadverseeffects when
fibre strengthandelasticity arerequired.
b. Kemp,ascoreof4grades(0,nokempto3,excessive)wouldbeusefultoevaluatekemp.
Kemp shouldbekeptataverylowlevel.
c. Bulkcharacteristics (resistancetocompression).
3. Estimateofgeneticparametersfordifferent characteristicsasmedullation,bulk,kempand
variability offibre diameter.
178
4. Developmentofsuitableselectioncriteriaforimprovingimportantindigenouscarpetwool.
Heritabilityestimatesofbirthcoatandthatofsurvivalrate.Effectofselectionforandagainst
hairybirthcoatsongrowthrate,fleece characteristics andsurvivalrate.
5. Processing trialstoevaluatetheroleof thedifferent characteristics incarpet performance
asmedullation,fibrediameteranddistribution,crimp,cortex/medullaratioandortho/paracorticaldistributioninthecarpetwoolblend.
6. Studiesforearlyidentification, atthebirthcoatlevel,ofadultfleececharacteristcsrequired
inthecarpetindustry.
7. Small scale industries (carpets andrugs) usinglocalmaterial (woolandnatural dye stuff
from localplants)forruraldevelopment.
References
Acharya,R.M., 1986.Smallruminantproductioninaridand semi-aridAsia.In:SmallRuminantProduction intheDeveloping Countries,FAO,AnimalProduction andHealth,Paper
58:148-169.
Edmunds,A.R., 1990. AreviewofNewZealandR&Donrawwoolspecification formarketing. Proceedings of the 8th International WoolTextile Research Conference, WRONZ,
7-14 February,2,pp 18-27.
F.A.0.1990. Yearbook,Production,Rome,vol. 43.
Guirgis,R.A.&E.S.E.Galal, 1972.Theassociationbetweenkempandsomevigourandwool
characteristicsinBarkiandMerinoBarkicross.JournalofAgriculturalScience,Cambridge
78:345-349.
Guirgis,R.A.,1973. StaplelengthandkempasabasisofgradingBarkiwool.AlexandriaJournalofAgriculturalResearch21:235-240.
Guirgis,RA., 1978.Astudyofsomewooltraitsintwocoarsewoolbreedsandtheirreciprocal
crosses.JournalofAgriculturalScience,Cambridge90:495-501.
Guirgis,R.A.,1979. Birthcoat fibre typearraysoflambsandsomeadultfleece traits.Journal
ofAgricultural Science,Cambridge93:195-201.
Guirgis,RA., H.M.H.Elgabbas,E.S.E. Galal&K.E.Ghoneim, 1979a. Birthcoat-adultfleece
relationship: a study of kemp succession in a coarse wool breed of sheep. Journal of
Agricultural Science,Cambridge92:427-436.
Guirgis,R.A.,N.T.Kazzal&AM. Zaghloul,1979b.Thestudyofkempsuccessionintheadult
fleeceoftwocoarse-woolbreedsofsheepinrelationtothebirthcoat.JournalofAgricultural
Science,Cambridge93:531-540.
Guirgis,RA., EA. Aflfi&E.S.E.Galal, 1982.Estimatesofgeneticandphenotypicparameters
of some weightand fleece traits in acoarse-wool breedof sheep.Journal of Agricultural
Science,Cambridge99:277-285.
Guirgis, RA., 1988.Potential sheepandgoat breedsintheNearEast.In:A.M.AboulNaga
(Editor),SmallRuminantsResearchAndDevelopmentInTheNearEast,IDRC,Proceedingsof aworkshop,Cairo,Egypt,November,pp54-66.
Ince,J. &ML. Ryder, 1984.Theevaluationofcarpetsmadefromexperimentalwools.Journal
ofTextileInstitute, 1:47-59.
Ross,DA. 1978.Reviewofinformation ontheimportanceofwoolcharactersticsinrelation
toprocessing andproducts. In:L.S.Story (Editor),CarpetWools— Carpet Manufacture
ProceedingsWRONZ, 10-11April,pp119-125.
Ross,D.A.& GA. Carnaby, 1978.Carpetwoolsandcarpets,asummaryofWRONZresearch.
In:L.S.Story(Editor),CarpetWools—CarpetManufacture ProceedingsWRONZ, 10-11
April,pp41-52.
179
"•
Ross,DA., GA. Wickham&KB. Elliott, 1980. Breedingobjectivestoimprovewoolusedin
carpets.In:R.Barton andW.Smith (Editors),Proceedings of the 1stWorldCongressOn
SheepAndBeef CattleBreeding,Palmerston North,NewZealand,pp37-45.
Turner,H.N. 1987.Someaspectsof sheepbreedinginthetropics.In:SmallRuminantsinthe
NearEast.F.A.O.,AnimalProductionAndHealth,Paper55:3-9.
Wickham,GA. 1978.Development of breeds for carpet wool production in New Zealand.
WorldReviewofAnimalProduction, 14:33-40.
180
Investigations on the suitability ofwool,for textile product and
carpets, obtained from improved sheep in Western T\irkey
N.Erdem*,M.Kaymakçi** andR.Sönmez***
* FacultyofEngineering, UniversityofEge, Izmir, Turkey
** FacultyofAgriculture, UniversityofEge, Izmir, Turkey
*** ChamberofAgriculturalEngineers,Izmir, Turkey
Abstract
Bythisstudy,thesuitabilityofwoolsofnewlydevelopedsheeptypeslikeTahirova,Acipayam
and Sönmezfor textileproducts andcarpetshavebeen investigated.
Accordingtotheobtainedresults;Tahirovawoolissuitableforwoollenandsemiwortsted,
Acipayam and Sönmez wools aresuitablefor standardcarpetproduction.On theotherhand
thewools of thesetypes can beused for handknittedyarnproduction by mixing themwith
other fibres.
Keywords:Tahirova,AcipayamandSönmez,sheeptypes,woolcharacteristics.
Introduction
InWesternTurkeythepastureandmeadowareashavebeendecliningsotheneedforimproved
sheeptypes andadvancedmanagementtechniquesisgrowing.
Sheep improvement studies have been carried out in Western Anatolia by theFaculty of
Agriculture,DepartmentofAnimalScience,UniversityofEge.Themainnewsheeptypesof
theseareTahirova,SönmezandAcipayam.TahirovatypewasproducedbycrossingKivircik
eweswithEastFriesianramsinTahirovaStateFarmwhichislocatedintheSouth Marmara.
Sönmeztypewasimproved bycrossing SakizxTahirovabreedsintheexperimental farmof
theUniversity ofEge whichislocatedinEgeregion.
Acipayam type wasimproved bycrossing East Friesian x AwassixDagliçin Acipayam
StateFarmwhich islocated ininnerpartsofEge (Sönmezetal., 1981;Sönmez etal.,1987;
Kaymakçietal., 1989).Althoughthestudiesweredoneonmeat,milkandothersyieldsofthe
newtypes,thereisnoresearch onthecharacteristicsof wool.Bythis study,thesuitabilityof
the wools of these newly developed sheep types for textile products and carpets have been
investigated. Thus,thewoolcharacteristics ofthesetypesare defined.
Materialandmethods
The materials of the study are wool samples of Tahirova, Sönmez and Acipayam types.
Maximum30samplesofwoolweretakenfrom everytype.Thephysicalcharacteristics have
been analyzed such asfineness (micron), length (cm),breaking strength (g) and elongation
(%).Themeasurementoffinenesshavebeenmadebytheshortsectionmethodwithlanametre.
Inordertodeterminefiberdiameterwemeasured300fibresforeachsample.Themeasurement
of stablelength andreallengthhavebeenmadebytwopincersmethod.Forthemeasurement
100fibresfromeachsamplehavebeenchosen.Themeasurementofthebreakingstrengthand
elongation havebeen made byFafegraph Strength TestingGear.Wetested 25fibres for one
sampletodetermine strength andelongation (Harmancioglu, 1974;Sönmez, 1985).
181
'T'
Resultsanddiscussion
Fineness
ThefiberdiametervaluesofTahirova,AcipayamandSönmezsheeptypesaregiveninTable
1.As shown in Table 1,the averagefiberdiameter of Tahirova is 34.37+0.50 micron. And
fineness changes between 28.40 micron and 42.00 micron. Similar results are reported by
Erdem (1990).Thevariation coefficient offiberdiametervalues of Tahirovais8.09%.This
result showsusthat thefinenessofTahirovawoolisuniform. Theaveragefiberdiameterof
Acipayam is 37.63±0.54 micron and it changes between 43.54 micron and 32.20 micron.
AccordingtotheresultsthefinenessofAcipayamwoolisinthesamegroupwithDagliçsheep
breedwhichgivesstandardcarpetwool.Inourresearchitisdeterminedthattheaveragefiber
diameterforSönmezwoolis39.08±1.13micronandchangesbetween50.36micronand34.18
Table1. ThefiberdiametervaluesofnewlyimprovedsheeptypesinWesternTurkey(micron).
Types
N
Tahirova
Acipayam
Sönmez
30
30
15
X±Sx
34.37 ±0.50
37.63+0.54
39.08 ±1.13
S
2.78
2.69
4.37
Max.
Min.
42.00
43.54
50.36
V%
28.40
32.22
34.18
8.09
7.87
11.18
Table2. Theaveragelengthvalues(stapleandreal)ofnewlyimprovedsheeptypesinWestern
Turkey (cm).
Types
N Characteristics
Tahirova
30 Staple
Real
30 Staple
Real
15 Staple
Acipayam
Sönmez
X+Sx
11.18±0.39
16.76+0.35
18.70±0.91
19.92±0.56
9.89±0.59
S
2.18
1.92
4.96
3.09
2.29
Max.
Min.
15.88
21.02
32.20
27.54
14.43
7.06
12.83
6.38
13.68
6.73
V%
19.50
11.46
26.52
15.51
23.16
Table3. The mean values of breaking strength(B.S.)and elongation(E.) (%)for newly
improvedsheeptypesinWesternTurkey.
Types
N Characterristics
Tahirova
30 B.S.
E.(%)
30 B.S.
E.(%)
15 B.S.
E.(%)
Acipayam
Sönmez
182
X±Sx
25.36±0.77
43.59±0.37
30.74±0.94
45.88±0.57
21.14± 1.65
42.21±1.41
S
Max.
Min.
V%
4.29
2.03
5.16
3.12
6.40
5.46
37.50
47.60
40.17
50.77
33.15
48.60
20.40
38.90
19.29
39.20
13.68
28.70
16.92
4.66
16.79
6.80
30.27
12.94
micron.Thevariationcoefficients ofAcipayamandSönmez(7.87%,11.18%)donotexceed
thelimitwhichisinformedforcarpetwool.ButinfactAcipayamandSönmezwoolsgenerally
have fine fibres, they also contain some medullated fibre, heterotype fibres and few kemp
fibres.
Length
Theaveragelengthvalues(stapleandreal)ofnewlyimprovedsheeptypesinWesternTurkey
aregiveninTable2.AsshowninTable2thestaplelengthofTahirovawoolchangesbetween
7.06 cm and 15.88 cm and the average is 11.18+0.39 cm. Also thereal length of Tahirova
changes between 12.83cm. and21.02cm. and the average is 16.76+0.35 cm.Thevariation
coefficients of stapleandreallengths are 19.50%and 11.46%,respectively.
InourstudyitisdeterminedthattheaveragestaplelengthforAcipayamis18.70+0.91 cm.,
real length is 19.92±0.56 cm. and thevariation coefficients of these values are 26.52%and
15.51%,respectively.The staple length of Sönmez woolranges between 6.73-14.43 cm.(V.
23.16%) andthemean staplelengthis9.89±0.59 cm.
Breakingstrengthandelongation(%)
The mean values of breaking strength and elongation for Tahirova, Acipayam and Sönmez
typesare showninTable 3.Ascan beseeninTable3,breaking strength andelongation (%)
of Tahirova wool are25.36±0.77 g.and43.59%respectively, ahinkaya (1957)*uggests that
breaking strength is 9.90±0.99 g. and elongation (%) is46.20+.2.76 %in the wool which is
obtained from Kivircik herd. When compared with Kivircik wool breaking strength of
Tahirova is extremely high, but elongation (%) is low.The breaking strength of Acipayam
woolis 30.74±0.94 g.andelongation (%) is45.88+0.57%.InSönmez woolthesevalues are
determined as 21.14±1.65 g. and 43.21+1.41%,respectively. The mean values of breaking
strength for Acipayam and Sönmez wool which are determined in our study are extremely
neartoDagliçwool (Utkanlaretal., 1965).
Conclusions
Theresults which areobtainedinourstudycan besummarized asfollows;
1. Tahirova wool which wasproduced bycrossing EastFriesian rams with Kivircik ewesis
inthe samequality ofKivircik wool,itisextremely uniform thepointofviewof fineness
and length and because of these characteristics Tahirova wool is suitablefor woolen and
semiwortstedproduction likeinKivircikwool.Alsoitdoesnotcontain medullated fibres.
2. The staple lengths of Acipayam and Sönmez wools exceed the limit of staple length of
minimum 10cm.which isdeclared for carpet industry and they arein the samegroupof
Dagliçwoolvalues.Thevariationcoefficients ofstaplelengthexceedthelimitof20%very
littlewhich isdesiredfor staplelength of goodqualitycarpetwool.
3. The mean values of fiber diameter for Acipayam and Sönmez are in the average limits
which is desired for the ideal carpet wools. The variation coefficients do not exceed the
maximum limitof 15%whichisdeclaredfor carpet industry.
4. AlsoTahirova,AcipayamandSönmezwoolscanbeusedforhandknittedyarnproduction
bymixingthemwithother fibres.
183
References
Erdem, N., 1990.Astudy onTahirovaandit'swoolcharacteristics:Improvedanewly sheep
typeinEgeRegion.V. Textile Simp.,TextileandMachinary, 11,90,32-35.
Harmancioglu, M., 1974. Fibertechnology,FacultyofAgriculture,University ofEgeNum.,
224.
Kaymakçi,M.,L.Türkmut.,R.Sönmez&R.Lischka, 1989.Investigationontheimprovement
of milk and meat yields inWestern Turkey. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry,
13(2):307-316.
Sönmez,R., 1985. Sheep production and wool. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ege,
Num.,108.
Sönmez,R.,M.Kaymakçi,L.Türkmut&E.Kizilay, 1981.Investigationsonthetypefixingof
Tahirova milk sheep (The Physiological and morphological characteristics of the Basic
GeneticMaterial).TurkishJournalofVeterinary andAnimalSciences, 5:191-196.
Sönmez,R.,M.Kaymakçi,L.Türkmut, C.Sarican andE. Demirören, 1987. ThePossibilities
ofdevelopingdamandsirelinesforlambproduction.TheScientificandTechnicalResearch
CouncilofTurkey,Report.
Shinkaya, R., 1957. Body measurements and wool characteristics of pure Kivircik and
Merino-KivircikcrossesraisedinBursa-Balikesir-ÇanakkaleRegionofTurkey.Facultyof
Agriculture,UniversityofAnkara,Num.,112.
Utkanlar, N., F. Imeryüz,S. Müftüoglu&K. Öznacar, 1965.Studies on some characters of
Dagliçwool.LalahanZoot.Arast.Enst.Derg.,5(3-4), 70-88.
184
Etude bibliographique concernant lepoilet la peau du
dromadaire
J.L. Tisserand
Laboratoire associéderechercheszootechniquesINRA-ENSSAA26,Bd.Dr.Petitjean,
21000Dijon,France
Summary
Thereisbutlittleinformation ondromedaries'woolproductioninbibliographies.Moststudies
dealwiththebactriancamelandofcourseSouthAmericancamelids,theAlpacainparticular.
Thiscertainlyresultsfrom twomaincauses:
• thecommercialvalueofcamel woolis,exceptinrarecases,neglectedbyproducers,
• the hot and arid climate in which dromedaries live does not favour wool production as
opposed tobactriancamelswhoarewelladaptedtocoldweather.
Most authors report that the dromedary provides 0.5 to 1kg of wool per year whereas the
bactrian camel'sproduction canbeashighas3to4kgperanimalandperyear.
Clipped whentwoyearsold thedromedary provides 2to3kgof wool whereas around7
or8itscoatmayweigh5or6kg.Yet,thequalityofthewooldiminisheswhentheanimalgets
older,asmuch asfaraswoolpercentageisconcerned, asconcerningitsfineness: 85%ofthe
coatof aoneyearold animalismadeupofveryfinewoolwith adiameterof 16-18m.The
qualityofthewoolalsodependsonthesexoftheanimal.Whereasmaleproductionishigher
by30%,afemale's wool isfiner. Moreover, thequality of the wool depends on thepartsof
thebodyandthefinest woolistobefound attheleveloftheanimal'sshoulder.Someauthors
observearelationshipbetweentheanimal'sdietandtheproduction anddensityofthewool.
Thevariation factor which seemsthemostimportantisbreedbutnosystematic studyhas
beenmadeonthatpoint.
Dromedary'shairisparticularlyinsulating,iseasilywovenandistraditionallyusedtocover
family needs to make tents,rugs andclothes.Itis notusually sold except undertheform of
craft products.Thehidegenerally isofpoor quality andusedtoproduce harnessesorwhips
and,insomecases,sandals locally.
Toconclude,thewoolandtoalesserextentthehideofdromedaries arenotusedasmuch
astheyshouldbeatthemomentandstudiesshouldbeconductedinordertoenhancethevalues
oftheseproducts which arefar from beingnegligible.
Introduction
Laproductiondepoildedromadairereste,àcejour,malconnue.Bienquelesrécentesbibliographies(T.Wilsonetal., 1990;G.Saint-Martinetal., 1990)fassentétatd'unecinquan-taine
deréférences surlepoildedromadaire,unexamenplusapprofondi montreque,très souvent,
elles concernent soitune mention despoils àl'occasion d'uneprésentation de l'élevage camélindansunerégionouunpays(exemple:BenAïssa,1989),soitdesobservationsmanquant
parfois deprécisions.CelaexpliquequelarevueduCIPEA(E.Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1981)ne
consacre que moins d'une page sur cent au poil et que Richard (1985) dans son livre bien
documenté surledromadaire n'évoque lepoilqu'en unedemi-page parmiles autreproductions.Cettesituation sembleimputable àdeuxcausesprincipales:
185
- lavaleurmarchandedelalainededromadaireestnégligéeparleséleveurs(Knœss, 1977)
etlacommercialisation neconcernequ'unetrèsfaiblepartdelaproduction àl'exception
del'Inde qui exporte 50 p.100des 360tonnes de poilproduites annuellement (Krishnamurthii, 1970);
—leclimatchaudetaridequicaractériselazonenaturelled'élevagedudromadairenefavorise
paslaproduction depoilscontrairementaucasduchameauquiestadaptéaufroid ouaux
camélidés sud-américains notamment lesalpacas.
Encequiconcernelapeau,touslesauteurss'accordentpoursoulignersaqualitétrèsmoyenne.
Production depoils
Quantité
Ilexistedetrèsgrandesvariationsdansl'estimationdelarécoltedepoilschezledromadaire
commele montre le Tableau 1établipar Richard (1985).En général chez le dromadaire,la
productionannuellevarieente0.5et4kgpartonte,quisefaittraditionnellementauprintemps,
alors queLeupold (1968) signale uneproduction de5 à 12kgpar têtechez lechameau.La
productionestvariableavecl'âge.Elleaugmentechezledromadairejusqu'à7à10ans(Dong
Wai,1980)etdiminueaprès.Chez1'Alpaca,Bustinza(1980)présenteunecourbedelaproductiondelaine,enfonction del'âge(Figure 1).Velazco(1976)signalechezcetteespècel'influencedel'âgedelamèresurlaproduction dujeune (Figure2).
La production des mâles est supérieure d'environ 30% àcelle des femelles. Elle peut, à
l'extrême,êtreledouble (Doncenko, 1956).
L'alimentation etlesconditionsclimatiquespeuventtrèsvraisemblablement influer surla
production depoils,maisnousnedisposonsd'aucuneétude systématique.Ilenestdemême
delaracequiconstituelefacteur leplusimportantdevariation delaproduction delaine.
Tableau 1. Productionsannuelles depoilsdedromadaire (selonRichard, 1985).
Afrique
Soudan
Mauritanie
Tunisie
Algérie
Libye
Asie
Inde
Pakistan
ArabieSaoudite
Syrie
U.R.S.S.
186
'trèsrare'
0.5-1 kg
1-3 kg
3-4kg
3kg (jeunes)
1-2 kg(adultes)
3-4kg
1.5-2 kg (adultes)
0.9-1.35(max.5.4kg)
1kg
1kg
1.5kg
2-3kg
3-4kg
4kg(maies)
2kg (femelles)
Cauvet
Elamin
Diagana
ElFourgi
Burgemeister
Burgemeister
Cauvet
Karametcoll.
1925
1980
1977
1980
1975
1975
1925
1981
Krishnamurthi
Yasin-Wahid
Cauvet
Italconsult
Hirsch
Sakkal
Doncenko
1970
1957
1925
1969
1932
1945
1956
Figure1. Poidsdelatoisondel'alpacaenfonction del'âge.
4.
5
S
7
Aflss dis miras (ans)
Figure2. Effetdel'âgedelamèresurlepoids delatoisondesjeunesalpacas.
Qualité
Lalainededromadaireestréputéedebonnequalité,enparticulieràcausedesafinesse etde
sonfort pouvoir isolant (DongWai, 1980),maiselle neconstitue qu'unepartiedela toison;
lesfibresreprésentant85%dela toison etlalaine70%desfibres.Si laproduction depoils
augmenteavecl'âge, laqualitédecettetoison diminueaecl'âge; elleestsupérieurechezles
femelles parrapport auxmâles (Tableau2).
Chez 1'Alpaca,Bustinza (1980) signalequelafinesse de lalaineévoluede 17micronsà
l'âged'unanà27micronsà6ans.Laqualitédelalainediminueduhautverslebasdel'animal,
etdelatêteàlaqueue,lalainelaplusfinesetrouveauniveaudel'épaule (DongWai,1980).
187
Tableau2. Caractéristiques dupoil dechameau(Dong Wai, 1980)
Mâles
adultes
Pourcentagedelaine
Finesse(micron)
Densitédupoil(parcm2)
76.2
18.3
2730
Femelles
adultes
79.8
14.7
3205
Mâles
castrés
83.6
14.9
3201
Jeunes
88.3
14.9
4522
Après la tonte, il faut prendre des précautions et garder les animaux fraîchement tondus à
l'ombre pour éviter d'éventuelles boursoufflures. Le traitement de la peau avec du pétrole
suivi deuxjours plus tard de boue,retirée 3jours après,permet d'éviter les infestations de
parasites (Nanda, 1957;Singh, 1966).
Utilisationdelalaine
Lalainededromadaireestutiliséepourlaconfection d'unegrandevariétéd'objets :vêtements
enparticulier burnous,tentes,couvertures,sacs(ElAmin, 1980),etpourcequiconcerneles
fibreslonguesdescordages(BenAïssa, 1989).Ilyaaussiuneproductiondetapis.Toutefois,
àpartcesdonnées,laproduction artisanaleestengrandepartieutiliséepourl'usage familiale
deséleveurs.
Lapeau
Del'avisdetouslesauteurs,lapeaudedromadaire,beaucoupplusépaissequecelledesbovins,
(BenAïssa, 1989)estdequalitémédiocre (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1980),elleestutiliséelocalementpourconfectionner despiècesd'harnachement etdessandales (Diallo, 1989).
Conclusion
Cette brève revue montre que les éleveurs accordent peu deprix auxpoils et à lapeau des
dromadaires.Sansallerjusqu'àpréconiserunesélection surlaqualitédelalaineetla finesse
de lapeau, il serait peut être intéressant depromouvoir uneétudepour avoir une meilleure
connaissancedescaractéristiques dupoiletdelapeaudesdifférentes racesdedromadaireet
desfacteurs susceptiblesdelesaméliorer.Ilfaudrait peutêtremettreenoeuvredes structures
permettant de valoriser mieux cesproductions secondaires, certes,mais loin d'êtrenégligeableschezledromadaire.
Bibliographie
Ben Aïssa, 1989. Le dromadaire en Algérie. Options Méditerranéennes. Série Séminaire,
2:19-28.
Burgemeister,R., 1975.ElevagedechameauxenAfrique duNord.G.T.Z.,Eschborn,no. 21,
86p.
Bustinza,V.C., 1980.SouthAmericancamelids.InLES.,Camel.LES.,Stockholm,73-108.
Cauvet (CDT), 1925.Le chameau. Tome I. Anatomie, physiologie, race, extérieur, vie et
moeurs,élevage,alimentation,maladies,rôleéconomique,J.B.Baillièreetfils,Paris,784
P188
Diagana,D., 1977.Contribution àl'étude del'élevagedu dromadaire enMauritanie.Thèse
Doct.Vét.,EcoleInter-états Sei.Méd.Vét.,Dakar, 1976,no. 1, 148p.
Diallo,D.C.,1989.L'élevagedudromadaireenMauritanie.OptionsMéditerranéennes.Série
séminaire,2:29-32.
Doncenko,V.V., 1956.Theone-humpedcamelinTurmenistanandthemethodsforimproving
thebreed.Trad.Inst.Zivotn.Adak.NaukTuSSR1:292-308.
Dong-Wai, 1980. Chinesecamelsandtheirproductivities.InI.F.S.,Camel.I.F.S.,Stockholm,
55-72.
ElAmin,F.M., 1980. ThedromedarycameloftheSudan.InI.F.S.,Camels.I.F.S.,Stockholm,
35-53.
Karam,H.A. &Al-Ansari,M„1981.PreliminarystudyoncamelproductionintheYamahiriya.
Secretariate of agricultural reclamation and land development. Directorate general for
research andagriculturaleducation.AnimalProd.Res.Unit.,Libye,W/P4020.
Knoess, K.H., 1977. Le chameau producteur de viande et de lait. Revue Mondiale de
Zootechnie 22:39-44.
Krishnamurthii, SA., 1970.The wealth of India. Adictionary of Indian raw materials and
industrial products. Public. Informat. Directorate, C.S.I.R., New Delhi, 1970, vol. VI,
suppl.,147-153.
Leupold, J., 1968.Le chameau, important animal domestique des pays subtropicaux. Cah.
Bleus Vét., 15:1-6.
Mukasa-Mugerwa,E., 1981. The camel (Camelus dromedarius). A bibliographical revue.
ILCAmonograph,AddisAbbeba, 147p.
,
Nanda,P.N.,1957.Camelsantheirmanagement.Delhi,ICAR(IndianCouncilofAgricultural
Research), 1963,17p.
Richard,D., 1985. Ledromadaireet sonélevage.Etudesetsynthèsede1T.E.M.V.T., 162p.
Sakkal,FBZ., 1945.Lechameau,animaldeboucherie.ThèseDoct.Vét.,E.N.VAlfort,Paris,
nl5,155p.
Saint-Martin, G.,Nitcheman,M.F.,Richard, D. & Richard, MA., 1990.Bibliographie surle
dromadaireetlechameau.Etudesetsynthèsede1T.E.M.VT.,617p.
Singh,H.,1966.Camelcare.IntensiveAgric. 9-12.
Velazco,J., 1976.In:Bustinza,V.C.Wilson,T.,Araya,A.andMelaku,A.,1990.Theonehumpedcamel.InAnalytical andAnnotated bibliograUNSO.TechnicalPublication, 301p.
Yasin,S.A. & Wahid, A., 1957. Pakistan camels, a preliminary survey. Agric. Pakistan,
8:289-297.
189
Fleececharacteristics ofMoroccan breedsofsheep
M.Bourfia,A.Abdelali, M.S.Laidouni, andMM. ElHmamsi
HassanIIAgronomyandVeterinaryMedicineInstitute,POB6202,Rabat,Morocco
Summary
Thestudyisbasedon2873fleecescollectedfromewesofsixMoroccanbreedsofsheep.The
BeniAhsenbreedhadtheheaviestfleece (2.64kg)andtheD'Man breed,thelightest fleece
(0.98kg).ThecoarsestwoolwasthatofTimahditbreedwithaspinningcountof48'sandan
averagefiberdiameterof31.6micron,whiletheotherbreedshadafiberdiameterontheorder
of 26micron.TheBeniGuil,Sardi,andBoujaad breedshadtheleastkempyfleeces andthe
D'Man breedhad themostkempyfleeces.Thepercentage ofmedullated fibers ranged from
1.3 (Beni Guil) to4.8 (Boujaad). TheTimahdit breed had the largest staple length (9.6cm)
and theBoujaad breed, the smallest staple length (6.1cm).Fleece yieldranged from62.5%
(Timahdit) to 57.3% (Beni Ahsen). This variation between breeds offers a wide range of
possibilities forfleece utilization inMorocco.
Introduction
ThevarioussheepbreedsinMoroccofallintothecategoryof 'wooledthin-tailedsheep';they
are mainly dual-purpose animals with meat being the most essential product, and wool a
secondary product. Asurvey done by theMinistry of Agriculture indicated that 39%of the
woolproduced inMoroccoisusedincottageindustries,makingblankets,rugs,andclothing
such asthecommonly useddjellaba. The 61% that goesintocommercial channels is soldto
thetextileindustry(22%),andtowholesalers(39%);thelastpartwasmainlyusedformattress
andpillow stuffing.
Itis interesting to study wool traits of Moroccan breeds of sheepin view of the fact that
littleisknown of thewoolcharacteristics of thesebreeds andthatwoolisimportant forMoroccancarpets,which areinfairly highdemandbothinnationalandininternationalmarkets.
Materialandmethods
Thepresentstudyisbasedon2873fleecescollectedfromewesofMoroccanbreedsofsheep
at twoexperiment stations (the Gharb with 5breeds and 1913fleeces, and theTadlawith2
breeds and 843fleeces), andfrom someflocks having abreed (theBoujaad) thatwasraised
atneither station.Thebreeddistribution of thefleeces was339,192, 877,363,985, and117
forTimahdit,BeniAhsen,D'Man,BeniGuil,Sardi,andBoujaad,respectively.Theshearing
timerangedfrom JunetoJuly.
Seventraitswerestudied:(1)Greasyfleeceweight.After shearingfleeceweightwasrecordedtothenearest 10g.(2)Spinningcount.Awashedmid-sidesamplewasgradedbycomparison to samples of known British spinning counts; the higher thecount, thefiner the wool
andthemoreyarncouldbespun.(3)Fiberdiameter.SinceMoroccan breedshaveingeneral
coarsewool,thediameterof300fiberswasmeasuredusingaprojectionmicroscope(lanameter)accordingtothestandardsoftheInternationalWoolTextileOrganization(IWTO)andthe
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM);kempy fibers were notmeasured. (4)
Kemp.Asample was takenjust before shearing from theleft mid-side of each animal. The
amount of kemp was assessed by using a six grade scale with 0 being nokemp and six the
190
most kemp. (5) Percentage of medullated fibers. In a sample of 300fibers, non-medullated
fibers (fine wool) and medullated fibers with the exception of kemp (coarse wool) were
countedundertheprojection microscope;thepercentageofmedullatedfibers wasestimated.
(6) Staple length. The length of 100fibers was measured by stretching the fibers against a
ruler. (7) Wool yield was determined according to the procedure described by Ryder and
Stephenson (1968,p.725-726).Thedatawereanalyzedbytheleastsquaresmethodof fitting
constants.
Resultsand discussion
Breed had significant effects on the seven wool traits studied. Means, standard errors, and
numbersofobservations arepresentedinTables 1 and2.
There were large breed differences in the average fleece weight. The six breeds of ewes
differed noticeably in litter size;theD'Man eweswere themostprolific. Multiple births are
highly demanding and could cause aloss of wool by sheddingprior to shearing.The fleece
weights shown in Table 1arethereflection of wool growth differences as well as shedding
differences betweenthebreedsinvolved.ThefactthattheprolificD'Maneweshadthelightest
fleeces isinagreement withthefinding ofWiener (1967)thatlitter sizewasassociated with
shedding; that is,the largerthenumberof lambsborn,thegreater theamount of woolshed
priortoshearing.Aspointed outbyWiener(1967),it shouldbeemphasized that prolificacy
canonlybeanadditional causeof variationof breeddifferences in shedding.
The importance of individual quality characteristics of wool isdependent on theend use
for which aparticular fleece isintended.With regard towoolmanufacturing, fiber diameter
isgenerallyconsidered asthemostimportantcharacteristic;finer woolsenableabetterspinningperformance andgiveasofterhandletotheproduct.Forcarpetwool,wherefiberdiameter
isof little importance, fiber thickness can bepredicted byusingthe spinning count method.
In Morocco, the latter technique can be accurately, quickly, and cheaply utilized by trained
observers underpractical field conditions, where ease and speed of assessment are thekey
toolsin theearly stepsofawoolselectionprogram.
Thevariability infiber diametercould bepartiallyexplained bythepercentageofmedullated fibers. In addition totrue wool,heterotypes, or fibers possessing both medullated and
non-medullatedregionsalongtheirlength,wereincludedinthepresentstudyoffiberdiameter.
Thepercentage of medullatedfibers isatasatisfactory levelin thebreeds studied,giventhat
theenduseof wooliscarpetproduction.
Incoarsewoolbreeds,fiberdiametercouldchangeasacorrelatedresponsetoselectionfor
color.In thecase of Morocco,Ryder andStephenson (1968)reported thatinBerber breeds,
black,white,andvariegatedsheeprepresented20,20,and60percent,respectively.TheSiroua
breed,from thefleece ofwhich therugofTazenakhtisproduced,isbelievedtohavederived
from the Berber sheep by selection based on black wool in particular (Bourfia, 1989). The
associated correlated response in fleece fineness would beof little consequence in a such a
carpetwoolbreed.
Intermsofyarnstrength,longerfibers arepreferable becauseofthemorepointsofcontact
theyhavewithotherfibers (Ryder&Stephenson, 1968).Whilemeasurementsofstaplelength
maybeof assistanceinrecording thefleececharacteristics,theuseof thistrait asaselection
criterion is not necessary in view of its positive genetic correlation with fleece weight
(McGuirk, 1983).
Yieldisof greatimportanceinpricingraw wool,given that theprocessorofwoolisonly
interested inthepercentage byweightofcleanfibersinafleece.Thefact thatinthepresent
studyanimalsweremanagedinacommonenvironmentimpliesthattheobserved differences
inyieldmaybeduetogeneticvariation.Asageneralrule,breedswithcoarsefleeces tendto
yieldmorethanbreedswithfinerfleeces, andbreedswithlongstaplestendtoyieldmorethan
191
Table1. Leastsquares meansandstandarderrors ofbreedeffects ongreasyfleeceweight,
spinningcount, andfiberdiameter.
Spinningcount
Fleeceweight
Breed
Timahdit
BeniAshen
D'Man
BeniGuil
Sardi
Boujaad
Total
Fiberdiameter
n
mean(kg)
n
mean
n
320
176
817
330
961
81
2685
2.13+0.03
2.64+0.05
0.98+0.02
1.83+0.03
1.84 ±0.02
2.04+0.07
1.91+ 0.02
303
167
749
342
872
116
2549
49.41±0.25
54.28 ±0.33
50.79+0.16
53.85±0.23
56.17 ±0.14
58.05± 0.39
53.76±0.10
116
155
110
195
72
648
mean(|a.)
31.64±0.30
25.42±0.26
26.59 ±0.31
25.29+0.23
26.18 ±0.38
27.03±0.14
Table2. Least squaresmeans and standarderrors of breedeffectson Kempscore (0-6),
percentageofmedullatedfibers (%), staplelength (cm),andwoolyield(%).
Kemp score
Breed
Timahdit
BeniAhsen
D'Man
BeniGuil
Sardi
Boujaad
Total
Medullated fibers
n
mean
n
303
167
749
342
872
117
2550
1.82 ±0.08
1.99 ±0.11
3.60 ±0.05
1.49 ±0.07
1.49 ±0.05
1.40 ±0.13
1.96 ±0.03
116
155
110
195
72
648
mean
3.8± 0.5
4.1±0.4
1.3±0.5
2.9±0.4
4.8±0.6
3.4±0.2
'SYoolyield
Staplelength
n
mean
n
mean
75
214
54
166
117
626
9.6±0.2
6.7±0.1
7.1±0.3
6.4±0.1
6.1±0.2
7.2±0.1
103
55
72
87
125
442
62.5± 0.8
57.3±1.1
58.2±1.0
57.9±0.9
60.5±0.7
59.3±0.4
breeds with shorter staples (Botkin et al., 1988,p. 432). Accordingly, the Timahdit breed,
whichhadthecoarsest wool andthelongest staples,presented thehighest yield.
Indualpurposesheep,thecrucialquestionthatmustbefacedistherelativecashvaluesof
meatandwoolproducts.InMorocco,thereisalackofeconomicincentivesfor woolproduction.ReturnsofUS$2perfleecemakeswoollessattractivetoproducers.Bourfia (unpublished
data)comparedthepricesinMoroccooflambmeatwithwooloverthelastthreedecadesand
foundthattheoveralltrendwasforwoolpricestodecreaseconsistentlyrelativetolambprices.
Thereisreason tobelievethatthistrendwillcontinueatleastfor thecurrentdecade.Returns
from woolwerehigherwhenMoroccowasexportingscouredwoolduringthe1940's,1950's,
and 1960's.Atthepresent time,Moroccoisexportingcarpets,butthecarpet industry cannot
findsuitablewoolinquantitieslargeenoughtomeetitsneeds,eventhoughMoroccohassome
fourteen million headof sheepdistributedovermorethantwentybreeds (Bourfia, 1989).
InMorocco,thereisalargevariationinrugproductionanduse.Moroccanrugsaregenerally
madebyhandusingthetechniqueofknottedpileweavingwhichisbelievedtohaveoriginated
inAsia.Theamendment(Dahir)ofApril23,1974definedthestandardsthatacarpetofagiven
qualityshouldfulfill. Oneofthosestandardsiswoolquality.Accordingtothestatisticsofthe
MinistryofHandcrafts,theproductionofcarpetsfulfilling therequirementsoftheStateStamp
isapproximately 1.7 million squaremeterperyear.
192
There has been considerable discussion over the usefulness of medullated fibers for carpet
production.Whilethepresenceofmedullatedfibers seemstobecriticaltotheappearanceof
a carpet, if the proportion of medullated fibers is too high the uptake of dye and thefinal
appearance can be adversely affected (McGuirk, 1983).Ross (1978),cited by Guirgis et al.
(1982), summarized the technical aspects of woolrequirements for the carpet industry asa
kemp free wool with staple length ranging from 7to 17.5cm.According toEpstein (1987),
anidealcarpetwoolshouldhaveanaveragefiberdiameterof30|i,ameanstaplelengthof10
cmwith a 20percent variation in length, andkemp should not exceed4percent by weight.
Moroccanwoolscomplyingeneralwiththeserequirements,butthestaplelengthissomewhat
shorterandkempcontents arehigher.
Theoccurrenceofkempwasassessedbyweightingthefleeces accordingtotheincidence
of kempyfibersjust before shearing.However, kempy fibers are known tobreak easily, so
thatanybreeddifference inthesheddingofkempyfiberscouldintroduceabiaswhencomparingthebreedswithregardtokempscore.Inspiteofthispotentialbias,thepresentestimates
ofkempcouldgiveafairlygoodindicationofthelevelofkempinthesixbreedsinvestigated.
Theheritability estimates ofkempscorereported intheliterature werefound tobeonthe
orderof0.4(Guirgisetal., 1982),indicatingthattheamountofkempinfleececanbereduced
through selection tomeet therequirements of carpet wool inparticular. Using ameasureof
woolfibermedullation in young lambs,and selecting eitherfor increased medullation score
(Hairyline)ordecreasedmedullation score(Fineline),Cue(1983)reportedthatselection for
medullation had no correlated response in lamb mortality and found little evidence for the
difference inlambmortalitybetweenHairy andFinelines.
'
ThemeankempscoreoftheD'Manbreedwasthelargest.Thishighlyprolific breed,which
possessestheabilitytolamballyeararound,israisedinthesouthernoasesofMoroccowhere
theanimalscanbeexposedtohighdegreesofsunlights andtemperatures.Heattolerance,i.e.
ability for an animal to maintain deep body temperature during severe heat exposure, is an
importantcharacteristic inhotareas.Oasis sheep,such astheD'Man, havepresumably been
subjected to some natural selection for heat tolerance, and as a result they perform more
efficiently insuch anenvironment.Whileinformation isneededabouttheinsulativevalueof
kemp and other medullatedfibersunderoasisconditions,itispossible to assumethatkemp
inthefleece would play aprotectiveroleand helppregnant ewes and new-born lambsresist
heatstress.
In spiteoftraditional complaints aboutkemp,itisfelt thatthegeneticimprovementofthe
D'Man sheepintheoasiscontextshouldsecurethecharacteristicsrelated toheat adaptation.
Itcanbeconcludedthatalthoughitispossibletogetridofkempthroughselection,itisperhaps
better tokeep a small amount of kempin D'Man fleeces. Indeed, with such a high level of
kempscoreinD'Manfleeces,itistooearlytobeconcernedaboutthecompletedisappearance
ofkempfrom theD'Man wool;itcan bereasonably assumed that it ispossible tocarry out
selection against kemp fibers for few generations without affecting the levelof hardinessof
theD'Man breed.
Conclusions
Thepresentstudyhasbeenmadepriortoanyorganizedselectionprogram;nevertheless,there
isreason tobelievethat theobserved breeddifferences infineness couldwellbetheresultof
aselectionthatwasappliedbyfarmers tomeettheirneedsonclothes.Theresultsofthispaper
aretobeinterpretedasbroadguidelinesforstimulatingfurther workonfleececharacterization
andimplementing apolicytoimprovewoolproduction ofMoroccan breedsofsheep.
On the basis of existing evidence, it seems that greasy fleece weight is the major factor
influencing grossreturns from thesaleof wool.Atleastfor thepresent,thereisnoeconomic
reason tobase selection on othercriteria.Theavailableinformation from theliteraturesub193
stantiatesthechoicemadeinviewofthefactthatfleeceweightwasfoundtobeatleastmoderatelyheritableinawiderangeofbreedsandthatselectionforincreasedfleeceweightisexpected
toleadtoincreasesinstaplelengthandfollicledensityascorrelatedresponses.Fiberdiameter
variabilityislikelytoincreaseasaconsequenceofselectiononfleeceweight,buttheproblem
isoflittlerelevanceinthecaseofMoroccowherethemainenduseofwooliscarpetproduction.
Selection for increased fleece weight is also expected to boost the national economy since
woolproduction atpresent does notexceed 18000 tons of greasy woolperyear,in spiteof
therelativelylargenumberofthesheeppopulation.Therationalebehindtheconsiderationof
the traits investigated is merely for contribution to breed characterization; extensive fleece
measurementsotherthangreasyweightmaynotbejustifiable atthisstageofselectiononthe
groundofcost.
TheavailableevidencesuggeststhereforethatagoodstartinMoroccowouldbetoincrease
fleece weightbymassselectionandremoveanimalswithexcessiveamountofkempbyindependentcullinglevels.Itcanbesaidwithconfidence thattheimplementation of suchabreedingprogramisalreadyinprocessatthenationallevel.Itishopedthatitwillbesustainedand
resultinamoreprofitable woolproduction.
References
Botkin,M.P., RA. Field &C.LeRoyJohnson,1988.Sheep and wool: Science, production,
andmanagement. PrenticeHall,Englewood Cliffs, NewJersey.
Bourfia,M.,1989. SheepbreedsinMorocco.In:FAO(Ed.)SmallruminantsintheNearEast.
VolumeIII:NorthAfrica. AnimalProduction andHealthpapernumber74,p.47-64.
Cue,RJ., 1983.Correlatedresponsesinlambmortalityduetolongtermselectionforcannon
bonelengthandfleece medullation insheep.Anim.Prod.37:293-299.
Epstein, H.,1987.Awassisheep.In:FAO(Ed.)SmallruminantsintheNearEast.VolumeII.
AnimalProduction andHealth papernumber 55,p.29-38.
Guirgis,RA., EA. Afifi&E.S.E.Galal,1982.Estimatesofgeneticandphenotypicparameters
of some weight and fleece traits in a coarse-wool breed of sheep. J. Agric. Sei., Camb.
99:277-285.
McGuirk, BJ., 1983.Genetic selection for wool production. In: W.Haresign (Ed.): Sheep
production.Butterworths.London,p.545-566.
Ryder, ML. &S.K. Stephenson,1968.Wool growth. Academic Press.London. Wiener, G.,
1967.Acomparisonofthebodysize,fleeceweightandmaternalperformanceoffivebreeds
of sheepkeptinoneenvironment.Anim.Prod.9:177-195.
194
Session6
Carpetandrugproduction
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
B.Markotic
H.Ipek.
The history and present situation ofTurkish carpet industry
O.Aslanapa
UniversityofIstanbul, FacultyofLetters,P.T.T.Fen,34459,Istanbul, Turkey
Summary
Itseemsquiteapparentwiththediscoverofthecarpetsduringtheexcavations ofthePazyryk
tombsin thefoothills of theAltaimountains in Siberia thattheTurks were acquainted with
theTurkish knotcarpet technique duringthetimeof theHuns,thatisthe3rdor2ndcentury
BC.ThenextdiscoveryofearlycarpetswasmadebySirMarcAurelSteinin 1906-08inEast
TurkestaneastofLakeLopatLou-Lan.ThanLaterA.vonLeCoqin 1913found smallwoven
piecesofcarpetsdatingfromthe3rdto6thcenturyADatashrineinQyzilnearKutshaduring
excavationsintheTarimbasinalsoinTurkestan.Theselatterwerewovenwithasimpleknottingtechniqueonasingleweft andindicatethatperhapsduringthislongperiodtheadvanced
techniqueofthePazyrykcarpetmayhavebeenforgotten orlost.
The simple knotting technique of East Turkestan next appears in some carpets found in
Fosfat (anancientsitenearCairo),carpetsoftheAbbasidperiodreflecting Islamic influences
withtheirgeometricdesigns.
/
Itisapitythattherearenoexamplesofcarpetsfrom IranduringtheSelçukSultanate.The
oldest carpets which we can examine carefully from the Anatolian Selçuk period are those
withTurkishknotsof the 13thcenturywoven inKonya.
Theanimal-figured Anatoliancarpetspredominantlyappearedinthe14thcenturyandhave
theiroriginsalsointheSelçukPeriod.Inordertohaveachievedthefame andpopularitythey
seemtohavegainedinEuropebasedonthefrequency oftheirrepresentationinthepaintings
of thisperiod,thecarpetsmusthavebeenintroducedintoEuropeduring Selçuktimes.
Beginning in 1451with thereign of Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror andthrough the 16th
century, these in paintings executed first by Italian and later by Flemish andDutch painter.
They most frequently were used byHolbein in his works and there by as a group, bear his
name.
Alongside thedevelopment of thegeometric typecarpetsof the 16thcenturytherewasat
thesametimethebeginningofanewandexcitingperiodintheartofTurkishcarpetweaving.
This started inUsak and grew outof aninterest of classic Ottoman art.Thedevelopment of
Turkish carpet weaving continued until theendof the 19thcentury.
In the Konya, Kayseri, Sivas and Kirsehir regions, and in Isparta, Fethiye, Dösemealti,
Balikesir,Yagcibedir,Usak,Bergama,Kula,Giirdes,Milas,ÇanakkaleandEzineinwestern
Anatolia and in Kars and Erzurum in Eastern Anatolia there are creative endeavors at
revitalizing theartofTurkishcarpetweaving.
Introduction
ItseemsquiteapparentwiththediscoveryofthecarpetsduringtheexcavationsofthePazyryk
tombs in thefoothills of theAltaimountains in Siberia thattheTurkswere acquainted with
theTurkish knotcarpet techniqueduringthetimeof theHuns,thatis the3rdor2ndcentury
BC.ThenextdiscoveryofearlycarpetswasmadebySirMarcAurelSteinin 1906-08inEast
TurkestaneastofLakeLop atLoulan.Then laterA.vonLeCoqin 1913found smallwoven
piecesofcarpetsdatingfromthe3rdto6thcenturyADatashrineinQyzilnearKutshaduring
excavationsintheTarimbasinalsoinTurkestan.Theselatterwerewovenwithasimpleknot-
197
tingtechniqueonasingleweft andindicatethatperhapsduringthislongperiodtheadvanced
techniqueofthePazyrykcarpetmayhavebeenforgotten orlost.
The simple knotting technique of East Turkestan next appears in some carpets found in
Fostat(anancientsitenearCairo),carpetsoftheAbbasidperiodreflecting Islamic influences
withtheirgeometricdesigns.
Theearly carpetmaker
Itisknownfromhistoricalsourcesthatcarpetsduringthe10thcenturywerewoveninBukhara
and other places in West Turkestan and that they were exported to other countries. This
continued untiltheperiodofdestruction bytheMongolsinthe 13thcentury.
There is in the Islamic Art Museum, Cairo awool carpet (from Fosfat), one woven with
palmettesonaredfieldandtiedwiththeTurkishknotwhichJ.Zick-Nissen aftercareful examination has suggested is among thefirst of theknotted carpets tohave been woven in the
IslamicworldduringtheMiddleAges.Thiscarpethasabandof Kufic writingintheborder.
Furtherspeculationisthatitwasimportedinthe7thto9thcenturyduringtheAbbasidPeriod
from westTurkestan (Maveraiinnehir).This indicates thatBukhara, notEast Turkestan was
thefirst weavingcenter.
Anotherfragment, this timewithintricatedesigns anddifferent bordermotifs which isin
the National State Museum, Berlin, was acquired by Kiihnel and is believed to have been
importedtoEgyptfrom WestTurkestan (Transoxiana) andBukhara. Sincetherearenoother
extantexamplesfrom thisareaotherdesignvariationscannotbecited.
Therearehoweverotherearlycarpetfragments whichwerefoundinEgypt.Theseemploy
theknotona single weft as usedinthecarpets of theEastTurkestan group andusually they
haveadarkbluefield.TwofragmentsfromFosfatareintheBenakiMuseum,Athensandhave
been carefully examined by J. Zick-Nissen. Another recently found in the town Tulunlu
el-Katai (near Cairo) and now in the Cairo University Collection carries the same characteristics, Kufic borders and pearl-lined connecting motifs. It seems apparent that when the
Tulunids under Humaraveyh spread out from Egypt into Syria and the Adana region thenweavingandcarpet artdeveloped.Howeveritisapitythattherearenoexamplesof carpets
from Iran during the Selçuk Sultanate. The oldest carpets which we can examine carefully
from theAnatolian Selçukperiodarethosewith Turkish knotsof the 13thcentury wovenin
Konya.
After F.R. Martin's discovery of eight Selçuk carpets in theAlaeddin Mosque, Konyain
1905,R.M.Riefstahlfoundthreemorein 1930,andin 1935and1936sevenotherswerefound
inFosfat bringing thetotalofthiscollection toeighteen.
The art of carpet weaving which the Turks brought to the Islamic world extended the
techniqueof singleknottedwefts asfarwestasSpain.Thesepiecesweregreatlyadmiredby
theEuropeans ascan beattested bythefrequency of theirrepresentation inthepaintingsby
artistsoftheperiod.
Iranian carpets as suchonlyappearafter the 15thcenturyforinthe 14thand 15th century
miniatures wefind representations of carpets with borders of theKufic design and motifs in
commonwiththoseusedonthe13thcenturySelçukcarpets.Itisobviousthatthedevelopment
in Iran was influenced by theTurks.Original Iranian carpets only started tobeproduced in
the 16th century.The Kufic borders of the Selçuk carpets which later developed into intertwiningandfloriate bordersbecameanenrichingelementofSpanishandCaucasiancarpets.
Theanimal-figured Anatoliancarpetspredominantlyappearedinthe14thcenturyandhave
theiroriginsalsointheSelçukPeriod.Inordertohaveachievedthefameandpopularitythey
seemtohavegainedinEuropebasedonthefrequency oftheirrepresentationsinthepaintings
of thisperiod, thecarpets must have been introduced intoEurope during Selçuk times.One
of theseoriginal carpets wasbrought totheBerlin MuseumbyW.von Bode from Romein
198
1890.Ithasadragon-phoenixcombatcomposition(Ming).Anotherwithbirdfigures flanking
a tree was found in 1925 in a village church in Marby, Sweden. Later more examples of
animal-figured carpetshavecometolightinFosfat, Istanbul andKonya.
The'Holbein'groupofcarpets
After findingthethreeSelçukcarpetsinBeysehir,R.M.Riefstahlfound afourth carpetofthe
15thcenturywhichcanbedesignatedasthebeginningprototypeofthelaterfamous Holbein
groupofcarpets.ThesecarpetswithgeometricandintertwiningfloriatedesignsandKufic-like
borders originated during the Ottoman Period. Beginning in 1451with thereign of Sultan
MehmettheConquerorandthrough the 16thcentury,theseappearinpaintingsexecutedfirst
byItalianandlaterbyFlemishandDutchpainters.TheymostfrequentlywereusedbyHolbein
inhisworksandtherebyasagroup,bearhisname.ThoughnotallaretypicalofHolbeinrepresentations, these carpets have been classified intofour groups.The oldest and mostcharacteristicgrouphassmallpatternsofoctagonsanddiamondswithsubmergedcontours alternating in offset diagonal raws ona background of rami palmettes.The second type,which in
factwasnotusedbyHolbein,consistsofdiamondsandcruciform-like devicesoffloriatemotifs andoctagons without contours.Since theseare seenfrequently inLorenzoLotto's paintingstheyarealsocalled'Lotto'carpets.Thesetwogroupswereespeciallyimportantelements
inthedevelopmentof thelaterUsakcarpets.
/
Thethirdandfourth groupsofHolbeincarpets have simpledesignsconsistingof squares
andrectangleswithfillings ofoctagons.Thesedesignswhicharerelatedtotheanimalfigured
carpetsbecameperfectedduringthe15thcenturyandhavecontinuedinuseuntilrecentyears.
TheHolbein carpets consisting of squares andrectangles with two smalloctagonal devices
aboveandbelow,relatebacktothecarpetswithbordermotifsoftheSelçuktimes.ThelargepatternHolbeins areatransitionaldevelopmentleadingtotheBergamacarpets.Inthese,the
geometricandsometimes strongly stylizedfloriate designspredominate.Theoldestgroupof
thesecarpetsdatestothe16thcentury.Inthe18thcenturyanimalfigureswereagainintroduced
asfiller motifsthusestablishing alinktotheirpredecessors,theanimal-figured carpets.
ClassicOttomanart
Alongside thedevelopmentofthegeometrictypecarpetsofthe 16thcenturytherewasatthe
same time the beginning of anew andexciting period in the art of Turkish carpet weaving.
ThisstartedinUsakandgrewoutofaninterestandresurgenceofotheraspectsofclassicOttomanart,particularly thatof architecture.ThisrichandvariedgroupofUsakcarpetshasbeen
collected andthoroughly studied.Fromthetwotypicalclassicforms,theStarandMedallion
Usaks,variationswithrichmotifs markthebeginningofanewperiod.Theseincludecarpets
ofthemedalliontypeofuptotenmetersinlengthinwhichthecentralmedallionsareflanked
oneachsidebycut-off medallionsthussignifying anendlessexpanseof composition.
The Tabrizmedallion carpets areinspired bythedecorative motifs on book bindings and
covers.Buttheconfined, staticqualityofthisdesignhasbeengivenanewexpansivenessby
the use of these motifs on Turkish carpets. The Turks, not confined to the art of the book,
preserved in this endless continuum theessence of theplasticity of the textile medium.The
creationofUsakcarpetscontinuedfrom the 16thcentury throughthemiddleofthe 18th.
The eight-pointed starmotif alternating with diamond-shaped medallions in offset rows,
thecompositionoftheStarUsakcarpets,isthebestexpressionofthisfeature.Excellentexamplesof smallcarpets ofthistypefrom theearly 16thcentury canbeseen, butlaterexamples
arenotavailable sincetheyceased toexistbytheendof the 17thcentury.
199
•ÉM.
SimultaneouslywiththedevelopmentoftraditionalAnatoliancarpetsacompletelynewtype
of carpet using naturalistic motifs emerged in the 16thcentury, theOttoman Palacecarpets.
Using thePersian (Sine)knotinsteadofthetraditionalTurkish (Gördes)knottheseweavers
wereabletoproduceaclose-wovenpilewhichhadatexturesimilartothatofsoftvelvet.This
was the beginning of a naturalistic style which pervaded all phases of Ottoman art. The
ornamentation using allforms — tulips,hyacinths,roses,carnations,budding flower stems,
graceful twistingleaves—continuedtoanincreasingdegreeuntiltheendofthe 18thcentury.
Theconquests by theOttomans of Tabrizin 1514and laterCairoin 1517 are important
datesinTurkishcarpethistory.Undertheinfluence oftheMamelukeuseofcolorandtechniquesintheircarpets,thenaturalistic andflowermotifsbecamemoreevidentandgavewayto
anewformof expression.
Itwas first thought thatthesecarpets wereproduced on Mamelukelooms and shippedto
thecourt inIstanbul butfrom examination of sample carpets sentfrom Istanbul,E.Kühnel
latermodified histheory acknowledging that becauseof techniqueitwasquitepossiblethat
someof thesecarpets wereproducedinIstanbul andinthefamous silkcenter,Bursa. There
isdatatosupportthis.
SultanMuradIIIbyImperialEdictin 1585hadorderedelevenEgyptianweavers(onewas
Turkish, Arslan by name) to come to Istanbul together with their silk-like fine wool for
weaving. This included the beautiful red, yellow, deep blue and fresh-green yarns used in
Mamelukecarpets.Customarilythewarpandweftofthesecarpetswereofnaturalwhitewool
orthewarpwassometimesofredwool,whereastheOttomanPalacecarpetswoveninIstanbul
andBursausedsilkinthewarpand weft.
Exceptfortworatherdamagedlargecarpets(8.8x4.65mand4.28x4.8m)andoneprayer
rugintheMuseumofTurkishandIslamicArts,Istanbul,andanotherprayerrugintheTopkapi
Palace Museum, Istanbul no other examples are left in Turkey. These carpets having been
generally exported are now in museums and private collections around the world. The two
museumcarpets werefound intheSeyyidBattalGaziTürbe,Eskisehir andwerebroughtto
the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts, Istanbul in January 1911 (10Kanunu-sâni 1329)
wheretheywereinventoried asNos.768and 153.Thelargeone,No.768hasacomposition
offiverowsofdiamonddevicesalternatingincolorfrom yellow todarkblue.Thediamonds
areconnectedtoeachotherbytwowingedextensions.Thisbaroquecompositionofconnected
diamondsisverycommoninOttoman Palacecarpetsandcanbefound inanothercarpet, for
example,intheVictoriaandAlbertMuseum,Londonwithexactlythesamefield composition
astheoneaboveexceptthatmedallionshavebeenadded.
From themiddleof the 16th totheendof the 17thcentury theseOttoman Palace carpets
continuedtobewoventhoughtheywereconstantlydeclininginquality.ThetraditionalcompositionswerecarriedoninaratherpoorgroupofUsakcarpets,agroupwhichbecameknown
inthe 19thcentury astheIzmircarpets.
On theotherhand thevigorouscharacterof theOttoman Palaceprayerrugscontinued to
liveoninthe 18thcentury in thewide variety of prayerrugs from Gördes,Kula,Ladikand
Usak.Thereisanexcellentexampleofanoriginalpalaceprayerrug,onebelongingtoSultan
AhmetIwhichisnowintheTopkapiMuseum,Istanbul.Inspiteofthefactthatitwasprobably
usedunderabrazierandhassomeburnedareasinthecenter,itstillisfitfortheuseofasultan.
One otherpalaceprayerrug isin theBerlin Museum.On theupper border thedateof H
1019(1610)hasbeenwovenasachronogramwhichhelpsbothtoestablishthefactthatthese
rugsmayhavebegun tobeexportedatthebeginningofthe 17thcentury andalsotodatethe
SultanAhmetpiece.
TheoldestknowngroupofprayerrugsuniqueinTurkishcarpetweavingisfrom the15th
century.Thethreerugs of completely distinctive composition nowfound in theMuseumof
Turkish andIslamic Arts,Istanbul attest to thelively creativity shownby this group,Other
examples of this period can be seen in theRenaissance paintings of the Bellinis, Carpaccio
andL.Lotto.In the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin is aprayerrug which isidentical toone
200
foundspreadunderthetableinGiovanni's 1507paintingoftheVenetionDoge,Loredan.One
of the earliest representations is in a painting by Gentile Bellini in the National Gallery,
London.
ThereisanexquisiteUsakprayerrugoftheearly16thcenturyintheBerlinMuseumwhich
hasinthedepressed areaatthebottomaverylargepalmettedevicenotunsimilar totheone
intheBelliniprayerrug.IntheBodeCollectionanUsakprayerrugofthe 1600sisoneofthe
examplesofthosewovenwithaverywideborderandasinglemedallioninthemiddleofthe
field which contains odouble mihrab.Itisunfortunate thatwehavesofew examples ofthe
15thand 16thcenturyprayerrugs.
Inthe17thcenturytherewasasuddenresurgencebothinnumberandinvarietyofprayer
rugs, most notably being those from Gördes with finely stepped mihrabs and undulating
contours which atthesametimereflect acontinuation of theOttomanPalace style.Northof
GördesinKulasimilarrugswithsimilarmihrabnichesandborderscontaininguptoasmany
astenthinstripesshouldbenoted.Kulaalsoproducedlandscape-patternedrugswhichincluded a composition of small houses and trees.Third in importance came theprayer rugs of
Ladik. These were striking because of their soft texture and vivid colors and characteristic
rowsof long-stemmed tulips aboveandbelow themihrab.
There arerugswith two-or three-contoured mihrabsintwoor threecolorsofredthatare
productsofKirsehirandnearbyMucur.Milasprayerrugsontheotherhandusingmotifs from
the Gördes rugs are bright and many colored and have been influenced by the Usak and
Bergamatraditions.
The Transylvanian church carpets found in museums and collections around the world
mostlydatefrom the 17thcentury.Thesesingleanddouble-nichedmihrabrugsarerelatedto
theUsak and Bergama groups.Besides these,there arenumerous other typesof prayerrugs
which,thoughuniqueintheirownway,reflect various influences.
Thelateryearsofcarpetmaking
The development of Turkish carpet weaving continued until theendof the 19th century. In
1891AbdülhamidII addedahundredcarpetlooms tothefabric-looms whichweresetupin
1844byAbdiilmecidinHereke,andstartedtheproductionofthewell-knownHerekecarpets.
Today in the sameplace,carpets areproducedin the same style under SiimerbankManagement.
In the Konya, Kayseri, Sivas and Kirsehir regions, and in Isparta, Fethiye, Dösemealti,
Balikesir, Yagcibedir,Usak,Bergama,Kula,Giirdes,Milas,ÇanakkaleandEzineinwestern
Anatolia andin Kars andErzurum in eastern Anatolia there are other creative endeavors at
revitalizing theartofTurkishcarpetweaving.
Theepitomyoftheuniquecontribution ofTurkishcarpetweavingliesinacontinuity,one
which builds anddiscards asitdevelops.In theprocessof givingandtakingtheuniqueness
ismatched byafirm graspofthetraditional.Thisfreedom ofexpression hasgivenrisetothe
vastvarietywhichistheessenceofartatits finest.
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Thecarpet production and possibilitiesofimproving production
inEastern Anatolia
N.S. Tellioglu
UniversityofAtatiirk,FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofAnimalScience, Erzurum,
Turkey
Summary
TheEastern Anatolia has 1/4 of sheep population of Turkey.The dominant sheep breed is
Morkaraman.ThewoolcolourinMorkaramansheepchangesfromlightbrowntodarkbrown.
In a Morkaraman flock there is also black,dark-yellow and violet (purple) coloured sheep.
TheMorkaramanwooliscarpettypeofwoolandusedinmanufacturing touristicgoods.There
arealsoin smallnumberofAkkaraman andTuj sheepinthisregion ofTurkey.The woolof
thesesheeparealsousedincarpet textileindustry.Thewooliswhiteinthistypeofsheep.
Morkaraman wool is used in natural carpet manufacturing. Akkaraman andTuj wool is
dyed with natural dyes and used in making knitting handcrafts such as sweaters, cardigns,
folkloric sacks etc.Natural colour Morkaraman wool is also used in making ehram (ihram)
whichisspecialtypeofAfghan madebyhandandcarpettextile.ThefinetypeofMorkaraman
woolcan beusedinmanufacturing natural (Scottish type)cloth.
Introduction
The Eastern Anatolia is among the greatest parts of Turkey with its 1662.16 square miles
(Tellioglu, 1983).ThispartofTurkeyiscoveredwithmountains.It'shotinsummerandcold
snowyinwinter.Thenaturalstructureoftheregion issuitabletoraiseprimitive sheepbreed.
Karaman whichis amainprimitive sheepbreed,hasbeen adapted tothisregion after along
selection.Karamanhaswhiteandredvarieties.RedKaramanfleecesconsistoftheundercoat
withfineandshortfibersandtheoutercoatwithcoarseandlongfibers.Besidethesetwotypes
offibers,medullatedandheterotypefibersarealsopresentinthefleece (TelliogluandEmsen,
1976).
TheEasternAnatoliahas25percentofTurkey'ssheeppopulation (Anon, 1970).Theincome
obtainedfrom Karamanis71percentmeat,22percentmilkandtheremaining7percentwool
(Karatas, 1973).Becauseofthisreasonittakesagreatpartinagriculturaleconomy oftheregion.WhiteKaramanisbetterthanRedKaraman.Itswoolfleece islongerandrougherthan
theothers.Thecoatfibers offleeceisfineandhelixform (Tellioglu, 1983).
Fibresand colours
Therearemedullaandkelpfibres inaddition tothesefibres (TelliogluandEmsen,1976).The
colourinRedKaramansheepchangesfromlightbrowntodarkbrown(Tellioglu,1983).There
is alsoviolet,brown,yellowish anddark sheepinaflock. Theblackoneiscalled as 'Black
sheep'(Batu,1953).RedKaramanwoolisdyedwithdarkcolourbecauseitisnotsuitablefor
lightcolour (Zakhary, 1973).In addition,color bleachingcan not bedonein Red Karaman
wool becauseof this wool property. The25percent of Red Karaman woolis added totops,
ayakisatypeofwoolmanufactured from thesetops.
202
Classification
The carpets are classified according to the production techniques into two groups such as
hand-made and machine-made carpets. The production techniques of hand-made carpet is
primitiveandthisindustrydoesnotneedagreatdealofinvestment.Themanufacturing ofthis
carpetistheresultofknottingoftheeachloopbyhand(Tellioglu, 1983).
Hand-made carpet, kilim and ehram are woven traditionally in Bayburt, Giimiishane,
Erzincan andErzurum, theEastern part of Turkey.Thiskindof weaving technique hasnot
beenchangedmuchmorethanbefore.Inordertoimprovethisweavingindustrybelongingto
theEastern Anatoliawiththeparti-cularconsideration ofbothtechnology andart,"Woolen
Handcrafts Institute"wasestablishedin1962,AtatiirkUniversity(Girisken, 1974).Theabove
mentionedorganizationmakesresearchesonoldcarpetsandalsoteachesyounggirlshowto
makecarpet,kilimandothertouristicgoods.Thisenablesthemtoearnmoneyandcontribute
to theirfamily income. In order toimprovehand-made carpet in thisregion, weaving techniques ofcarpet, kilim and touristic goodshavetobe taughttheunemployedpeopleandthe
governmentmustmakeinvestmenttoencouragethem.Theyalsohavetoorganizeco-operative
businesstosupportthemselves.
References
Anonymous,1970.Dogu Anadolu Bölgesinin hayvancilik durumu hakkindarapor. Tiirkiye
TicaretOdalariveBorsalariBirligiAnkara.
Batu,S.,1953.Dogu illerihayvanciligi.VeterinerFakiiltesiYayinlariNo.52AnkaraÜniversitesiBasimeviAnkara.
Girisken,N„1974.50. Yilarmaganî.AtatiirkÜniversitesi.
Karatas,S., 1973.MerinosMorkaraman melezlerinin verimözellikleribakimindankarsilastirlimasiIV.BilimKongresi,Ankara.
Tellioglu, S. &E.Emsen,1976.Morkaraman koyunlarnida gebeligin sekizhaftasi laktasyon
boyuncaenerji veproteinihtiyaçlarininyapagikalitesiiizerinetesirleri.AtatiirkÜniversitesiZiraatFakiiltesiZiraatDergisi.
Tellioglu, S., 1983.Dogu Anadolu koyunu ve yapagilarinin sanayide (hali,kumas vekeçe)
kullanilirlik yönündenözellikleri.20Mart,YapagiTiftik A.S.Ankara.
Tellioglu,S.,1983.InternationalSymposiumonproductionofsheepandgoatinMediterranean
Area. 17-21October,Ankara,Turkey.
Zakhary.A.,1975.Kizil,siyahvemakuikoyunlarininYapagiözellikleriüzerindebirarastirma.
AtatiirkÜniversitesiZiraatFakiiltesiZootekniBölümü (Doktora) Erzurum.
203
Thepreservation ofthetraditional characteristicsof
hand-woven Turkishcarpets andtheimportanceofnaturaldyes
G. Paksoy
PaksoyHali-Kilim,AtiyeSok. 61A80200Tesvikiye,Istanbul
Abstract
Thispaperconsistsoftwoparts.Thefirstpartincludesanexpositionofthetraditionalcharacteristicsofhand-wovenTurkishcarpetsintheirhistoricaldevelopment.Thesecondpartdeals
withoneofthemostimportantcharacteristics of thosecarpets,thatistheuseof naturaldyes
anddyeingmethodsandothercharacteristicsrelatedtodyeing.
Key words: Hand-woven Turkish carpets, traditional characteristics, natural dyes, dyeing
methods.
Introduction
Ashort summary of the historical development of Turkish flatweaves will be useful in explaining theimportanceofTurkishcarpets. Carpets arefirst includedinthehistoryof artby
Robinson, but thedevelopment ofresearch on this subject has began by Erdman. Theseresearches have proved that the art of carpet weaving had been developed by the Turks and
introduced totheworldcivilization bythem(Aslanapa andDurul, 1973).Thebeginningsof
theartof carpetweaving canbetracedbackintothreesources:
1. Thepazyrykcarpetwhich wasfound byRudenkoduring 1947-1949 istheoldestknown
example.Its technicalcharacteristics arestillamatterofdiscussion, buttheyareaccepted
asanaccomplishmentofTurkishHunsandasaproductofgreatmasteryyettobeoutshined
(Yetkin, 1991).
2. Thecarpets which werefound by SirAurel Steinduring 1906-1908inLou Lan kurgans
inEasternTurkestan andinastupainLop-Nor aredatedbacktothefirst centuryBC.
3. Twofragments of rugs found by Lommin Fustat are accepted as products of Abbasids.
They bear sometechnical resemblance tothosefound inEastern Turkestan and aredated
backtothesecondpartoftheninthcentury.
Fromtheeleventhcenturyon,underthereignofAnatolian Seljuks, theartofcarpetweaving
hasbegunto spreadwestward from Central Asia. Someexamples of thoserugs which show
anincrediblerichnessofcolouranddesignareinmuseumsinTurkeyaswellasinotherparts
of the world. Later on, other examples of Seljuk carpets were alsoproduced in Konya and
Beyshehiruntilthefourteenth century.
The pictorial representations by European painters show that animal designs had been
introducedintofourteenthcenturyTurkishcarpetsandthesefigureshadbeenenrichedtowards
theendofthefifteenth century.Thesecarpetsarecalled"Holbein"afterthenameofthepainter
whodepictedthem.
TheAnatoliancarpetswhichwereproducedthroughoutaperiodof200yearswerethebasis
ofTurkomanandyorukcarpets.ThecarpetsdepictedbythepainterLorenzoLottoareknown
as"Lotto".TheHolbeinandtheLottoprovidedatransitionintoanothertypeofcarpetsnamed
"Ushak" after the name of the region. Ushak carpets marked the beginning of the second
brilliantperiodofTurkishcarpetsduringthe sixteenth century.Thesewereproduced during
theseventeenthcenturyandbegantodeclineintheeighteenthcentury.OtherimportantTurkish
204
carpets were the sixteenth century Ottoman court carpets where different techniques and
designswereusedaswellastheseventeenthcenturyprayerrugs.
ThegeographicalandgeologicalconditionsofTurkeyandtheroleofTurkeyasthecradle
of variousculturesthroughtheagesarethemainfactors thatconstitutethetechnicalvariety
andtherichnessofdesignandcolouroftheTurkishrugsandcarpets.
Wehavegivenasliceofinformation aboutthehistoryoftheTurkishhand-woven carpets
above.The sourceof theirwelldeserved fame is theirtraditionalcharacteristics.Belowisa
briefenumerationofthesecharacteristics.
Material
Turkishcarpetswerewovenwithaspecificwooltakenfromcertainpartsofthesheepincertain
seasons.This isknown asthekirmen (wooden spindle) wool.The way woolis spunisvery
importantindeterminingthequality ofthe carpet.
Dyesanddyeingmethods
Before theintroduction of thefirst synthetic colouring matterbythefamous chemistPerkin
in 1860, natural dyes were used in carpet making. Various sources explain that natural
colouringhadbeenspreadfrom AnatoliatotheWest.ThiswasimportantfortheTurkisheconomy.Itis awellknown fact thatTurkey wasonce aproducer andexported ofnaturaldyes.
Themaincolouringplantsexportedfrom Turkeywererubiatinctorumwhichisknownasthe
oldest sourceofcolouringmatterforred andvioletandcartamustinctoriafor yellow.
Therichnessofcolouranddesignandweavingtechniques
AnothersuperiorcharacteristicofTurkishflatweaves isthetraditionalrichnessofdesignwith
anexquisiteknowledge ofcolourwhichcanbetaken asareflection oftheimpactofoldcultures. The knot-techniques and the amount of knots in a square centimeter are the componentsofthesetraditionalcharacteristics.Theensuingpartofthispaperdealswithnaturaldyes
anddyeingmethodswhichareimportanttraditionalcharacteristics.
The research on natural dyes began with the transition of mankind from covering their
bodiesintodressingthemselvesandcontinuedinanevergrowingspeed.Althoughthehistory
of textilecolouring is considerably old, thetextilematerialisnot solidenoughto standunimpairedthroughtheagesandwecanonlytracethishistory asfarbackas2500BC.
Theefforts thatbeganwiththeintroductionofthefirstchemicaldyeandtherecentlyfound
dyeshavediminishedagreatdealtheefforts toresearchofnaturaldyesandtheiruse.Turkey
whousedtoexportnaturaldyesinthepast,ceasedthegrowingoftheplantsfrom whichthese
dyeswereproduced.Recentlydevelopeddyesareeasiertouseandthereforethey superseded
thenaturalones.Otherimportantfactorsthatforcepeopletoquitnaturaldyesarethecollapse
of some traditions under the impact of changing social and economic conditions and the
damages inflicted on theecological balanceby using naturalresources irresponsibly. Some
examples of thisdevelopment weretheuseof syntheticindigoinstead of indigoferro which
was themostimportant sourceof blue; theintroduction of alizarin in 1864instead of rubia
tinctorumandtheintroductionof syntheticcarmenin 1894insteadofcochinealandkermess.
Withthebeginningoftheuseofsyntheticdyes,someproblemsaroseinloopcolouringand
thetraditionalcolourshavedecayed.Themainreasonforthisdevelopmentwasthefaulty use
ofdyeingmethodsduetolackofexperience.Insmallworkshopsandhouses,traditionalnatural
dyeingmethodshavemistakenlybeenappliedtosyntheticdyesandtheresultwasunintended
205
colours.Inaddition,newtechniqueshavebeendevelopedinordertomakethesespoiltcolours
resembletothenaturalones.Althoughdetrimentalforthewoolfibresandhenceforthequality
ofthecarpet,theybecameverypopular.Anotherimportantmattertobediscussedisthatthese
primitivemethodsofcolouringandofmakingthemseemfadedandagedareveryharmful for
thehealthof people.But sincethe syntheticdyes arederivatives of tarwhichisknown asa
factor causing cancer,it is not difficult to seehowdangerous those dyeing methods applied
under unhealthy conditions are. These mistakes have continued until the beginning of the
attemptstorevivenaturalmethodsofdyeinginthelast5-10years.Thebeginningoftherevival
ofnaturaldyeinginmanyregions andtheincreasing numberofresearches conductedbythe
universitiesarehopeful developments.Lackofinformation andshortcomingsduetoaninterruptioninthetransferofsourcesaretoovercomethroughresearches.Iwouldliketogivesome
examplesoftheseresearchesconductedbyÇukurovaUniversity,FacultyofScience,Departmentof Chemistry:
• Research for new sources of natural colouring matter and development of new ways of
colouring (Paksoy, 1983).
• Researchfornewmordantsandnewmethodsoftreatmentwithmordants(Paksoy, 1983).
• Research for determining whetherthecolouringmethodshaveanyimpactonthewearing
awayof theblacklooms thatgenerally begin towear awayin 50yearsinTurkish carpets
(Paksoy andDüzemli, 1989).
• Specification ofcoloursobtainedbynaturaldyes.
• Research for emphasizing theimportance of thepurityofcolours.
ThemostimportantproblemfortheTurkishcarpetweavingindustrytodayistheimpossibility
ofmaintainingastandardofqualityandthestabilityofpricesinsupplyingtherapidlyincreasingdomesticdemand.Sucharapidproductioncreatesapressureonrawmaterialsupplyand
resultsintheproduction ofexpensivecarpets oflowquality.
Conclusions
Thelackofsourceswhichisthemostimportantproblemofnaturaldyesofthedaycanberelatedtotheinterruptioninthetransfer ofsources.Afailureinmaintainingnationalvaluesand
thesecretlykeptdyeingmethodsasafamilytraditionarethemainreasonsoftheinter-ruption
in thetransfer of sources.Relyingonthepresent sources andresearches,wecanreach some
conclusions andsuggestthefollowing solutions:
1. Itispossibletogetmanycoloursfromaplantbychangingthewaytoobtainthecolouring
matter and dyeing methods, mordants, their concentration and ways of treatment with
mordants.Theconditions ofreaction influences thequalityof thecolour.
2. TheblackwoolwhichisusedascontourinTurkishcarpetsiscolouredbytannin (Paksoy,
1985).Thisferro-tannin compositeiscalledtanninblackandthewayitcolouredthefibre
changesaccording tothemethodoftreatment withmordants.
3. Woolscolouredbytanninblackwearawayeasilyandthecorrosiveinfluenceofferrooxide
isnottheonlyreasonforthat.Thedurationnecessaryforthetraditionaldyeingmethodsis
ratherlong andthisisafactor thatmakesthefiberlessfirm andeasilybreakable (Paksoy,
1986).
4. Thecontinuationofnaturaldyeingdependsonthepreservationofnaturaldyeingresources
and the use of material without exhausting the ecological system (Paksoy andDüzemli,
1989).
5. Lackofaspecification ofnaturaldyesreducestheresourcesandcauseslossoflabour,time
and money.Thatiswhy theobtained colours should bespecified according toone ofthe
internationalcolourscaleslikeMunsellsystem.
6. Thepurity of theobtainedcolours shouldbetestedandthecolouringmatterthatdoesnot
fit thestandards ofTS626shouldnotbeused.
206
Alltheseconclusions arederivedfrom experimental data.Thepreservation of thetraditional
characteristics of Turkish carpets and rugs is possible only through the survival of natural
dyeingandbysecuringthestandardsofquality.Todaythemainshortageislackofaresearch
institution onTurkishrugsandcarpets.
References
Aslanapa,O.&Y.Durul,1973.Selçuklu halilari (Seljuk Carpets),AkYayinlari,Istanbul,p.
95.
Erdman, K.,1964. TürkischeTeppiche(TurkishCarpets)3,4,Heimtex (39-50).
Paksoy,G„1983.Aresearch on thepossibilities of using some natural plants as sources of
naturalcolouringmatter.ÇukurovaUniversity,Instituteof Science,Adana,p.41.
Paksoy,G„1985.The depiction of natural black dye used in Milas carpets. The paper and
posterspresentedattheSecondChemistrySymposiumandsummaries.Ankara,p. 241.
Paksoy, G„ 1986.Aresearchontherelationshipbetweenthewearingawayoftheloopswhich
arecoloured bynatural blackdye andthecolouringmethodsand conditions. Thepapers
presented attheFourthInternationalTextileSymposium.Izmir,p.825.
Paksoy,G. & A.Diizemli,1989.Theuseof naturalplants incolouring without harming the
balance of the ecological systems. The papers presented at the Fifth Environmental
Congress, 1989,Adana,p.426.
Yetkin,S.,1991.Turkhalisanatiu (TurkishArtofCarpetWeaving),TiirkiyeIsBank.Cultural
Publications, 150,p.2.
207
Research and development ofthe natural dyesused for
traditional carpets in theAegean region "Dobag project"
M.Aslier
UniversityofMarmara, FacultyofFineArts,Istanbul, Turkey
Summary
Dobag project is designed to promote the Turkish carpet and kilim tradition and has been
founded bytheFaculty ofFineArtsoftheMarmaraUniversity,Istanbul.ThewordDOBAG
is the abbreviated from of the"DogalBoya Arastirma Gelistirme"natural dyeresearch and
development. Objectives:
1. Torevivethetradition ofcarpet andkilimweavingintheareas,wheretheseare forgotten
andwithverylow agriculturalincome.
2. Togivethevillagersartisticandscientificsupportwhileproducingnewcarpetswithmostly
natural coloured hand spun woolwiththetraditionalpatternsof thatregion.
3. Toresearch andidentify thenaturaldyesandtraditionalpatternsofdifferent regions.
4. Tocontrol,superviseandexpertisetheproductioninthevillagesinordertoruntheproject
truetoits objectives.
5. To give a guarantee certificate for those carpets and kilims, which have been produced
according toDOBAG's objectives. Tomakepublications about the scientific and artistic
qualities,toexhibitandgivelectures abouttheproduct.
CooperationWithTheVillageCooperatives:TheDOBAGprojectiscarriedoutintworegions;
in Çanakkaleunderthename 'Sleymanky and SurroundingVillagesDevelopment Cooperation' and in Manisa-Yuntda 'Production and Marketing Cooperation of the Weaving with
Natural Dyes'.Thecooperation inanakkalewith221membersfrom 26villagesisoccupied
onlyinproducingDOBAGcarpets.YuntdaCooperation whichisfounded byvillagewomen,
has72memberweaversfrom 6villages.
Thefinishedcarpets are evaluated by the tutorial staff of the Faculty of Fine Arts. The
evaluation andclassification iscarriedoutattheCooperation CentersinAyvackandYuntda,
according to the quality of the natural dyes patterns and weaving. After this expertise the
carpetsarebeingtaggedandtheoneswhicharegoingtobesoldabroadaregivenaguarantee
certificate bytheFacultyofFineArtsoftheMarmaraUniversity.
Scientific Research: Research onnaturaldyes isdoneinthenaturaldyelaboratory of the
faculty byaforeign colourexpert,adozent,anassistantdozent andaresearch assistant.The
researchontraditionalpatternsisrunbymembersoftutorialstafforotherpersonnel,appointed
to thatregion. The origin of plants and insects used in natural dyes are beingresearched all
throughout Turkey.Theresults areworkedintonaturaldyeformulas todervethevillagers.
Introduction
DOBAGProject aimstogivelife againtothetraditionalTurkishhand-maderugs.Theword
DOBAGisusedastheshortform ofNaturalDye-Research andProgress.
Themaindiscrimination between thetraditionalrugsandtheundiscriminatedrugswoven
withouttraditionalmethodsisthedyingtechnologyandthedyeswhichgivethecolourtothe
threadoftherug.Evenifthetechnique,thedesign andtherawmaterialsusedinweavingthe
rugis appropriate to the tradition, the useof the synthetic chemical dyes is one of themost
208
importantfactor whichcausedthetraditionalrugtoloseitsvalue.Therefore,inordertoproducearugof atraditional value,thethreadoftherug shouldbecolouredwithanaturaldye.
TheAcademyofNationalAppliedArts(DevletTatbikiGiizelSanatlarYiiksekOkulu)took
stepstoestablisharesearchlaboratoryin1976onnaturaldyes.(ANFA)AcademyofNational
Applied Arts, in cooperation with (Gesellschaft für Technical Zusammenarbeit GTZ) the
technical cooperation of the Federal Republic of Germany succeeded in appointing Dr.
Böhmer, tobeonduty inTurkey.Dr. Böhmer, startedworkingin theTextileDepartmentof
this association in March 1980and thusestablished thecore of theNatural Dyeresearches.
The Chemistry engineers hand been appointed to help Dr. Böhmer parallel to natural dye
researches carried out in the laboratories of thetextile division, other researches carried on
traditional kirkitli textiles of various districts and their designs were densified upon main
districts.
The first experiments were held in Toros Mountains in cooperation with the Karatepe
Village Cooperative; the villagers received help in weaving traditional rugs.The rugs with
traditional designs,coloured with naturaldyesdrewattention both in Turkey andin foreign
countries.After thisexperiment, serious actionsweretakentoestablishaResearch Centeror
atleastaprojecttoproducetraditionalTurkishrugs.Nevertheless,aSchoolofHigherEducationdidnothavethechancetoestablishaninstituteoraresearchcenter,therefore,theseactivitieswereentitledastheprojectofthetextiledepartment.Inshort,the(NaturalDyeResearch
andProgressProject) weretitled asDOBAGin1981.
Theaimoftheproject
1. Toenlivenandgivelifetothetraditionsinvillageswithinsufficient incomeswheretraditionsinweavingrugs andcarpets arenearly forgotten.
2. Toprovidebothartisticandtechnologicalaidtopeasantsinordertoenablethemtoproduce
new rugs and carpets woven in traditional designs of their districts dyed in natural dyes
withhand-twisted purewool.
3. Tocarry onresearches and determination studies on natural dyes and traditional district
designs.
4. Tocarryonwiththenecessarycontrol,expertiseprocessesandthuscontroltheproduction
oftherugsinordertocarryontheproductionofrugswithoperationstocontrolsuitableto
theaimofthe project.
5. Togiveaguaranteecertificate tocertify andprovethatthecarpetsproducedservingtothe
aimsoftheprojectandalsoarrangepublicationsbothscientificandartistic,forintroducing
theproject worldwide.
NinePilotdistricts werechosen tocarryout on theproject. NineDistricts chosen were:Çanakkale,Manisa,Bursa,Balikesir,Bergama,Izmir,Gördes,Usak,Karatepe.Thefirstexperiments were made in Çanakkale, Ayvacik,in cooperation with cooperative aimingto aidthe
Süleymanköy andnearbyvillages.Efforts andstudiesmadeonthisareabytheGovernorof
Çanakkale,Mr.NurettinTuran andtheOrköyadministration, gavebirthtotheRugweaving
Schoolin Ayvacik, and thus,these activities wereovertaken byDOBAG tocarry on further
researches.The sameyear, the Governor of Manisa started the second project in the hereby
villagesof Yuntdagupon theproposalofManisaYuntdagCooperation inchargeofTourism
development.
Till theendof 1982's,DOBAG activities were carried by thelimited availabilities of the
SchoolofFineArts,withgreateffortsoftheacademicstaff,withoutanybudgetoraregulation.
In July 20, 1982, after Devlet Tatbiki Güzel Sanatlar Yüksek Okulu (Faculty of National
Applied Arts) became the Faculty of Marmara University, efforts to conduct the DOBAG
projecttowardsaprojecttobeappliedatleastwithintheregulationsofaresearchcenterwere
209
made.TheFacultytooknecessary stepstodevelopaHandcraft andIndustrialProductsPlanning,Researching andDeveloping Centerandtheresultprovedtobevery successful.
Inthemeantime,theFacultyestablishedaDOBAGCentralAdministrativeCommitteeand
aWorkingGroupwhiletheactivitiesweregoingon.Since1983,DOBAGactivitiesarecarried
bytheseorgans.TheHeadoftheCentralAdministrativeCommitteeistheDeanoftheFaculty.
The experts and the faculty members participating in the organizations are pointed as the
membersof thesecommittees sincethedevelopmentoftheproject.
Theworkinggroupconsistsofthreenaturaldyeexportsandthreetextiledesignerschosen
among the faculty members.Astaff member of thefaculty resides continuously in Ayvacik
DOBAG Center in order to make researches in the area and control the work done in the
villages.IwouldliketounderlineDr.SerifeAtlihan'snamehereandexpressmyappreciation
toherwhoisthesymbolof agreat self-sacrificing andloyalfaculty member.
Workingtogetherwiththevillagecooperatives:DOBAGactivitiesin
AyvacikandYuntdagVillages
TheDOBAG project isrealized with thejoint ventureof Süleymanköy and Cooperative (in
charge of developing nearby villages) and Manisa Yuntdag Cooperative (aiming to help
Tourism).The Cooperative inÇanakkalehas340membersin 32villages andis aimingonly
toproduce DOBAG rugs. Eventhough the Manisa and Yuntdag now has aimed to produce
DOBAGrugsonly.Ithas 150membersin 16villages.
1. The work done in thisfield hasstarted with determining the traditional characteristics of
theregionalcarpets.Thephotographsoftherugspresentinthemosques,tombsandhouses
were taken tobeclosely examined. Thedesigns werechosen out of theoneswhich were
publicandregionalcolours anddesignswerethusdetermined.
2. Inordertoprofit oftheabilityandknownowofthepeasantwomenwhoalreadyknewhow
to weave traditional rugs, first lessons were on 'how to use natural dyes' and traditional
designs were given to these women; and they also taught whet they have learnt to their
neighbors.BecausethepeasantswereunwillingtosendtheirdaughterstotheRugTeaching
SchoolwhichstartedworkinginAyvacikbytheGovernorofthisdistrict,theattemptproved
tobeafailure. Butthepresenceof ourfaculty members whotaughtwithadirect method
carriedintothevillages wasareal success andgaveitsresultsinavery shorttime.
3. Theproduction carriedinthevillagesarecontinuouslykept undercontrolbytheworking
group,theDirector, groupmembers andbythefaculty members workingonthis area.
4. The completed rugs, after been expertized are classified in Ayvacik Dobag Center and
Manisa Yuntdag Cooperative. The Group Director and the members, visit the nearby
villages atleasttwotimesaweek.
5. After expertizing procedures are completed, the rugs are been labelled and a guarantee
documentislabelledonthosesoldoutsideTurkeybytheFineArtsFacultyoftheMarmara
University.Thelabelsindicatewheretherugiswoven,whohaswoventherug,thenumber
ofloops,dateandthenumber.Theguaranteedocument whichisprintedonleathercarries
theDOBAGamblemonit.Andthecharacteristicsoftherug,suchinformationastowhether
thecoloursoftherugisobtainedbyindigoornaturaldye,whetherthedesignistraditional
orhand-made bypurewool threadisalsoindicated bothinTurkish,English andGerman
ontheguarantee document.
6. Indeterminingthenaturaldyeplants,ourfacultyisinjointventurewiththefacultymembers
of other universities. I would like to underline the scientific contributions made byProf.
Dr.HüsnüDemirizandProf.Dr.Baytopandmydeepappreciation.Accordingtotheplant
mapof theTurkey, thecooperatives were aided as towhere they couldfindthesearched
plant and it was also provided the production of some plants in Technical Agricultural
210
Sections and PlantProducing services and in somevillages.Important part of dyeplants
areobtainedfrom wildplantseasily.
7. Itwas aproblem tosetup amarketfor theDOBAGrugs atthebeginning.Itwas figured
thattheserugscouldfind theirvalueoutsideTurkeyandapublication campaign startedin
foreign countries.The scientific publications ofourfaculty membersinforeign countries
both in journals and bulletins, and with the aid of the foreign country rug sellers, the
DOBAG products were exhibited inFederal Germany, Switzerland, Australia, Belgium,
ArapConfederates,England,USA,JapanandNorway.Conferences weregivenbyexperts
andfacultymembersinthesecountries.Publications,exhibitionsandconferences enlarged
andtheseactivitiesstilltaketheirplacesinmanyforeign countries.Theseactivitieswhich
arefor the benefit of theforeign country sellers and therugcustomers haveproved very
successful results.Today,allof theDOBAGrugs aresoldinforeign countries.
211
The state's role in theTurkish carpet sector
LH.Güngör
FacultyofArchitecture, UniversityofTrakya,Edirne, Turkey1
Abstract
Thematerials,thecolors,thedesigns,thetexture,theproduction,themaintenance,therestoration,thepurchaseandthesaleofthecarpetsarerelatedtomostofthemainfieldsof scientific
activity.Thesefields areMaterial Knowledge,Dying Chemistry, BasicDesign,ArtHistory,
Textile Technology, Production, Restoration, Marketing and Economy. Thus, handwoven
carpet makingfinds itself inthisinterdisciplinary area.Forthisreason,itisobligatory toincludecarpetmakingwithintheprogramsoftheuniversities.Ontheotherside100%pureness
of thewoolenthreadshouldbecheckedbytheTurkish InstituteofStandards.Woolenthread
production shouldbesupported.Naturalcarpetdyesshouldbeencouragedandafter acertain
period,theuseofthissystemmustbeobligatory.Carpetproductionshouldbeorientedtowards
larger workshops. For smaller carpet production enterprises, low interest credits should be
issued bybanks.
Keywords:Problems; sizes;design;knotcount.
Introduction
WhenwetakealookatthecarpetsandrugswoveninAnatolia,weobservethattheproblems
anddeficiencies concerning thecarpets woven atworkshops arefewer innumberthan those
woven invillages.Thesecarpets aregenerally smallin size.Except thosecalled sidecarpets
which cover aroom when placed side by side, areas of thecarpets are usually 2.5 m2.Very
few of themhave anarea of 6m2.Someregions donothaveanydesigns tocover the 6m2
areaofacarpetplain.Likewiseinmostofthesecarpetsknotcoundisabout30x35perdm2.
Thethreefacts mentioned above showthepresent situation of thecarpets aswell asindicate
their deficiencies.
Discussion
Inmyopinion,thesedeficiencies stemfrom thefollowing facts:
• Thereareveryfew large-sizeloomsinvillages.
• Therearenodesigns left in thehandsofweaversfor largecarpets.
• Weaverstend toweaveusingtheirmemoriesinsteadoflookingatcartoons.
• Eventhoughtheweaversdesiretoweaveadifferent carpeteachtimehasbroughtvividness
intodesignandcolorarrangementsandthusdiversity,therehasbeenacertaindegeneration
incoloranddesign.
• Thetendencytolowerthecostvalueofthecarpetshasledtheweaverstodecreasetheknot
countineachunitplain.
• Ithasnotbeenpossible toestablish workshops whereweaverscanwork alltogether.
• Thehighcostvalueoflargesizecarpetsisbeyond theinvestment capacityofproducers.
1 Presentaddress:AbideSitesi,ABlok,D.19,Mecidiyeköy,Istanbul,Turkey.
212
ThesereasonsandtheirnegativeconsequencesmakeusthinkofthegoldenageoftheTurkish
carpetmaking.ThecarpetworkshopinHerekehadbeenestablishedin1891 inordertoprevent
thedegeneration of carpets duringthetwoprevious centuries but thismeasurehad notbeen
effective due to the fact that the Ottoman Empire had come to the point of disintegration.
However,thisinitiative,thepositiveconsequencesofwhichhavesurviveduptillnow,should
beremembered with appreciation. Thepresentproblemsof theTurkish carpet sectorcan be
summedupinthreegroups:
1. Problemsindesignandcolor;
2. Problemsintechnology andproduction;
3. Problemsinfinance.
Theseproblems havebeenrelatively minimized and beautiful carpets arenow being woven
inworkshopsownedbySsmerbank,StatePrivateInstitutions,someuniversities,prisonsand
privatecompanies.Nevertheless thestateshoulddeal withthesethreemainproblems,asthe
abovementionedproductionofcarpetsmakesuponlyaverysmallpartofthetotalproduction
capacityinTurkey.Theweaversworkingintheirhomesaswellasinworkshopswillthusbenefit a great deal from state support. In thisconnection the Prime Ministry, the Ministry of
Culture,theMinistryofNationalEducation,theMinistryofAgriculture,theUniversitiesand
theStateBanks allhave acertain responsibility infulfilling their seperatetasks.Thesetasks
maybelisted asfollows:
1. Taskstobefulfilled bythePrimeMinistry
The following are the services in the carpet sector that could be rendered by the Prime
Minister's office:
1.1. Toestablish aresearchinstituteonhand-weaving;
1.2. Totake measures towards ensuring the use of natural dyes throughout the country
andtoappointtheTurkishInstituteofStandardstoimposethatafter acertainperiod
itwillbeobligatory tousenaturaldyes;
1.3. Toexhibitandtoprotecttheoriginalsamplesbyestablishingcarpetmuseumsineach
cityandtown;
1.4. Totakemoreeffective measuresagainst smuggling thesecarpetsout;
1.5. To initiate theproduction of 100%pure wool thread and to encourage the private
sectorinthis field;
1.6. Toprovidefacilities inordertoencouragecarpetproduction inworkshops;
1.7. Toprovidelowinterestcreditstoallkindsofcarpetproducersandtoprovidefacilities
inpurchasing thread,dyesandlooms.
2. Taskstobefulfilled bytheMinistry ofCulture:
2.1. To compile a catalogue of Turkish hand-woven samples found in the museums in
foreign countries;
2.2. To compile acatalogue of Turkish hand-woven samples found in the museums in
Turkey;
2.3. TocompileacatalogueofTurkish hand-woven samplesfound inmosques;
2.4. TocompileacatalogueofTurkishhand-wovensamplesfoundinprivatecollections;
2.5. Toconpile and sellthecartoonsof thehand-woven samples in thecatalogues mentionedabove;
2.6. Toorganizecontestsinordertoencourage thecreationofnewdesigns;
2.7. To introduce the hand-woven samples to the general public by organizing mobile
exhibitions;
2.8. Toorganizeseminars and/orsymposiums on hand-weaving.
3. Taskstobefulfilled bytheMinistryofNational Education:
Thathand-woven products suchascarpets,"kilim","cicim","zili",and"sumak"arepart
of our national culture should beincluded in thecurricula of educational institutions and
213
thusageneralinformation shouldbegiven onthis subject.In addition tothetasks above,
thefollowing shouldalsobe fulfilled:
3.1. Small-scale implementations on hand-weaving should be carried out in Arts and
Crafts courses.
3.2. Optioal cources on this subject should be included in the curricula in secondary
schools.
3.3. CarpetDepartments shouldbeestablishedinVacationalHigh Schoolsforgirls;
3.4. Woodenandmetallicloommanifacture shouldbetaughtatVocationalHighSchools
for Industry;
3.5. Practical courses on carpet making should be opened in villages and cities by the
Office ofPopularEducation.
4. Taskstobefulfilled bytheMinistryofAgriculture:
4.1. Theplantsandinsectsusedinobtainingnaturaldyesmaybereproducedinstateproduction farms;
4.2. Thespeciescanbeimproved andtheseedscanbedistributed bytheMinistry;
4.3. Natural dye production can betaught tothepeople by the Offices of theTechnical
Agriculture.
5. Taskstobefulfilled bytheuniversities:
Thefoundations mostcloselyrelated tothecarpet sectoraretheuniversities.
Thematerials,thecolors,thedesigns,thetexture,theproduction,themaintenance,therestoration, thepurchase and the sales of carpets arerelated to most of the main fields of
scientific activity.Thesefields areMeterialsKnowledge,DyingChemistry,BasicDesign,
ArtHistory,TextileTechnology,Production,Restoration,Marketing andEconomy.Thus,
hand-woven carpet making finds itself in this interdisciplinary area. This is why thedevelopmentofthiscraftcannotbelefttotheexperienceandskillsofthelocalweavers.Thus,
itisobligatorytoincludecarpetmakingwithintheprogramsofuniversities.Althoughsome
universities have included carpet making in their programs, it is still necessary to make
these more effective and to expand them to cover the other universities. Hand-weaving
should beincluded in the associate,undergraduate and graduate degree programs,which
shouldbereinforced withworkshopsateachlevel.
WhentheHigherEducationAuthoritywasfoundedin 1982,wehadproposedestablishing
carpet-making departments atHigher Vocatioal Schools,which had been approved. First
of these departments was established at éanakkale Higher Vocational School of Trakya
University;thesecondatKirklareliHighVocationalSchoolofthesameuniversity;thethird
atIspartaHighVocational Schoolof AkdenizUniversity; andthefourth atKaramanHigh
Vocational School of Selçuk University. I personally observed the benefits gained from
these schools because I taught at two of them, which had been established by my own
efforts. InthecoursesofDesignResearch,classicaldesignswerestudied;waysof transformingthesedesignsintomoreeffective arrangementsbyusingtheoldsampleswereinvestigatedandexperimentsweremadeonobtainingnewdesignsbysimplifying traditionalones.
I'd now liketodemonstrate someof these samples.Ibelievethat such studies willrevive
thepastofTurkish carpetmakingandcontribute toitsfuture success.
6. Taskstobefulfilled bythestatebanks:
The statebanks should issue low-investment credits for theproductions of raw materials
forcarpets andrugs,suchaswool,cotton andsilk, andfor theproduction of threadusing
thesematerials,andfordyingthethread.Suchcreditsshouldbeavailablefortheindividual
weaverworkingonhisown,orfortheproducerswhohavethecarpetswoveninhomesor
workshops, and for those who deal in purchasing and selling carpets. The state should
supportsuchbankstoissuethecredits.Somesuggestionsonthetypeofsupporttobegiven
bythestatetothecarpetmakingsectorhavebeenmentionedabove.Manyothersuggestions
may be added for this authentic craft which originated in the steppes of Central Asia,to
continuetoyieldeverbeautiful products.
214
Production et transformation artisanale de la laine locale en
Algérie
A. Ayachi* etM.T.Benyoucef**
* Fermeexpérimentaleovine,Ain-El-Hadjar(Saida)
** Départementdesproductionsanimales,INA. El-Harrach(Alger),Algérie.
Summary
In this study the authors purpose an evaluation of the wool production and its utilization in
Algeria.Theprincipalpointsdeveloped concern ananalysisof thewoolcircuit, aqualitative
approch,andanestimationofthecommercialvalueofthewoolanditssub-products.Themethodology usedisbasedon aserialofobservations insitu,a survey andexamination of some
localwoolresults.Thewoolproductionisconcentredinhighlands.Howeverthe transformationismaked attwolevels:
• familial levelwhere alltraitmentsarerealized;
• semi-industriel level constitued by specialised manufactures which transform different
products.
Theauthorstrytomakeaneconomicapprochaboutthewoolcomparativelytoproductsgiven
bytheflock orelaboredinthewoolcircuit.
Introduction
EnAlgériel'élevagedumoutonconstitueuneactivitéimportantepourlamajoritédesfamilles
quiviventdanslesrégions steppiques etagro-pastorales.Dans cetterégion delarivesudde
laméditérranée,ilyaquelquesdécennies,lemoutonétaitconsidéréàlafoiscommeunanimal
fournisseur deviande,delaineetdelait.Cettetriplevocationétaitliéeauparfait équilibrequi
existaitentrelestroisprincipauxélémentsdel'écosystème quisontlavégétation,l'animal,et
l'homme.Grâceàcetéquilibrel'ovingarantissaitlasurviedupasteuretcelledesafamilleen
fournissant laviandeetlelaitpourleuralimentation etlalainepourlaconfection d'habits,de
tapiset decouvertures. Cependant, onassiste actuellement àun bouleversement du système
pastoralqui setraduitpar unantagonisme biologique (augmentation delacharge animaleet
dégradationdesparcours)accentuéparlapersistancedelasécheresse.Cettesituationaengendréledéveloppement d'activités spéculatives surlesproduitsovins.Lalaineresteunproduit
trèsrecherché sur le marché, mais quiest faiblement valorisé par l'éleveur. Dans leprésent
travail nous tenterons d'étudier l'importance deceproduit qui continuepourtant àjouer un
rôleappréciabledanslemaintiend'uneactivitéd'élevagetrèsancienneetd'un artisanatlocal
quiasesparticularités etsestraditions sociales.
Méthodologie
L'analyseproposéeporteessentiellement surlalainelocaledestinéeàl'artisanat traditionnel.
La démarche utilisée consiste en une série d'enquêtes d'une part au niveau des institutions
nationales etdescentres d'artisanat etd'autrepart auniveau desélevages etdequelques famillesen zones pastorales.Par ailleurs nous avonsprocédéàunerecherche bibliographique
afin de rassembler les informations disponibles sur la filière de la laine. La réalisation des
enquêtesestfaitedelamanièresuivante:Unesériedevisitesréaliséesparnousmêmesselon
215
Tableau la. Mensurationsdesprincipalesracesovines algériennes(selonla littérature).
Races
Longueurtronc
(cm)
Hauteurgarrot
(cm)
Tourpoitrine
(cm)
90
80
85
75
70
75
85
90
90
OuledDjellal
Hamra
Rembi
Tableaulb. Caractéristiques des toisonsdespricipalesracesovinesalgériennes(selonla
littérature).
Races
Poids
toison
(kg)
Longueur
brin
(cm)
Lavée
à fond
(%)
Finesse
1.5
2.0
1.6
7-8
5-6
6-7
53
43
50
23-27
25-30
24-26
OuledDjellal
Hamra
Rembi
lb
Laine locale
Cniveau é l e v e u r )
lb
lb j
Coops t e p p e s •-•••••
|
_. , .
Filatures
EEhb"-» 1 !—I—r
mp I m p
i
Gommer ç a n t s
laini ers
lb
Centres
d'artisanat
pif i
nat
4-
Qi)
La i n e
importée
•mp
mp I r C o o p é r a t i v e s
d'artisanat
T
C e nt trr ee s ddee
plf2
prom
mooi t i o n
|"f
I
lb
r é s e a u d ' a r t isans'"'%"
non o r g a n i s é s
ré r é s e a u
d'artisans
organisés
Artisanat familiai
pifi
plfz
lb
mp
produits lainiers sous forme
de t a p i s , couvertures et habits
produits lainiers sous forme
de tapis et couvertures .
laine brute
matière première .
Figure1. Circuitdecollecte etdetransformationartisanaledelalaineenAlgérie.
216
desitinérairesquicomprennentleschefslieuxdewilayaoudecommunessuivantes:Nedroma,
Tlemcen, Saida,Naama,Méchéréa,El-Bayadh,Arbaouat,Aflou,LaghouatetGhardaïa(sud
ouest, et sudcentre).Des enquêtes similaires ont été effectuées par nous-mêmes et avec la
collaborationdecollèguesopérantàAlger,Djelfa, M'sila,AinElBeida,Biskra,Khenchela,
Meskrana,ConstantineetAïnMlila(centreetestdupays).
Caractéristiquesdusystèmedeproductiondelaine
Laproduction delaineestfournie principalement partroisracesquisontlaOuledDjellal (8
millionsdetêtes),laHamra(4millionsdetêtes)etlaRembi(2millions detêtes).Cestrois
Tacesontensembledestraitscommunsquiconcernentlafaiblesse dupoidsdelatoison (1.5
à2.5kg)etdurendement aprèslavage (43à53%);maisaussiunegrandefinesse delalaine
(23à30^.)(Tableau 1).ChezlaraceOuled-Djellallestoisonssontblanchesalorsquechezles
racesHamraetRembiellessontplutôttachetéesoupiquéeschamoisetparfois complètement
roussâtres.Leszonesdeproductiondelalainesontleshautsplateauxsteppiquesetcéréaliers
quisecaractérisentparunclimataride:chaudetsecenété,trèsfroidenhiver.Lestempératures
peuvent descendre audessousde0°Cenhiveretdépasserles45°Cen été.Lapluviométrie
varieentre200et400mmparansurleshautsplateauxcéréaliersetentre 100et200mmsur
lasteppe.
Enmilieu steppiquelesressourcesalimentairesducheptel sontconstituéespardeuxtypes
devégétations:
/• Les plantes pérennes dont les plus importantes sont l'alfa (Stipa tenacissima),le chih
(Artemesiaherba alba), le drin (Aristida pengens), le guettaf (Atriplex halimus) et le
sennagh (Lygeumspartum),
• etlesplantes annuelles qui sontreprésentées par différentes espèces (céréalesetlégumineuses)quisecaractérisentpardescyclesvégétatifsrelativementcourts.
Dans les zonescéréalières lesressources alimentaires desovins sontconstituées principalementdefourrages secs(association céréales-légumineuses )degrains,pailles,chaumesetde
jachèrepâturée.Lesovinssontexpoitésselonplusieursvariantesd'unmêmesystèmeextensif:
lesystèmetranshumantestdominantdansleszonesducentreetdel'estdelasteppe.Ils'agit
d'unetraditionquisembles'expliquerparuneadaptation saisonnièreauxconditionsclimatiquesdumilieu.Al'ouestlesystèmesecaractériseparunetranshumancedefaible amplitude.
Il a la particularité d'évoluer parfois vers une conduite totalement sédentarisée en hors-sol
durantcertainespériodesdel'année(finAutomneethiver).Lesélémentsquiconduisentàune
tellepratiqueconcernent souventl'insuffisance despâturagesenpériodedifficile. L'alimentationestalorsbaséesurdesapportsdefourrages secs,depailleetd'alimentsindustriels.Dans
leszonessituéesplusaunordetnotammentleshautsplateauxcéréaliers,lesystèmed'élevage
pratiquéestdominéparletypebiennalarchétypequisecaractériseengénéralparuneconduite
surchaumesdecéréalesenétéetenautomneetsurjachèreenhiveretauprintemps.
Commercialisationettransformation delalaine
Lecircuit decollecte etdetransformation artisanaledela laineest assezcomplexe.Apartir
desélémentsde l'enquêtenousavons tenté devisualiser lesdifférentes situations observées
(Figure1).
217
Circuitdecollecte
L'estimationduniveau deproduction delalaineestbaséesurleshypothèses suivantes:
• l'effectif estconsidérédel'ordre de 16millionsdetêtes(donnéesstatistiques);
• lapartdesanimauxproducteursdelaineestde60%;
• etlepoidsmoyendetoisonparanimalestdel'ordrede1.5 kg(estimation faite àpartirde
mesuresréelles surunéchantillonde5000toisonsd'animaux deraceslocales).
Surlabasedeceshypothèses laproduction lainièreestestiméeégaleà 14400tonnesparan
fournie parletroupeau àlaquelles'ajoute unequantitéde3500tonnesdelainerésultantdu
traitement despeaux lainéesissuesdesmégisseries,soitunvolumeglobalde 17900tonnes
paranàl'échellenationalequisontdestinésessentiellementversl'artisanatlocal.
Ilyalieudepréciserquel'approvisionnement descomplexeslainiersindustriels seréalise
essentiellementàpartirdelainesd'importation.Levolumemoyenannueldecesimportations
est estimé à 100000 tonnes.La collecte dela laine produite localement est caractérisée par
trois niveaux:
• lescommerçants quiviennentenpremièrepositiondansleramassagedelalainemisesur
lemarché.
• les ateliers familiaux qui s'approvisionnent soit auprès des éleveurs, soit au niveau des
marchéslocaux.
• les coopsteppes qui participent dans la collecte de la laine en assurant également des
servicesd'appui etdecommercialisation d'autres produits.
L'importancedechaqueniveauducircuitdecollecteestliéengénéralauprixoffert auxproducteursdelaine.Ainsilescommerçantslainiers,grâceàunsystèmedeconcurrence,arrivent
àramasserdegrandstonnagesdelaineproduite.Atitreindicatif nousavonsconstatélorsde
nosenquêtesquel'offre faiteparcesderniersenmatièredeprixd'achatdelalaineétaitsupérieurede30à40%auprixpayéparlacoosteppe.Leniveauéleveurdelafilière secaractérise
parl'absencedestockagedelalaine.Cequipourraitexpliquerlecourtepériodedetransaction
deceproduitentreleproducteuretlesdifférents acquéreurs.L'enquête arévéléparexemple
danslarégion deMéchériaet d'El-Bayadh queplusde70%delalaineproduiteestmiseen
ventedurantunepériodede6semaines(entredébutjuinetmi-Juillet).Cettesituation profite
enpremier lieu auxcommerçants qui tirentdesrevenus importantset quiforment unréseau
solidedetransfert delalainedeszonesdelasteppe (MéchériaEl-Bayadh,Aflou, Laghouat)
versleszonesdunord(Tlemcen,Oran,Alger,Annaba).
Circuitdetransformation
Lecircuitdetransformation delalainesecaractérisepardeuxvariantes:
• latransformation artisanale familiale qui absorbeplus de80%delalainelocalemisesur
lemarché;
• etlatransformation artisanalesemi-industriellequiprendlereste(soit20%).Cettedernière
estalimentée aussiparles filatures.
En ce qui concerne la transformation dela laine locale au niveau familial, elle aboutit àla
réalisationderembourragedematelas(50%),àlafabrication detapis(35%)etàlaconfection
devêtements (15%).Aceniveau touteslesopérations detraitementet detransformation de
lalainesontréaliséesàl'aidedematérieltypiquementtraditionnel.Quantàla transformation
semi-industrielle qui utilise à la fois la laine importée et la laine locale, on distingue deux
niveaux: l'un concerne les filatures où la laine subit une sériede traitementsjusqu'au stade
matière première, elle-même livrée sous différentes formes (laines lavées, laines cardées,
lainesfilées écruesoucolorées).L'autre sesitueauniveauduréseaudecentresd'artisanatoù
lamatièrepremièreesttransformée enproduitsdivers (tapis,couvertures,habits).L'organisationdecescentresdiffère selonqueleurobjectif estcommercialoupromotionnel:
218
a. Lescentresd'artisanatrattachésauxcoopsteppesquisontàcaractèrecommercial,disposent
d'ateliers oùsontfabriqués destapisetd'autres articleslainiers.Cesateliers fonctionnent
essentiellement aumoyendelainesfiléesfournies parlesfilatures.La commercialisation
desproduits sefait soit surplace auniveau descentres soitau niveau despointsdevente
danslesgrandesvilles.
b. Lescentresdepromotion del'artisanat lainier,subventionnésparl'Etat.sontchargésdela
préservation destypesetdesmotifs traditionnels.Ilsutilisent lamatièrepremièreenprovenancedesfilatures pourlafabrication dediversproduitslainiersparmilesquelslestapis
d'appelation locale(DjebelAmmour,Melgout,Beni-Isghen,Maâdid).Danslefonctionnementdecescentresdepromotiondeuxsystèmessontrencontrés:unsystèmeoùlamatière
premièreesttransformée dansdesateliersdetissageetunautresystèmequifaitappelàdes
femmesartisansquiexercentlemétierchezelles.Chaquecentreétablitpourcelauncontrat
detravail avec cesartisans par l'intermédiaire demonitrices qualifiées qui assurent aussi
lacoordinationetlesuivitechniqueetlogistiquedesfoyersd'artisanat.Lamatièrepremière
estd'abord achetéeparlecentredepromotion auprèsdesfilaturespuiselleestremiseaux
artisansquilatransformententapisouencouverturesmoyennantleschargesderéalisation
desproduits.Laproduction estcollectéealorsparlecentrepourêtreparlasuitecommercialisée.Atitred'exemple lecentreEPGATdeLaghouatquidispose dedeux monitrices
exercecetteactivitéavecplusde300femmes-artisans quiproduisentannuellementplus1
500m2detapisvariés.
c. Lescoopérativesd'artisanat lainierdontlavocationprincipaleestlatransformation. Elles
fabriquent à leur niveau divers produitsfinauxde la laine.Pour atteindre ée but chaque
coopérativeregroupe uncertain nombredefamilles quiexercent lemétierd'artisan, dans
cecas,dansuncadreorganisé.Chaquefamille adhérentereçoitrégulièrementunquotade
matièrepremièrepourlaréalisation detravaux enfonction desorientationsdelacoopérative.C'estlecasdela C.A.TdeGhardaiaquiregroupe 350familles adhérentes
Formation desprix
Margebrutedel'éleveur
Aucoursduprocessusdecommercialisation etdetransformation lavaleurdelalaineévolue
defaçon plusoumoinsimportanteenfonction duniveau ducircuit.Enamont,àl'échelledu
troupeau, l'éleveur obtient en général 1.5 kg detoison par têted'ovin soit une valeur de45
dinars algériens (DA).Latonteestpratiquéecouramment enAlgérieselonunsystèmetraditionnelqui secaractériseparl'utilisation deforces commematérieldetonteetparlerecours
àunemaind'oeuvre occasionnellepourlapréparationetlatonteeffective desanimaux.Dans
un tel système appliqué àun troupeau ovin de300têtes,leprixderevient d'un kilogramme
detoison estdel'ordre de 14.5DA(Tableau2).
Mais du fait dela complexité du système d'élevage ovin eten l'absence de comptabilité
analytiquedutroupeau,iln'apasétéaisédefixerdanscetravailpréliminaire surlalaine,une
estimation de tous les frais financiers et notamment ceux liés à l'entretien et aux soins des
animaux dans l'élaboration du prix de revient de la laine brute. Néanmoins des valeurs
approchées ontétéobtenues.Lamargebrutequirevientàl'éleveur estdel'ordrede52%des
recettes de lalainelocaleobtenueparanimal etpar an (Tableau 3).Lafaible marge obtenue
parl'éleveur delasteppe s'explique parl'importance deschargesdetontequi sontliéesàla
fois àlatechniquedetonteutiliséeetaufaible poidsdelatoisond'unepartetauxpratiques
coutumières dans l'organisation de latonte et du marché de la laine d'autre part. Àtitrede
comparaison la marge brute 'laine'estrelativement trèsfaible (23.3DA)parrapport àcelle
delaviande(1 163 DA).
219
Tableau2. Chargesdetonteetvaleurdelalaine dansunsystème
traditionel(casd'un troupeaude300têtesderacelocale).
Fraisdetonte
Fraisderepasetdetransport
Autres frais
Fraistotaux
Fraispartêteovine
Prixderevient de 1 kgdelainebrute
4500
1500
520
6520
DA
DA
DA
DA
21.7
14.5
DA
DA
IFF =3.5DA(juillet 1991)
Tableau3. Formationdesmargesbrutes'laine' et'viande'par brebis
deracelocale.
Critère
Production (kg)
Valeur(DA)
Chargedeproduction
Marge(DA)
Margeen%devaleur
Marge 'laine'en %delamarge 'viande'
Laine
Viande
(carcasse)
1.5
45
21.7
23.3
52
2
11.2
1568
405
1 163
74
-
DA =Dinar algérien
IFF =3.50DA(juillet 1991)
Tableau4. Valeurajoutée delalaine transformée entapisselon la
modèleDjebelAmmour(donnéesrapportéesaumètre carrédetapis).
(DA)
Valeur(%)
Lainebrute
Lavage
Filage
Teinture
Tissage-Finition
Taxe
Prixderevient
Marge fabricant
Margedétaillant
163.6
40
87.3
37.3
186.7
154.6
670
97
67
19.6
4.8
10.4
4.6
22.4
18.5
11.6
8.1
Prixdevente
834
Critères
220
(
100
Coûtdefabricationdetapis
Enavalducircuitdetransformation delalaineonatentéd'évaluerlescoûtsliésàlafabrication
desdifférentsproduitslainiers.Maisl'enquêten'apasrendupossiblel'obtention d'estimations
détailléespourtouscesproduitsetpourlesopérationsdetraitementquileursontliées.Cependantunesynthèseaétéréaliséesurlabasededonnéescollectéesauprèsducentre d'artisanat
d'El-Bayadh(spécialisédanslafabricationdutapistypeDjebelAmmour)etrelativesàl'année
1982.
LesrésultatsduTableau4indiquentqueleprixdecessiondutapisDjebel Ammour surle
marchéestde834DAlemètrecarré.L'opération lapluscoûteusedansleprocessusdetransformation estletissage,soit22.4%duprixdecession.Quantauxopérations delavageetde
teinture,ellesreprésententrespectivement 4.8%et4.6%duprixdecessiondumètrecarréde
tapis.Lapartde lalaine brute nécessairepour lafabrication d'un mètrecarrédetapisestde
l'ordre de 19.6%.
L'examen del'évolution delavaleurdelalainedustade 'lainebrute'austade 'tapis'nous
permet de constater qu'une margeimportante deprogrès est àlaportéedeséleveurs s'ilsse
donnentuneorganisationappropriéepourcouvrirl'ensembledelafilèrelainière.Cecisuppose
uneintensification desopérationsdeproduction,decollecteetdetransformation.Celadevrait
conduire àuneamélioration desrendements destroupeaux etàuneréduction deschargesde
tonte. L'instauration d'un système efficace de collecte et de transformation de la laine est
possible grâceauprocessus associatif misenoeuvreactuellement danslepaysenfaveur des
produitsd'origine agricole.Maisladynamiqued'un telréseaudépenddesproducteursetdes
responsables élus à vouloir résoudre collectivement des problèmes liés à leurs activités de
production et de transformation en prenant en considération la valorisation des circuits de
formation et d'information.
Bibliographie
AN.E.R, 1989. L'Algérie:guideéconomiqueetsocial.EditionA.N.E.P., 1989, 120pp.
Communal,R., 1957. Variation topographique de la finesse de la laine chez le mouton
Ouled-Djellal. Revueelev.etcuit. 102:36-39.
Destouches,C, 1985. Lalaine,vieillehistoire,nouvelleaventure.Reveu Pâtre,328:39-39.
KHarfouche,Y., 1986.Détermination du standard lainede laraceHamra.Thèse ing. I.T.A.,
Mostaganem,95pp.
Nouas, F.,1980. Situation actuelle du standard laine de la race Hamra. Thèse ing. I.N.A.,
Mostaganem, 95pp.
Salah Bey, M., 1985. Analyse de la production animale en Algérie. Thèse ing. I.N.A.,
Al-Harrach,240pp.
221
Discussion panneland conclusion
Chairman:
Co-chairman:
J.Boyazoglu
K.Dogan
Dansquellemesurelaproduction delaine,poil,cuiretpeau
presente-t-elleun intérêtéconomiquepourleséleveurs:
uneintroduction audebat
(Theextenttowhichwool,hair,hideandskinproductionareprofitable forfarmers:anintroductiontothediscussion)
J.P.Boutonnet* etJ.C.Flamant**
* Stationd'EconomieetSociologieRurales,CentreINRAdeMontpellier,France
** UnitédeRecherchessurlesSystèmesAgraires etleDéveloppement, CentreINRAde
Toulouse, France
Abstract
Industrialproduction today provides mass supplies of cheaper substitutes for the traditional
productsobtained fromruminants:hide,fibre, manureandtraction.Meatitself,animportant
sub-product of therearing of suchanimals,isnowmass-produced bypoultryandpigs.Only
cow's milk is now mass-produced in developed countries where production provides the
richesturbanareas.
Otherproducts from therearing of ruminants have a smaller market, supported by highincomeclientele seeking specific qualities: lambs and kids, sheep and goat's cheese, fabric
and leather. These farms aretherefore multi-purpose (producing meat, milk, hair andskin),
requiring that their complexity be taken into account when analysing production costs and
drawingupgeneticimprovementpolicies.
Onceobtainedfromtheanimal,alltheseproductsaresubjecttosuccessivetechnicaltransformations and commercial transactions.Theauthors willdiscuss underwhatconditionsthe
farmer cancarry outallorpartof theseprocedureshimself.
Only ajoint effort by allthose in thechain toensure thequality ofproducts, theiridentification and theirlegalprotection will beabbletoguarantee thisprospect specifically inthe
disadvantaged areasof theMediterranean basin andtheMiddleEast.
Introduction
Acôté de sesfinalités principales l'activité d'élevage aboutit àdesco-produits qui peuvent
faire l'objet de transactions commerciales importantes à l'échelle internationale alors que
l'éleveur individuelpeutfort biennepercevoirqu'unerémunération faible ouimplicitepour
euxetdoncnepas lesintégrer dans sastratégie.Pourtant son intérêtpeutêtre attiréversces
produits secondaires lorsquelavaleuréconomiqueduproduitprincipal fléchit.
S'agissantdesproduitstextilesetdescuirsetpeaux,ilssubissenttoutunegammedetransformation etdetransactionscommercialesavantd'aboutir auproduitfinipayéparleconsommateur. L'analyse des filières montre que si l'éleveur désire en retirer un profit, il lui faut
intégrerunepartiedelavaleurajoutée,notammentparlaréalisation defabrications pluspersonnalisées.Maisdanscecasils'agitde 'petitesséries'quinepeuventavoirlaprétentionde
toucherunelargeclientèle.
225
Lessystèmesd'élevagedansleursrelationsauxmarchés
L'élevagedesruminantsprésente,auniveaumondialetdansl'histoire,unetriplediversité:
• diversitédesconditionstechniques:duplein airintégral àla stabulationpermanente,
• diversitédesconditions économiques:del'élevagedecaseauranching,
• diversitédesproduits:travail,lait,cuir,poil,laine,viande, fumier.
Cependant,laspécificitédesruminants,estd'êtrenourrisprincipalementàpartirderessources
non cultivées,nonconcurrentes avecl'alimentationhumainedirecte,saufdanslestrèsrares
casoùleurproduitestbien valoriséetoùl'alimentation humaineest largementassurée (par
uneagricultureefficace oupardesimportations).Malgréleurdiversité,onpeutdirequetoutes
lesformes d'élevageressortentdetroisgrandstypes:
• Elevagepaysan:petitstroupeaux àmultiplesfins,dontlesproduitssont auto-consommés
ouvenduslocalement,etquis'insèrentdansunensembletrèsdiversifiéd'activitésagricoles
etdomestiques.
• Elevageextensifspécialisé:grandstroupeauxexploitéspardeséleveursspécialisés.Dans
lescaslesplustraditionnels,lesanimaux sontleseulmoyendesurviedeleursdétenteurs,
etleproduitprincipalestlelait,autoconsommé.Historiquement,cestroupeaux sesontdéveloppéspour fournir àunmarchédynamique undesesproduits (laine,cuir,chevaux de
guerre,boeufsdetrait),appuyéparunpouvoirpolitiquequisaitluigarantirl'accèsaupâturageetquirecueille lesbénéfices économiquesdesonactivité.Plusrécemment,l'élevage
debovins (ranching)s'estdéveloppésurdegrandsespacespeupeuplés (hémisphèresud)
pour fournir de laviande au marché mondial en expansion, demême quel'élevageovin
pourlalaine.
• Elevageintensifdemasse:fondé surunealimentation àbasedecéréales oude fourrages
cultivés intensivement, ilne sedéveloppe quepour satisfaire unedemande abondante,et
dansuncontextedegrandedisponibilitéencéréales(productionlocaleouimportée).
Les deux premiers types d'élevagepeuvent fournir au marché des produits à des coûts peu
élevés,maislevolumedeleurproductionestlimitéparlessuperficiesdisponibles.Aujourd'hui
l'internationalisation deséchanges,etlesprogrèsindustriels,permettentdeproduireenmasse
dessubstituts àlaplupartdesproduitsdel'élevagedesruminants:
• lesmoteursetlepétroleremplacent letravaildesbovins,camelinsetchevaux,
• lesengraischimiquesremplacentle fumier,
• lecaoutchouc etlesmatières synthétiquesremplacent lecuir,
• les fibres synthétiques et le coton remplacent la laine etles poils:les fibres animales de
toutesorigines nereprésentant plusque5%delaconsommation mondialedetextile,
Seullelaitn'apasencoredesubstitutvégétalousynthétique:saproduction demasseapuse
développeren ateliersintensifs danslesrégions lesplusrichesdu globe.L'augmentation de
lademandemondialeenviandeestcouverteprincipalement parledéveloppement delaproduction demassedevolailleetdeporc,surlabased'unealimentation composéeprincipalementdecéréales,quecesespècesvalorisentmieuxquelesruminants.L'engraissementintensif
dejeunes ruminants se développe sur la base d'approvisionnement enjeunes issus soit du
troupeau laitier, soitd'élevages extensifs.
Enadmettantquelesélevagesextensifs oupaysanstrouventdesconditionsdedéveloppementfavorables encombinantunaccèsàdesespacespâturablesetunmarchéfavorable àl'un
desesproduits,l'accèsauxparcoursestd'autantmoinsnécessairequeplusieursproduits(par
exemplelaitetlaine,ouviandeetlait)trouventunebonnevalorisation:l'éleveurpourradonc
dépenser (autofourniture ouachat)del'alimentation cultivéepour unepartiedes besoinsde
sesanimaux.Maisdanstouslescascesproduitsdevrontêtrevendusbeaucouppluscherque
leurs substitutsindustriels :ilsnepourrontintéresserqu'uneclientèleaisée,dontlesbesoins
debase (nourriture, logement, habillement) sont déjà satisfaits, et quiest sensible àl'attrait
desproduits traditionnels.Ils'agitdoncdemarchéstrèsétroitsenquantité.Danscertainscas
ilexistedesréussitescertaines:desproduits trèsbien valoriséspeuvent constituerlemoteur
226
dudéveloppement d'unerégion:c'estlecasduRoquefort enFranceouduPecorinoromano
(Italie+USA),oudujambon ibérique,oudansunemoindremesure,dufeta grec,venduen
Europe de l'Ouest eten Amérique du Nord auxpopulations d'origine grecqueet turque.Il
semblequelarégiond'origine soitunélémentimportantdansl'attrait exercéparleproduit.
Danstouslescas,l'élevagederuminantsaboutitàdeuxproduits,laviandeetlapeau,même
sitrès souvent leproduit principal est autre.telque laineou lait.Il enrésulte que lecoûtde
productiondel'un decesco-produitsestimpossible àcalculersansfaire d'hypothèse surles
prix deventedesautres.Defait, selonleszones,les systèmesdeproduction,etlesmarchés,
certainsdesproduitspeuventêtreconsidéréscomme 'gratuits':c'estlecasdespeaux d'ovins
etdebovinsenEuropedel'Ouest, oudesveauxdel'élevagelaitiernéo-zélandais.Ilsnesont
payésqueleprixquelemarchélocalveutbienleurattribuer,maisleurexistenceestdetoutes
façonsinduiteparlafinalitéprincipaledel'élevage. Cesproduitsfonttrèssouventl'objet de
transactions àl'échelle dumarchéinternational.
Mais pour l'éleveur, et pour le développement d'une région, il peut être important de
chercheràmieuxvalorisercessecondsoutroisièmesproduits,surtoutsilemarchéduproduit
principal s'oriente àlabaisse:c'estle casde l'élevage laitier despays méditerranéens dela
CEEparexemple.Ildevientdoncessentieldetenircomptedecettefin multiplede l'élevage
lorsqu'onraisonnelesobjectifs duprogrèstechniqueetnotamment del'amélioration génétique: tel mode d'alimentation, tel croisement, préconisés en vue d'augmenter la production
laitière,sont-ilscompatibles aveclaqualitédelapeau,aveclaproduction delaine?
L'implicationdeséleveursdanslesfilièresdemiseenvaleur
Lesproduitsdel'élevagefontl'objet, avantleurconsommation,d'unesériedetransformations
techniques,dontlerésultatestunnouveauproduit:exemplelaine,tissu,vêtement (Figure1).
L'éleveurpeut-ou non-effectuer lui-mêmecesopérations.Ilpeutaussin'en effectuer qu'une
partieet,toutenconservantlapropriétéduproduit,fairefairecertainesopérationsàfaçonpar
desprofessionnels (casdelatonteparexemple).Ilpeutaussivendreleproduitaprèsuncertain
nombred'opérations.Sadécisionnedépendpasseulementdesacompétitivitétechniquedans
l'une ou l'autre opération. Elle dépend aussi de saposition sur lemarché de l'un ou l'autre
desproduitssuccessifsdelatransformation: vendra-t-ilmieuxdufilouuneveste?
En effet, parallèlement auxtransformations techniques,leproduit subitaussiunesériede
transactionscommercialesquil'amènent deslieuxdeproductionversleslieuxdeconsommation. Si ceux-ci sont éloignés,cequiest généralement lecas,il existe au moins troistransactions:
a. collecteenzonedeproduction etexpédition enzonedeconsommation
b. réception en zone de consommation en grande quantité (grossiste) et approvisionnement
ducommercededétail
c. distribution auxconsommateurs (détaillant)
Lesopérationstechniquespeuventavoirlieuàl'un quelconquedesstadesdelafilière:leconsommateurachètegénéralementlevêtementtoutfait,maisilpeutaussiacheterlefiletconfectionnerlui-même sonvêtement.
Lecommerceinternational,quiagénéralementlieuaustadebci-dessusàl'import comme
à l'export, peut porter sur l'un quelconque des produits de l'élaboration technique: toison,
lainelavée,fil,tissu, vêtement.
Toutaulongdesoncheminement,lavaleurduproduitaugmente,parunecombinaisondes
effets des transformations techniques,et des transactions commerciales,qui toutes lesdeux
ont un coût (Tableau 1).Le coût de chaque opération technique, ou de chaque transaction
commerciale,peutêtredifférent selon qui l'effectue (industriel ou artisan,professionnel ou
occasionnel) et selon la région (coût d'approvisionnements en outillage et matériaux, coût
d'implantation del'atelier, coûtdelamaind'oeuvre, fiscalité).
227
Lait
Marché
__
international
/
Produits
industriels
ANIMAL ] - • Laine/Poil
! Abattage ;.
•
»
_ Produits
artisanaux
Travail
familial
Viande
Fig.1.Schémad'implicationdesproduitsanimauxdanslesfilièreséconomiques.
Tableau 1. Décompositionduprix audétaild'unpull 'Mohair'enFrance(Francsfrançais
1991).
Coût
Opérateur
Opération
Eleveur
Produit
Lainelavée
400g.
Filature
Fil
Façonnier
industriel
120a
(300F/kg)
40
(100F/kg)
100
commercial
4
80
8
216
21
432
42
36
216
Pull-grossiste
Boutique
608
Pull-détail(TTC)
1040
prixconsidéréparlesproducteurscommenécessaire
k prixà l'importation
c
surlabasede400 g/pull
Source: Association deséleveursdechèvreAngoraetdesUtilisateursdeMohair.Paris
(communicationpersonnelle).
a
En cequiconcerne lecoût delamain d'oeuvre ilpeutdevenir un gain sic'est l'éleveur luimêmequieffectue lesopérationstechniques.Cegaindoitêtrecomparénonpas auxsalaires
pratiqués dans la région ou dans l'industrie en général, mais au gain qu'il obtiendrait par
d'autres activitésalternatives(siellessontpossibles.Danslecas contraireils'agitd'uneréelle
création d'emplois). Ce raisonnement s'applique également aux autres intervenants de la
filière:l'activitéd'unmaillonpeutêtredécidéesiellecréedes emplois,mêmesielleestmoins
efficiente quedansd'autres lieux.
Face à cescoûts,lemarché attribue,àchaqueétape technique unprix au produit quien
résulte,prixvariableselonl'époque (variations saisonnières,tendancesdumarché,évolution
228
%
40b
Pull-usine
Grossiste
Prixc
100
desmodes)etlelieu(habitudesdeconsommation,présenced'uneindustrie,fiscalité,ouvertureaumarchémondial).Toutaulongdelafilièredesrapportsdeprixs'établissentdoncentre
lesdifférents niveaux techniquesetcommerciaux.
Surlesgrandsmarchés (zonedefortepopulation urbaine)lesprixs'établissentsouventen
fonction du prix de l'un des stades, par exemple, la laine cardée, qui devient alors le prix
directeur.Auniveaud'un payslechoixdesopérateurss'inscritentredeuxlimites
• àl'amontleprix duprincipalproduit faisant l'objet decommerce extérieur,parexemple
enFrancelalainelavéed'importation,ouenTurquielepoildechèvreMohair,
• àl'avalleprixquelademande(nationaleoud'exportation)attribueauproduitfini.
Entrecesdeuxprix,surlesquelslespouvoirspublicspeuventjouer(fiscalité, réglementation
douanière)lesopérateurs nationaux sontobligésdedéterminerleursdécisions.Leséleveurs,
ou des artisans locaux,ou des coopératives,peuvent tenter de s'approprier unepartie dela
valeur ajoutée:
pardescoûtsinférieurs'.
proximité,
savoirfaire,
installations moinscoûteuses,
pardesprix supérieurs:
fabrications plussoignées,
fabricationsplus personnalisées,
petites sériesmettantenvaleurl'hétérogénéitédela
matièrepremière.
ParexempledanslecasdupullmohairenFrance(Tableau 1),l'éleveurpeutvalorisersalaine
à300F/kg (lainelavée)alorsqu'elleestdisponibleà 100F/kgàl'importation^s'il parvientà
réduirede80F/pulllescoûtscommerciaux quis'élèventà800F/pull,cequiestpossiblepar
descircuitspluscourtsmaisnepeutreprésenterqu'unefaiblepartdumarché.L'autresolution
peutêtredevendre80Fpluschersonproduitauconsommateur(soit+8%)parunepromotion
appropriéefondée surunequalitéobjective et/ou uneorigine.
Eneffet lesfilièresdemiseenvaleurdesproduitsdel'élevage,peauxetpoils,sontdedeux
sortes.
• Lesfilières industrielles travaillent surdegrandesquantités,mettentenoeuvrelestechniques les plus performantes, jouent sur les différences de prix du marché mondial. Elles
fournissent en grandes quantités desproduits debonne qualitémoyenne mais ontbesoin
d'un approvisionnement homogène et nepeuvent valoriser depetites quantités dequalité
exceptionnelle.
• Lesfilièresartisanales, depetites dimensions,fondées surunénorme savoir-faire, gèrent
l'hétérogénéité.Ellespeuventoptimiserlavalorisationd'unelivraisonhétérogène,qu'elles
peuventdoncrémunérerpluscherquelafilière industrielle.
Puisquelesbesoinsdebaseautrefois satisfaitsparlespeauxetpoilssontaujourd'hui satisfaits
laproduction industrielledemasse,leséleveursnepeuventvalorisercesproduitsquepardes
filières artisanales soiteneffectuant eux-mêmes lesopérations(silemarchéestproche) soit
enlesconfiant àuneséried'artisansaumétierreconnuetefficace. Celacomprendjusqu'àla
venteaudétailquinepeutpassefaire danslecommerceintégrédespaysdéveloppés (caril
abesoind'homogénéité,dequantitéetdeprixpastropélevés)maispardesboutiquesspécialisées.Autotalcettestratégieviseuneclientèleétroite,fortunée,etattachée,parsanatureou
par unepromotion médiatique (mode),àcetypedeproduit. Mais silemarché sedéveloppe,
silesprixaugmentent àcaused'uneforte demande,lerisqueestgranddevoir sedévelopper
soituneproductiondecesproduitsdansdeszonesagricolesplusriches,soitdeproduitssimilaires fabriqués industriellement (soieartificielle). D'où la nécessitéd'uneprotection légale
decesproduits (label,marque,appellation d'origine).
229
Conclusions
Dans quelle mesure la faible productivité des couverts végétaux et du matériel animal des
systèmesd'élevage méditerranéensouduMoyen-Orient,conduitsensec,peut-elleêtrecompenséeparlahautevaleurmarchandedeproduitsdequalité.Ilpeuts'agird'unepréoccupation
poursuiviepardeséleveursindividuels (ouengroupe),oud'uneoptiondepolitiquenationale
ourégionale setraduisant par l'organisation d'une filière en vue du maintien d'une activité
d'élevage etdetransformation dansdesconditions difficiles.
L'étude économique de situations concrètes montre que la valorisation despeaux et des
poilspeuteffectivement apporterauxéleveursunrevenu additionnelàceuxdelaviandeetdu
lait, et donc globalement créer ou maintenir des emplois. Mais cela n'est possible que sila
matièrepremièreproduiten'aniconcurrencesurlemarchéinternational,nisubstitutindustriel.
Lespouvoirspublicspeuventfavoriser unteldéveloppementpar:
• la politique douanière (taxation des importations pour les ramener au prix souhaité à
l'intérieur, ou subvention auxexportations),
• lapolitique fiscale (action surlescoûtsintérieurs detransformation etde commercialisation)
• lacréationdesconditionsd'uneactivitéartisanaledynamique(transformation etcommerce):transparencedesmarchés,libreaccès,cotations,bourses,marchésphysiques,marchés
àterme,
• laprotectionlégaledelaqualitéetdel'originedesproduits,àl'intérieurdupaysetàl'exportation.
Les opérateurs économiques doiventmettreen oeuvreetcontrôler laqualitédesproduitsau
longdelafilièrepuiquec'est surellequesefonde leuractivitéetleurdifférence parrapport
auxmarchésinternationaux.
L'action technique et lesprogrammes derecherche peuvent être conçus selon deux types
d'objectifs:
• s'ils'agitd'uncoproduitpourlequell'éleveurn'estquefaiblementrénuméré,ilfauts'assurerquel'action surleproduitprincipal,notammententermesdequantités,nedétériorepas
laqualitéducoproduit,
• s'il s'agitducoproduit principal,l'accent doitêtremis surladétermination descritèreset
desfacteurs dequalitéqui soutiennent lavaleurduproduit.
230
Poster presentations
Coordinator:
O.Biçer
Analyse génétiquedu poidsde la laineen suint et de la
croissance desagnelles derace Gentile di Puglia
C.Renieri*,C.Pieramati*, S.Dell'Aquila**,L. Taibi**
* IstitutodiProduzioniAnimali,Perugia,Italie
** IstitutoSperimentaleper laZootecnia, Foggia,Italie.
Abstract
Thestudywasundertaken withdatacollectedfrom aflockofthemerinisedbreedGentiledi
Puglia,raisedattheExperimentalInstituteforAnimalHusbandryinFoggia,Italy.Theweight
ofthegreasywool(kg3.32+0.01)onlydiminishesin9.5yearsoldanimals;theyearofshearing
has a significant effect; heritability is 0.22+0.06, repeatability is 0.24±0.03.The following
analyseswerecarriedout:weightoffemale lambsatbirth,at30,60,90and 120daysofage;
thelambing typehas the strongest effect; thephenotypic correlations between female lambs
bornfrom singleortwinbirthsaredifferent; heritabilityofweightatbirthisveryweak(0.028
±0.135).
Key-words:growth,wool,heritability,repeatability.
Introduction
LaraceovineGentilediPuglia,créedansleXVsiècleavecl'utilisation debéliersespagnols,
représentelaracemériniséeitalienneplusimportante.Danslesdernierstemp,lacrisenationale
delaproductiondelalaineaprovoquéunereductionprogressivedunombredesanimauxexploités;unessaidetransformation enracebouchièreestenplace.Lacroissanceetlaproduction
lainièredesfemelles delaracesontanalyséesdanscetravail.
Matérieletméthodes
L'analyse àétéréalisée surles donnéesrecueillies dans l'Institut Expérimental pourlaZootechniedeFoggia,Italie.Lespoids àlanaissanse,etceux à30,60,90et 120joursde 1 033
agnellesexploitéesentrele 1971etle 1985etlepoidsde3435toisonsensuintde991brebis
exploitéesentre 1972et 1986ontétéexaminées.Pourlespoidsàlanaissanceetà30joursun
modèletrifactoriel sansinteractionàétéutilisé;leseffets considérésontétéletypedemise-bas
etl'annéedenaissancedelabrebis(effets fixes) etlepèredelabrebis (effet aléatoire).Parmi
les poids de la même agnelle âges différents le coefficient de corrélation a été calculé. Un
modèletrifactoriel avecdeux effets fixes (annéedenaissancedelabrebiset annéedetonte)
etuneffet aléatoire(pèredelabrebis)aétéutilisépourl'analysedupoidsdelalaineensuint.
Lesmoyennes estiméesdesproductions selonl'année denaissance et selonl'année detonte
etl'héreditabilité ontétéestimées.Apartirdeseffets significatifs àl'analyse de lavariance,
lescoefficients decorrelationentrelesdifférents productions ontétéestimés.
Résultatsetdiscussion
Encequiconcernelepoidsdesagnellesàdifférents âges,letypedemise-basapresenté l'effet
plusimportant;lepèredel'agnelle aprésenteuneffet significatif seulmentpourlepoid à30
233
Tableau1. Analysedesmodèlesutiliséspourl'étudedespoids.
Poids
Moyenne (kg)
C.V. (%)
Effets (PdeF)
père
typedemise -bas
annéedenaissance
naissance
30jours
60jours
90jours
3.721
14.42
9.690
11.15
14.095
11.40
17.262
10.46
0.2885
0.0001
0.4466
0.0090
0.0001
0.0001
0.4567
0.0344
0.0001
0.4547
0.1842
0.0001
Tableau 2. Correlationsphénotypiquesentre lespoids enfunction du typedemise-bas(au
dessusdeladiagonale:mise-basgémellaires;audessous:mise-basuniques).
naissance
naissance
30jours
60jours
90jours
120jours
* P<0.05
0.006
0.056
0.061
0.175
**P<0.01
30jours
0.221*
0.815***
0.530***
0.394*
60jours
90jours
0.134
0.753***
0.706***
0.670***
0.087
0.420***
0.705***
0.752***
*** P<0.001.
Tableau3. Moyennesestiméespour lalaine ensuintselonl'annéede
naissance etceluidetonte (kg).
Année
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
234
annéedenaissance
3.09 ±0.10
3.18 ±0.09
3.18 ±0.07
3.36+0.08
3.24 ±0.07
3.49±0.08
3.56 ±0.11
3.45 ±0.12
3.35 ±0.14
4.03±0.56
annéedetonte
3.53+0.11
3.48 ±0.09
3.43±0.08
3.46±0.08
3.29± 0.08
3.31 ±0.07
3.43 ±0.07
3.52 ±0.07
3.62+ 0.07
3.97± 0.07
3.23± 0.07
3.19 ±0.08
2.65 ±0.08
120jours
0.413
0.347
0.519
0.784**
-
jours,tandisquel'effet del'annéedenaissanceaétésignificatif pourtouslespoidsàl'exceptiondeceluipris àlanaissance (Tableau 1).
Lescorrelationsphénotypiquesentreagnellesnéesuniquesoùgémellairesontété différentes;parmilespremières,lepoidsàlanaissancen'aprésentédecorrelationssignificatives avec
aucuns despoids suivants,tandisquepour lesjumelles ilestcorrelé aveccelui à30jours;à
partir des 30jours,les correlations ont été en général toutes significatives pour les agnelles
néesuniques,etpourcellenéesjumellesentre30et60,30et90,60et90et90et 120jours.
Le coefficient d'héritabilité du poids à la naissance a presenté une valeur tres faible
(0.028+0.135).Bienquelepoidsàlanaissanceaitétéinfluencésurtoutparletypedemise-bas,
cet effet n'a détenu aucune influence sur les âges successifs. Le poids de la laine en suint
(3.32+0.01demoyenne) asubituneréduction seulement àpartirdel'âgede9.5ans.
Tous leseffets considérésontété significatifs. Lecoefficient d'héritabilité aétéde0.22+
0.06,valeurquiestdepeuinferieure àcelleprésentéedansuntravailprécédent (Pillaet.al.,
1976)etqui seplaceparmilesvaleursplusbassesexistantespourlesracesmérinisées (Rae,
1982);larépètabilité aétéde0.25±0.03.
Bibliographie
Mason,1.L. &P.Dassat, 1958.Lageneticadéliaproduzionedilatte,lanaecarnenellarazza
ovinaSopravissana. StudiSassaresiVI:188-206.
Pilla,A. M., S.Dell'Aquila &L. Taibi,1976.La produzione di lana nelle pécore di razza
GentilediPuglia.I.Influenza dell'etàedell'annata.Ann.1st.Sper.Zootec.9:25-34.
Rae,A.L., 1982.Breeding.In:WorldAnimalScience.C,Productionsystemapproach,I,Sheep
andGoatProduction.Elsevier,Amsterdam. 15- 53.
235
Postnatal development ofwoolfollicles ofPramenka sheep breed
M. Vegara
FacultyofAgriculture, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia
Summary
Investigationsofwoolfollicles ofPramenkaweredoneonskinsamplesintheageof six, 12,
18and24months.Characteristicsofdensitydecreasefrom sixto24months;nP-21.18,nP+
S-30.20andS/P-13.58%.Diameteroffibres showsanoppositetrendanditgrows;dP-6.44,
dS-31.12 and dP+S-22.89%, but dP/dS was lower by 19.14percent inoldest, compared to
youngest category which indicates that wool with the ageincrease becomes more uniform.
MedullaappearsinPfollicles,primarilyinPC,whileSfibreshavelowpercentageofmedulla.
Sheddingincreasedwiththeageincrease,being 1,71,4.14,5,98and23.08percentinPfollicles.Multiplefibres inPfollicles wererecordedonlyinoldestcategoryduetointerrelation to
shedding.Multiplefibres in Sfollicles appearinallages.Formation of trio groups,couplet
andsolitaryinPfollicles ispermanentinPramenka afterpartition.Correlative analysisofinvestigatedparametres showedvarious directions andvalues, aswell asfull connection only
between smallnumberofcharacteristics.Totalresultsindicatethatfull developmentofwool
follicles of Pramenka completes in the ageof 12months.Recorded variabilities show large
heterogeny amonginvestigatedanimals,thusacknowledgingthatPramenkarepresentsaspecific levelintheevolution ofdomestication of wildancestorsuptopresentpurebreeds.
Keywords:woolfollicles, diameteroffibres,medullapercentage,shedding
Introduction
CoarsewoolPramenkaisthemostlyrepresentedsheepbreedinYugoslavia.Duetolowwool
productivityononehandanditsimportanceontheother,theobjectiveofthispaperistodetermine and investigate all parametres of the postnatal development of wool follicles on the
exampleofrelativelynumerouspopulationofPramenkaintheageofsix,12,18and24months
through skinsamples.Therefore, thescopeofthispaperistoprovideanswerstothequestion
inwhichagePramenkasheepbreedcompletesitsfulldevelopmentofwoolfollicles,i.e.birthcoat.
Materialandmethods
Investigations were doneon skin samples taken bybiopsy from themidpart of Pramenka's
bodyintheperiodofregularshearing.Atthemomentof samplestaking,animalswereinthe
ageofsix(N=25),12(N=21),18(N=21)and24months(N=48).Afterthebiopsyskinsamples
werelaboratoryprepared,cutandinvestigated accordingtostandardmethods.The following
featureswereacknowledgedonskinsamplesinthepositionofsebaceousglands:totalnumber
of follicles (nP+S), number of primary follicles (nP),ratio of number of secondary (S) and
primary(P)follicles,(S/P),diameterofprimaryfibres (dP),diameterofsecondaryfibres(dS),
diameterof allfibres (dP+S),ratioofdiameterofprimaryand secondaryfibres (dP/dS),appearance of medulla in fibres; percentage of primary fibres in medulla (MP),percentageof
secondaryfibreswithmedulla(MS)andpercentageofallfibreswithmedulla(MP+S).Kemp
fibres,appearanceofshedding,multiplefibresandthewayoffolliclesgroupingwererecorded
inparicular. Correlative andregressive analysesonthebasisof singlerelationsweredonein
236
Table 1. Meanvaluesofinvestigatedcharacteristicsofwoolfollicles and fibres
Age
(M)
N nP+S
6
12
18
24
25
21
21
48
7.45
6.76
7.26
5.20
nP
S/P
dP
1.70
1.38
1.68
1.34
3.46
3.98
3.40
2.99
64.12
55.79
66.65
68.25
dS dP+S dP/dS
25.48
21.56
26.04
33.41
34.30
28.52
35.00
42.15
2.56
2.55
2.54
2.07
MP
MS MP+S
93.41 3.74
97.50 0.00
99.83 3.17
79.81 11.31
kemp
%
24.17 14.62
19.99 6.00
25.94 6.50
28.90 30.45
ordertodeterminemutualrelationsofinvestigated characteristics of woolfollicles andtheir
fibres.These investigations were done under equal conditions at the sheep farm in Central
Bosnia,at 1 200mapprox.from sealevelintheperiod 1986/90.
Resultsanddiscussion
Analysing histological skin samples, large number of relevant parametres of wool follicles
andfibres wasdetermined,inthispaper,expressedintheirmeanvalues (Table 1).Bytheage
increase from six to 24 months, all characteristics of density decrease so that-mean values
nP+SandnPdecreaseaccordingly,exceptthegroupwith 18months,whosevaluesarelarger
thaninthegroupwith 12,butstilllowerthanin thesixmonths agegroup.MeanS/Pvalueis
largestinthegroupwith 12months,butwiththeageincrease,i.e.growthofanimals,aswell
asskindevelopment andexoansion, thisvaluedecreases.Averagediameteroffibres infollicles,per investigated groups shows anopposite trend inrespect of density (itgrows),being
dP-6.44, dS-31.12, and dP+S-22.89%, but ratio of dP/dS decreases by 19.14% in oldest,
comparedtotheyoungestcategory,acknowledgingthatwiththeageincreasePramenka'swool
becomesmoreuniform.Appearanceofmedullainthefibresisprimarilyconnectedwithfibres
inPfollicles,firstinPCwhilethepercentageofSfibresinmedullaislow(medullawasrecorded in none of the samples in the group with 12months), except oldest group of animals
(11.31%).Meanvaluesofmedullafibres percentage (MP+S)showatendencyofgrowth,except the group with 12months,beingaresult, orinterrelated with thediameter (fineness) of
allfibres (dP+S), showing the same trend. Therefore, with the ageincrease, the usability of
Pramenkawooldecreases.Intheseinvestigations,kempwasrecorded onlyinPfibreswhich
coincides with former investigations of breeds in the world. Largest percentage of P fibres
withkempwasrecorded inoldest group with theageof 24months (30.45%).Analysing the
resultsobtainedintheparticipationofPfibreswithkemp,pergroups,andmakingcomparisson
peryearsofinvestigations,itcouldbestatedthatinanimalswhichhadimprovedbreedingat
farm conditions, the percentage of kemp fibres, compared to initial material, gradually, but
significantlydecreased.Initialmaterialintheageof24monthswassuppliedbyprivatefarmers.
Their offsprings arecomposed of animals, six, 12and 18months.Changing— sheddingof
woolfollicles wasrecordedonlyinPfollicles, butinSfollicles sheddingwasnotrecordedin
anyof samples.With theageincreasemeanvalues of sheddingconsiderably increase,being
(1.71, 4.14, 5.98 and 23.08%).By skin samples analysis, the appearance of multiple fibres
waswasrecordedinfollicles ofPramenka wool.Multiplefibres inPfollicles wererecorded
only in oldest group (1.68%). This appearance is most probably, a result of an abundant
shedding. Multiplefibresin Sfollicles were recorded in all agegroups. Their values, from
youngest to oldest group, were within the range of 2.01, 1.00, 0.61 and 0.83%. In these
investigations, the formation of Pfollicles in theformation of triogroups was 93.57,93.37,
92.77, and 93.62%,butin theformation of couplet and solitary 6.43,6.63,7.23 and6.38%,
237
which indicates thatthey areconstant in thepostnatalperiod.This acknowledges former investigation resultsobtainedintheworldfor otherbreeds,basedon the statement thatfinalP
follicles development completes substantially earlier (intra uterine),compared to secondary
follicles. Since itisnotpossible topresent adetailed correlative andregressive analyses of
investigatedcharacteristicshere,soitcouldonlybestatedthatsinglecorrelativerelationshave
various signsandvalues,completeonlyamongsmallnumber(dPanddP+S-0.90,0.91,0.92
and0.91,anddSanddP+S-0.90,0.91,0.91and0.90).Theanalysisofsynthetizedresultsand
observations presented in this paper, indicates a conclusion that full development of wool
follicles,i.e.birthcoatofPramenkacompletesintheageof 12months,thusbeingidenticalto
the findings of investigations done for other breeds. Wide heterogeny of all investigated
characteristicsofPramenkapopulationthusrequirestheapplicationofwellplannedbreeding
andselectionworkforimprovementofyieldandwoolquality.Observingtheobtainedresults
ingeneral,itcouldbestatedthatinvestigatedparametresareveryimportantfortheknowledge
ofwoolstructure,evaluationofyieldandwoolqualityinthismostwidelyrepresented sheep
population inthecountry.
References
Carter,H.B.1955.Thehairfollicle groupinsheep.AnimalBreedingAbstract.23,2.101-106.
Edinburg.
Clarke,J.H.W., Donnelly, B.J.,Lombardini, A. &Gonzales, R. 1981.Fleece characteristics
and the wool follicle population of the Merilin, a Urugwayan sheep breed. Animal
Production. 32:251-256.
Fraser, A.S. & Short,B.F.,1960.The biology of the fleece. Tech. Pap. Anim. Res. Labs.
C.S.I.R.O.Aust.,No.3:5-92.
Hardy,MN. &Lyne.A.G.,1956.Theprenataldevelopmentofwoolfollicles inMerinosheep.
Austral.J.ofBiological Science, 9:423^41.
Lyne,A.G., 1961.Thepostnatal development of woolfollicles, shedding and skin thickness
in inbred Merino and South-down Merino crossbreed sheep. Austral. J. of Biological
Science, 14. AnimalBreedingAbstract.29.4.2155.
Markotic, B., 1968.Supplement totheknowledge of woolfollicles ofPramenka.Abstracts,
Livestock Institute-Butmir, 4. Sarajevo.
Markotic,B., Causevic, Z.,Gackic, S.,Tahirovic, N. &Vukovic, S., 1969. Theimportanceof
investigating wool (fleece) follicles and their groups on sheep skin. Veterinaria. 18,1,
Sarajevo.
Ryder,M.L.&Stephenson, S.K.1968. WoolGrowth.AcademicPress,London.
Ryder,ML., 1974.Post-natalfollicles development andfleece changesintwoselectionlines
ofScottishBlackface sheep.AnimalProduction., 18(2):168—177.
238
Heredity ofwool fineness ofdifferent sheep breeds and their
crosses
Z.Causevic,B.Markotic,M.Vegara,A.SmajicandH. Omanovic
FacultyofAgriculture,Sarajevo, Yugoslavia
Summary
Theprogramofestablishingdomesticmeatsheepisbasedontheapplication ofcombinatory
crossingprocedure.Investigationsweredoneatthefarm,locatedat1200msealevel,approx.
BesidesdomesticPramenka,combinedWurttenberg-Merinolandschaf,highprolific RomanoffandmeatIledeFrancebreedswereusedaswell.Productionandmeatqualitywereobserved
fortheabovefourbreedsandthreegenerationsofproducedcrossesandfinenessofwoolfibres
onthesamplestakenfromleftmidbodypositionwasanalysedaswell.Sampleswereanalysed
in the staplebaseby themethod of shortcut.Fibres diameter wasmeasured onfibre gauge.
Mean valuesareobtained bybiométriepreparation, andafter that statistically studied accordingtobreedgroups of animals andpresented inthispaper.Investigations showedthatnew
meat and wool sheep type, suitable for hilly-mountain regions in Yugoslavia could beestablishedbyaforestated procedure.
'
Keywords:Diameterof woolfibres ofPramenka,Merinolandschaf,Romanoff, IledeFrance
breedsandcrosses.
Introduction
VariousMerinobreedswereimportedinYugoslaviainthepastinordertoproducedomestic
fine wool sheep.Breeding wasbased oncrossing,mainly with Merinolandschaf breeds,but
the obtained results did not meet the requirements. Method of housing, feed shortage and
severecontinentalclimatelargelyaffected lowproductivityofproducedcrosses.Theyparticulary affected lowyieldof relatively fine but non-uniform wool.Theexperimental investigationsonestablishingdomesticmeatsheeptypehasstartedrecently.Theincreaseofmeatproductionandquality wasobservedandfineness ofwoolfibre wasinvestigatedonpurebreeds
andproduced crossesaswell,being asubject matterofthispaper.
Materialandmethods
InvestigationsweredoneinCentralBosniaunderseverecontinentalclimate,at1 200mapprox
from sea level. Combinatory crossing procedure was applied, where, besides domestic Pramenka(P),combinedWurttenberg-Merinolandschaf (M),highprolificRomanoff (R)andmeat
IledeFrance(I)breedswereapplied.Finenessofwoolfibreswasanalysedforfourpurebreeds
andthreegenerations ofproducedcrosses (Fl generation— two-breedsMP/2,IIgeneration
— three-breeds MP2R/4 and IIIgeneration — four-breeds MP2R4I/8).Number and ageof
animalsareshowninthetable.Woolsamplesweretakenbefore shearing (endofJune) from
the mid left side in theposition of last rib.Investigation of wool fineness was done by the
methodof shortcutinastaplebase.Diameteroffibres wasmeasured onfibres gauge.Mean
valueswereobtainedbybiométriesamplespreparation andthen statistically preparedaccording to breed groups of animals. Investigations were done in the period 1986/91 at a farm
underalmostequalhousingandnutritionconditions.Frequentlambingwasaccomplishedwith
239
theapplicationofhormones,usedforinduction andestrussynchronization.Therefore,crossbreedsfrom thegenerations IIandIIIwereshearedintheageof 14and 8months,when the
woolsamplesweretakenforanalysis.
Resultsand discussion
Statisticalparametresobtainedforwoolfineness ofinvestigatedpurebreedsandvarioustypes
of crosses show large non-uniformity notonly in average mean values but also in standard
disorder,variation coefficients andwiderangeofvariations (Table1).
Meanvalueofwoolfineness ofautochtonousPramenkabeingrecorded35.88micrometers
isclassified intoamediumcoarsewool(classC,i.e.48-56S).Althoughitseemssuitablefor
textileproductionitisrathernon-uniform,rangingfrom 19.78to65.87micrometers.Itshould
beemphasisedinparticularthatinevery specific sample,i.e.hairofanimalswoolfibres,belonging to various classifications were found. If, besides the above,various length is taken
into consideration then it could beconcluded that this wool is good only for production of
coarse fabrics and other types of industrial production. The results show that well planned
breeding and selection work for improvement of woolquality was not applied in theinvestigatedpopulationofPramenka.WoolfinenessofRomanofbreedramsisonly2.70finerthan
of Pramenka, but variations aremuch lower, ranging from 29.12 to 39.41 micrometer. This
type of wool is characteristic for hair hides because of selection ratio of primary fibres to
halo-hair. It should be emphasised that Romanoff breed was used for the increase of both
prolificy andearlymaturityincrease,aswellaschangingofinsemination seasons.Bytheselection of combined Wurttenberg-Merinolandschaf and meat Ile de France breeds, in the
procedureofcombinatorycrossing,wetriedtoprovide,besidesmeatproductionincreasehigh
quality wool for industrial production. Characteristic of the above breeds is a medium fine
wool (25.48 and 25.92 m^i), as well as very low variations (21.36-30.20 and 24.36-28.49
m(i).ProducedtypesofcrossesshowthatFj crosses,comparedtoPramenka,havefinerwool
by24.58,IIby27.76,andIIIgenerationby16.81%.Variationsalsowereloweranddecreased
accordingtothefollowing order:
• Pramenka:Fl generation47.10%
• Pramenka:IIgeneration56.02%
• Pramenka:Illgeneration76.96%
Coefficients of variabilities in II and III, compared to Fl generation also decreased, which
shows the influence of paragenetic factors on the wool fineness. Fining of wool in newly
established typesof crosses occuredasaresultof theapplication oframshavingfinerwool,
intheprocedureofcombinatorycrossing.Italsoshouldbeemphasisedthatnumerousphysical
factors affect thewoolfineness. Thesearemainlyclimate,sex, age,physiological condition
Table 1. Woolfinenessofpurebreedsandvarious crosses.
Breeds&crosses
Pramenkaewes
Merinorams
PV/2crossbreed ewes
Romanoff rams
PV2R/4crossbreedewes
IledeFrancerams
PV2R4I/8crossbreedewes
240
n
Age
x ± sx
s
s%
Variations
664
8
206
11
109
5
20
24
18
18
18
14
18
8
35.88+0.21
25.48± 0.95
27.06±0.30
34.91 ± 0.99
25.92± 0.27
25.90±0.72
29.85±0.51
5.46
2.71
4.34
3.27
2.78
1.62
2.27
15.22
10.63
16.05
9.37
10.72
6.25
7.60
19.78-65.87
21.36-30.20
15.04-39.42
29.12-39.41
16.49-36.76
24.36-28.49
24.90-35.52
andnutritionofanimals.Thismatterwasstudiedandpresentedbymanyauthorspresenthere.
Theaboveinvestigationsindicateontheconclusionthatitispossibletosuccessfully establish
new meat and wool type of sheep, suitable for hilly-mountain regions in Yugoslavia by the
procedureofcombinatorycrossingofdomesticPramenkawithcombined,highprolific rams
andmeatbreeds.This shouldbeofinterestnotonlyfor sheepbreeders,butmeatprocessing
plantsfrom aviewpointofslaughteringvaluesandqualityaswell.However,itisofparticular
interestforprocessorsof woolfibres intheproduction ofvarious fabrics.
References
Belie,J., 1957. ÜberdenEinfluss desAltersaufdiewallfeinheit Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung
uzuchtungsbiologie.Band69,Hamburg.
Causevic,Z., 1972.Acontribution to the knowledge of acclimatization influence on some
woolqualitiesoffinewoolsheep.WorksoftheInstituteofAgriculturalresearch. Sarajevo.
p. 191-242.
Daly, RA.& HB. Carter, 1956.Fleece growth of youngLincoln, Corriedale,Polwarth, and
Fine Merino Maiden ewes grazed on an unimproved Paspalum pasture. Australian J. of
Agric.Research.Vol.7.No 1,76-83.
Frolich-Spottel-Tanzer, 1929. Woolkunde.Berlin.
Henderson,A.E.,1953.FleeceDevelopment andwoolgrowthontheRomneyLamb.Journal
ofAgricultural Sei.43,12-53. Camb. 1953. ABA21:2,775/158.
Hugo,WJ.,TheinfluenceofnutritionallevelonthedevelopmentofthehairfolliclesinMerino
Sheep.S.Afr. J.Agric.Sei., 1:203-216,ABA27:1,270/64.
Mare,G.S.&V. Bosman,1935. Theinfluence of feed ontheMerino sheep.Anderstefoort J.
ofVet.Sei.A.AnInd.3:1,Edinburgh.
Mcedlisvili,K.G., 1969.Vozrastnaja izmencivost serstnoi produktivnostiv polutankorunnih
ovec.Ovcedvostvo, 15.p.24-25.
Nikolic,N., 1952.Outicaju klimatskih faktora nafinocu vune.Godisnjak, Polj. fakulteta br.
4,Beograd.
Ogrizek,A., 1948.Ovcarstvo,Zagreb.
Sien,S.B.& E.C.Banky, 1961.WoolandBodyGrowth inLambsDuring thefirst 14Months
ofLife. Canad.J.Anim.Sei.41.p.78-88.
Tkaceva,N.N., 1969. Tip kormlenija i nekatorie pokazateli kacestva sersti ovec. Zivotnovodstvo, 31.p. 70-71.
Zdanovski,N.,1957.0 utjecaju exogenihfaktoranafinocuvune.Arhivpoljoprivrednih nauka.
Sv.27,Beograd.
241
The comparative study ofwoolfollicles of Pramenka,
Merinolandschaf and Romanoff sheep breeds and their crosses
B. Markotic,Z.Causevic,M.Vegara,A.SmajicandH. Omanovic
FacultyofAgriculture, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia
Summary
Sheepproduction inYugoslaviaisbasedontheapplication ofcombinnatory crossingprocedure.Besidestheemphasisonmeatproduction,thewoolproductionwillbeobservedaswell.
Inordertointroducethemostactualstandardsfor theevaluationofproduction,theinvestigations of wool follicles has started according to the standard methods. Only first results are
presentedheresincefurther investigations,besidestheabovementionedbreeds,includedthe
IledeFrancebreedandinvestigationsforitscrosseshasnotbeencompletedyet.Theincrease
offollicles numberper asizeunitandtheimprovementofwoolfineness,i.e.thedecreaseof
both fibres diametar and medulla fibres percentage were recorded from Pramenka breed,
through itscrosses,toMerinolandschaf breed.Theresults suggest aneedfor further investigationsonthecharacateristics of secondaryfollicles andfibres ofRomanoff breed,which,in
respectofquantitativefeatures, showscharacteristics similartothatofwildtypesofsheep.It
couldbeconcluded that these investigations will contribute notonly totheestablishment of
requiredandplanned standards,buttothespecific basesfor woolgeneticsaswell.
Keywords:woolfollicles, diameteroffibres, medullapercentage.
Introduction
Theinvestigations on woolproduction potential onskin samples wereconducted inorderto
establishmeatsheeptype,suitablefor hilly-mountain regions throughtheprocedureofcombinatory crossing.Wool follicles wereinvestigated on skin samples and theobtained results
arepresentedinthispaper.
Materialandmethods
Skin samples aretaken from mid bodyposition of Pramenka rams and ewes aswell asPramenkaandMerinolandschaf crosses (PV/Z)andPV/2eweswithRomanoff rams (PV2R/4).
At themoment of samples takingall animals werein theageof 18months,andnumberper
breedsisshowninthetable.Biopsytakenskinsamplesarelaboratoryprepared,cutandstudied
accordingtothestandardmethods.Thefollowing wasrecordedonthesamples:totalnumber
of follicles n(P+S), number of primary follicles (nP),ratio of number of secondary (S) and
primary(P)follicles (S/P),diameterofprimary (P)fibres (dP),anddiameterofsecondary(S)
(dS),diameterofallfibres(d(P+S)),ratioofdiameterofprimaryandsecondaryfibres(dP/dS),
appearanceofmedullainfibres,and(MP)primaryfibres withmedulla(MS)secondary fibres
withmedulla andkemp.Kempfibres, appearanceofmultiplefibres,andthewayof follicles
grouping wererecordedinparicular.
242
Table 1. Meanvaluesofinvestigatedcharacteristicsofwoolfollicles.
Breed
Type&sex
N nP+S
nP
S/P
dP
Pramenkarams
Merinolandsch.rams
Romanoff rams
Pramenkaewes
PV/2cross.ewes
PV2R/4cross,ewes
6
8
12
21
17
23
4.52 1.15
15.91 2.26
13.04 1.79
7.26 1.68
12.52 2.30
16.12 2.16
3.03
5.98
6.70
3.40
4.45
6.47
73.54
30.17
56.35
66.65
46.19
52.91
dS dP+S
34.45
23.93
18.90
26.04
22.33
21.07
44.18
24.83
24.01
35.00
26.67
25.34
MP
85.52
20.32
86.71
99.83
70.03
69.58
MSMP+S
5.94
5.46
0.25
3.17
2.05
0.70
27.37
5.55
11.93
25.94
14.33
9.96
Resultsanddiscussion
Verylargenumber of information wasobtained by the analysis of histological samples,but
onlybasisindicators,expressedasthemeanvalues,arepresentedinthispaper.Detailedstatistical analyses are available with the authors and those interested in can get them. Since this
paperisonlyanintroductiontoaseriesoffurtherpaperstobepublisheduponthecompletion
ofinvestigations, sotheresultspresented anddiscussed hereareonlypreliminary.(Table 1).
Besides thepresented results,itis necessary toemphasise thepresence of kempfibres as
well. Similar to former investigations conducted on other breeds in the world, this type of
fibres wasrecorded only in Pfollicles in this paper as well.Highest percentage of primary
fibres with kemp wasrecorded in Romanoff rams (40.3%) and Pramenka rams (31.7%).In
Pramenkaewesthispercentagewas6.5,Merinolandschaframs2.32,andcrossesPV2R/4very
high 16.51%.Kempefibres werenotrecorded atallonlyincrossesPV/2.Observingtheobtainedresultsingeneral,itcouldbeconcluded thatthey aresimilartothatobtained byother
authors whoinvestigated sameorrelatedbreeds.Such impression onemayhaveif observes
theresultsindividually.But,observing theresults synthetically, aimingnotonlytocreatethe
standards based onmorphological feature, it ispossible toestablish abase for investigation
ofwoolgeneticsaswell.Finalobjectiveoftheseinvestigationsistoproducemoreproductive
animals from theviewpoint of meatandwoolproduction bytheapplication of breedingmethods.Fromtheviewpointofwoolproduction,expressedbyatotalnumberoffollicles (nP+S)
both breeds used for crossing are superior, compared to Pramenka breed, so the produced
crossesPV/2showedbetterresultsinthisfeature,andthreebreedscrossesPV2R/4werebetter
than twobreeds.Thetrend isidentical for thetotal woolfineness (dP+S).Compared toPramenka,thischaracteristicisbetterincrosses.Totalmedullapercentage(MP+S)wasimproved
incrosses,i.e.itdecreased. Thus,observingingeneral,theobtainedresultsonwoolcharacteristics,studiedonwoolfollicles,aconclusionisthusindicatedthattheincreaseofwoolproductionononehand,andqualityimprovementontheotherwererecordedincrosses,compared
todomestic Pramenka. However, observing specific structural elements of wool separately,
i.e.primary andsecondaryfibres, (toremind thatthisispossibleonlythrough skinsamples),
thentheaboveconclusionontheimprovementofwoolproductionandqualityisnotdisturbed.
However, otherdiscussions areimposed aswell.Namely, totaldiameter of fibres for breeds
which havetoimprove this feature is almost samein Pramenka, while for Merinolandschaf
rams it was 24.83 and in Romanoff rams 24.01 micrometers. The value of P diameter and
secondary fibres shows a small variation in Merinolandschaf (dP=30.17,dS=23.93), but in
Romanoff itwaslarger,being(dP=56.35,dS=18.90).Itshould beemphasised that,of allinvestigatedgroups,Romanoff breedhasthefinest secondaryfibres.Also,Romanoffhashighest
percentageofkempfibres(40.33%)inprimaryfibreswithmedulla.AlthoughRomanoff breed
waswidelystudiedinUSSRfromtheviewpointofwoolproduction,andthroughskinsamples
243
aswell,notmany papers on its evolution position in a seriesof wildancestors tofine wool
breedsareavailable.Also,genetic argumentsfor itswoolinversion,i.e.deepsecondary and
shallowprimaryfollicles arenotavailable.Thesecharacteristics,i.e.finesecondaryfibresand
highpercentageofkempinprimaryfibresindicatethatRomanoff breedisclosetowildsheep,
whose primary fibres are only of kemp type, but secon- dary of an extraordinary fineness.
Such observations and results make abasis for aquestion when to observeproduction and
quality of woolwhether Romanoff, even besides generally good results in its crosses, shall
makearegression indetails tothevaluesof wool follicles. Surely,itisnecessary tolook for
types of crosses which will show rather considerable trans- gression of fineness curve of
primary and secondary fibres, i.e.decreaseof variation of theirmeanvalues.Also,itwillbe
necessarytothinkoftheappearanceofkempfibres,since,asalreadystated,thistypeof fibres
was not recorded in crosses of Pramenka and Merinolandschaf, while offsprings, produced
from thesecrosses,inseminatedwithRomanoff breedre-ceived,toacertainpercentage,kemp
fibresinprimaryfollicles (18.51%).Therefore,theob-tainedresultsprovidewidepossibilities
fortheselectionofmoresuitabletypes,andbesidesselectionamongpurebreeds,onthebasis
of variations, rather large possibilities for the selec- tion of more suitable crosses are thus
provided.
References
Carter,H.B.,1955.Thehairfolliclegroupinsheep.AnimalBreedingAbstract.23,2.101-106,
Edinburgh.
Diomidova,NA., 1955.Noviedanieosrokahobrazovania serstnihvolokonuovec.Zivotnovodstvo,No.8.
Dry,F.W., 1955.Multifactorial Inheritance ofhelo-hairabundance inNewZealandRomnay
Sheep.Austral.J.ofAgric.Re.6,Melbourne.
Fraser, A.S., 1954.Development of theskin follicle population in Merino sheep.Austral.J.
ofAgric.Res5,4Melbourne.
Markotic,B., 1968.ThesupplementtotheknowledgeofwoolfolliclesinPramenka,Abstracts
ofpaper,LivestockInstitute-Butmir,4. Sarajevo.
Ryder, ML., 1960. Astudy of the coat of muflon Ovis musimon with special reference to
seasonalchange.ProceedingsofZool.Soc.ofLondon.
Ryder, ML., 1962.Thehistologicalexamination of skininthestudy of thedomestication of
sheep.Zeitschrift furtierzuchtungundZuchtungsbiologie.Bend77,BerlinundHamburg.
244
Useandproduction ofAngora rabbit hair in Italy
C.Lazzaroni,I.Zoccarato,G.PaganoToscano,A.Bosticco andM.T.Auxilia
Dipartimento diScienzeZootecniche, viaGenova 6,10126 Torino,Italy
Summary
Italy isoneof themostimportant countries manufacturing valuable animaltextilefibres for
productionofbothunderwearandfashionableclothes.AmongthesefibresAngorarabbithair
orangorawoolplays animportantrole.
The estimated amount of angora wool utilized by Italian textile industry is about 2-3
millionskgperyear(theworldproductionisestimatedbyMelchersas4-5millionskgin1990
andtheEuropean oneas200000kg).NeverthelessAngorarabbitbreedingisnotwidespread
inourcountry,sothatthereisn't amarketfor thenationalAngorarabbithairandthenational
production, located particularly in the North as well as the industry, covers only 1%of the
needs.Theamountleftoverisimportedfromothercountries,mostlyfromChina(about80%),
Germany,GreatBritain,Chile,France,etc.
ThequalityofimportedAngorawoolisgenerallylowandonly5%oftheamountisclassified asSuper, 1stor2ndclass.InItalythebiggesthandicapforAngorarabbitbreedingisthe
highproductive cost, given especially by labour, tohave ahighquality product. Itcould be
interesting however to evaluate the possibility of rearing rabbits with double productive
aptitude,inwhichwoolissubordinatedtomeatproduction,sotoincreasethein-comesofthe
breeders andtosupplythelowqualitywoolneededbythemarket.
Keywords:Angorarabbit,angorawool.
Introduction
Italian textileindustryisspecialisedinmanufacturing nobletextilefibres,bothofanimaland
plantorigin,fortheproductionofunderwearandfashionableclothes.Amongtheanimalfibres,
besidessilkandspecialwools—suchascashmereandmohair,obtainedbygoats,andalpaca
andvicuna, obtained bycamelids— itisworthwhile mentioning the angora wool, obtained
from thehairof the homonymous rabbit. Although itdoesnotrepresent animportant quantitativeproduction,angorawoolshowssomequalitativecharacteristics,suchasfineness,lightnessandnonconductivity, thatmakeitveryinterestingfor highqualityproducts.Noimpediments can be found toAngorarabbit breeding inMediterranean countries, atleastfrom the
environmental andclimaticpointof view,becausedomesticrabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus),
bred now allovertheworld,takesitsorigins from theMediterranean basin,and the sameis
for its genetic mutation Angora (also found in goats and cats) responsible for the peculiar
characteristics ofthehair.
Productionandtradeintheworld
Statisticaldata show thatin spiteofapredicted worldproduction of angora wool,evaluated
bytheMelchers&Co.ofBremenasapproaching4-5millionskgfortheyear1990—mainly
producedbyChina(3-4000000kg),Chile(350-360000kg),Argentine(150000kg)—the
European production amount to only 200000 kg (about 4-5%), mainly from Hungary,
Czechoslovakia,FranceandGermany(Gallico,1990),whileItalyplaysanunsignificantcommercialrole,withitsproduction corresponding to 1%oftheneeded quantity.
245
In 1989our textileindustry was therefor forced toimporting 3472891kg of angora wool,
representing70-85% oftheworldproduction (ISTAT,1990).After examiningthedataregarding theItalian import of angorawoolintheten-yearsperiod 1980-1989 (Castellani, 1990)
itcanbepointedoutthatoursuppliersaremainlyChina,from whichweimportdirectly 7090%ofthetotalneeds(2427900kgcorrespondingto69.9%in 1989),Germanywith6-11%
(405800kgcorresponding to 11.7%in 1989),GreatBritainwith4-8% (285 100kgcorresponding to 8.2% in 1989),Chile with 2-3% (119300kg corresponding to 3.5% in 1989),
Francewith 1-2% (18500kgcorrespondingto0.5%in 1989),Argentinewith 1%(29600kg
corresponding to0.9%in 1989).
Itmustbementioned thatthemainquantityoftheimportedangorawoolisoflowquality:
only5%isclassified asSuper,IorIIgradeandtheremaining95%,utilisedforproductswith
lowangorawoolpercentage,isclassified asIII,IVorOff grade(Gallico,1990).Thisbothfor
economicalreason (astheSupercoststwicetheOff grade)andforrequirementofthetextile
andfashion industries,whichdonotaskforyarnswithmarked 'woolly' angora effect.
Italian situation
Startingfromthesedatawewantedtoverify 1)thepresentsituationofbreedingunitsandtheir
consequent production of hairin Italy, asthe lastofficial datadate back to 1981,and 2)the
true amountof national consumption.
InItalyAngorarabbitbreedingisnotwidespreadatthepresent,andindeeditisdecreasing,
sinceitstrendtoproducehighqualityangorawool,scarcelydemandedbythemarket, sothat
evenbyinterviewingtheNationalRabbitBreedersAssociationwecouldidentify only19breedingunits,which arelocatedintheNorth andCentre-North regions (Piemonte7,Lombardia
4,Veneto2,EmiliaRomagna3,Toscana2,Marche1),asthe40manifacturingfirms (Piemonte
21,Lombardia3,Veneto2,EmiliaRomagna 1,Toscana9,Marche l,Umbria2,Lazio l).The
identified breedingunits aremainly smallormedium-smallonesandtheyarespecialisednot
inhairproduction,butratherinanimal selection for highqualityhair,contrastingsowiththe
demandofthenational andworldmarket.
In order toobtain moreinformation on Italian producers and on theorigin andqualityof
theangorawoolutilisedbyourfirms,wetriedtocontactthebreedersandthefirms'managers,
but theresults arefrustrating, since only 3firmsreplied toour letter, askingfor general and
non-economicalinformations.However,despitethediscoragingresultsobtainedbyourinterviews,wecan statethat in Italy Angorarabbitbreedingplays acriticalrole, butatthe same
timethelargedemandforangorawoolofmedium-lowqualityisputtingpressureforadecisive
changeinthis situation,even in ashort time.Infact aninversion of trendfrom ourbreeders
from a superior qualitativeproduction with high anduncompetitive costs to alower quality
butmorecheapproduction, combined tomeatproduction too,couldraisethelevelofItalian
Angorabreeding,andontheotherhand giveusthepossibility toreduceourimportfrom the
FarEast. Similar observation could bemadefor allEuropean andMediterranean Countries,
whichcouldsuccessfully enterintheworldangorawoolmarketandsupplythestrongdemands
of theItalian textileindustry.
References
Castellani,L.,1990. Analisidéliepossibilitàdisviluppodella produzionedipelodiconiglio
d'AngorainItalia(inPiemontein particolare)edicollocazionedellostessopresso1'industriatessile. FinPiemonteS.p.A.,Torino,Italy.
Gallico,L.,1990.Produzionedelpelod'Angora:tecnicaedeconomia. RivistadiConiglicoltura,27(10):35-40.
246
Mohair production districts and consumption ofmohair in
Türkey
Y. Yazicioglu* andZ. Yildirim**
* GaziUniyersitesi,MeslekiEgitimFakültesi, TeknolojiEgitimiBölümü,Ankara,Turkey
** AnkaraÜniversitesi,ZiraatFakültesi, EvEkonomisi YiiksekOkulu,Ankara,Turkey
Abstract
OutsidetheprovinceofAnkara,AngoragoatsarebredintheprovincesofEskisehir,Konya,
Çankiri, Afyon, Kastamonu, Mardin, KUtahya, Bolu and Çorum. 60% of the total mohair
productionisexported.Therestisbeingutilizedlocallyforhandcrafts:blanketweaving;scarf
weaving;softproductsweaving;socks,bags,etc.
Keywords:MohairAngoragoat,productionregions
Introduction
Untilthe17thcenturyAngoragoatshavebeenraisedonlyintheAnkararegion.OutsideTurkey
theyhavebeenbredfor thefirsttimeinFrance.TodaytheyarekeptalsointheSouth African
Republic,UnitedStatesofAmerica,ArgentinaandOceania.Turkey'sproductionranksthird
in the world. It is believed that Turkey has some 2 180000 Angora goats.An Angora goat
produces 2.2 kg/year mohair approximately. The total amount of the mohair production of
Turkeyis3.5ton approximately.
Resultsand discussion
Theprovinces whereAngoragoatsarekeptandtheamountof themohairproductsare:
Provinces
Ankara
Eskisehir
Konya
Çankiri
Afyon
Kastamonu
Mardin
Kutahya
Bolu
Çorum
Product
rank
Numberof
Angoragoats
Amountof
mohair
(kg)
Amountof
totalproduct
(%)
1
2
3
4
5
7
6
9
8
10
590364
316576
181128
180610
153 822
119304
130946
90048
118610
77426
974 101
552350
298 861
298008
253741
196652
216062
148579
195798
127754
28.95
16.40
8.88
8.85
7.51
5.84
6.42
4.41
5.82
3.79
247
Sixtypercentofthetotalmohairproduction wasexported.Therestwasutilizedbythehandcraft industry:
1. Blanketweaving
2. Scarf weaving
3. Soft products weaving
4. Socks,bags,etc.
Mohairblanket weavingisveryimportantinTurkey.Thefamous mohairblankets arecalled
Siirtblankets.SiirtblanketsaregainingmoreimportanceinandoutofTurkey.
Conclusion
MohairhasaveryimportantplaceintheTurkish economy,itsrelevant valuecannot be fully
exploited.Itisnecessary togivearealimportancetothisproduction inthe future.
248
Aresearch on somephysical properties and principal utilization
ofmohairs produced in Ankara and Bolu districts
Y. Yazicioglu* andZ. Yildirim**
* GaziUniyersitesi,MeslekiEgitimFakiiltesi, TeknolojiEgitimiBölümü,Ankara,Turkey
** AnkaraÜniversitesi, ZiraatFakiiltesi, EvEkonomisi YiiksekOkulu,Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
TheAnkaraandBoluregionsarethemostimportantmohairproducingdistrictsofTurkey. In
thisresearchsomephysicalcharacteristicssuchasfineness,crimpdepth,resistance,elongation
rate,kemp,medullated andcoloured fiber percentages were studied.Physical characteristics
of the principal mohairs produced in Ankara and Bolu districts were determined. Regional
utilization ofmohair wasalsostudied.
Keywords:Mohair,fiber, physicalproperties,utilization ofmohair.
Introduction
Inourcountrythehumangrowthratiois0.28%.Itisthusnecessarytoincreasetheproduction
in every field because of this very high ratio. The production in the weaving and clothing
industry can beeasily increased. It seems thatmohairproductshave achancein themarket:
weavingandclothingindustry.TheprovinceofAnkaraisthemostconvenientregion tokeep
Angoragoats;butthey arealsobredintheprovinceof Bolu thathasaverydifferent climate
from theprovinceof Ankara.
Purpose of this research was to determine the physical characteristics and to show the
differences of themohairsthathavebeenproducedinthesetwodifferent regions.
Materialsand methods
40animalsfromBoludistrictsand30animalsfromtheAnkaradistrictswereusedasasample.
Properties weretestedfor thesesamplesaccording totherelevant standards.
Resultsand discussion
In this research the following properties were determined on the mohairs from Ankara and
Boludistricts;fiber thickness,staplelength,singlefiber length,numberoffolds, crimpdepth
offibers,resistanceoffibers,elongationrateoffibers,kemp,medullatedfibersratio,coloured
fiberpercentage.Regionalutilization ofmohairwasalsodetermined.
249
Ankara(n =21)
Physical Properties
Fiberthickness(|i)
Staplelength
Singlefiber
naturallength (mm)
Singlefiberreallength (mm)
Singlefibernatural
length afterreallength (mm)
Numberoffolds (100mm)
Crimpgrade
Crimpkeptrate(%)
Crimprate(%)
Resistance offibers (gr)
Elongationrateoffibers(%)
Crimpdepthoffibers (mm)
Bolu(n= 21)
x
Sx
%V
X
Sx
%V
30.316
14.500
0.92
0.29
13.90
9.16
31.39
14.03
0.70
0.51
10.22
16.63
119.329
166.552
3.36
4.14
12.91
11.39
109.32
153.23
3.62
4.24
15.16
12.66
125.627
5.449
1.420
88.330
28.485
17.974
44.27
1.922
3.50 12.75
0.18 15.41
0.01 3.80
0.37
1.91
0.57 9.20
1.30 33.04
0.94 9.69
0.06 14.12
115.75
6.05
1.44
85.03
29.27
15.39
41.80
2.02
3.82
0.22
0.02
0.75
1.08
0.60
0.9
0.05
15.10
16.79
7.36
4.07
16.98
17.75
10.58
10.54
References
Aköz,K.&N.Sincer, 1961. Afyon, Beypazari,Bolu,Çankiri,Çorum,Eskisehir,Kastamonu,
Yozgat bölgeleri Ankara keçilerinin yetistirme, bakim ve besleme sartlariylaq beden
ölcüleri ve tiftik karakterli üzerinde arastirmalar. Lalahan Zootekni Arastirma Enstitiisii
Dergisi.Sayi8-9,AnkaraBasimveCiltevi.Ankara.
Altinbas,E.T.,N.Giirtanin &F.Kaya,1975.Lifteknolojisi dersnom.LifTeknolojisi veKöy
ElSanatlariKiirsiisii.Basilmamis.
Ertem,F., 1970. Tiftik ihracatinin murakebesinedairnizamnamegeregince siniflandirilan ve
ihraç edilen tiftiklerimizin bazi teknolojik özellikleri ve diinya standartlarina intibak
imkanlariüzerindearastirmalar.A.Ü.Z.F.Yayinlari,394.Bilimsel ArastirmaveIncelemeler,244.(DoktoraTezi).
250
Cashmerefibre productionfrom Australasian and Siberian
(GornoAltai)goatsinacrossbreeding programme
L.C.Roger,A.Waterhouse,N.Wray,M.GallagherandS. Scanlan
TheScottishAgriculturalCollege, GrasslandandRuminantScienceDepartment,Kirkton
Farm,Crianlarich,Perthshire,Scotland
Abstract
Theproductionofcashmereisapossiblemeansofdiversification onhillanduplandfarmsin
Scotland.Therearenonativetypesofgoatin Scotlandbearingeconomicquantitiesofcashmere.However, thenativeferal goat and someof thedairy breeds havebeen found tohave
smallquantities(<50g)ofveryfinefibre(<l6^im)(Rüssel,1989).Thesegoatshavebeenused
asfoundation stockinacrossbreedingprogramme usingimportedAustralasian andSiberian
siresaimedatimprovingcashmereproduction.
Methods
InNovember 1989,196doesconsistingof 126ferais, 10dairydoesand60Fl (Australasian
xferalordairy)wereinseminatedwithfresh sementakenfrom 8Australasian and8Siberian
bucks.Themean fibre diameterof theAustralasian andSiberian bucks spannedtherangeof
diameters available in each genotype and were therefore taken to be representative of their
respective breeds.Dam typewasallocatedequally acrossbothsirebreeds.
AustralasianbuckswereusedtomateanydoesnotconceivingtoAIforthefirstcycleafter
insemination only.Afurther 329-month-oldFl (Australasian xferal ordairy)doekidswere
inseminatedwithsementakenfrom twoSiberianbucks.Atotalof268kidsresultedfromthis
breedingprogramme.Numbersofeachcrossaregiven belowinTable 1.
Kids werepatch sampled at 10months of ageat three sites— neck, mid sideandhip—
and acombined equal weight sample wasobtained forfibretesting.Allfibre sampleswere
analysed atthefibrelaboratory ofWhatawhata Research Centre,NewZealand.Fibrelengths
werealsomeasured atthesethree sites.Kids wereshorn at 10-11monthsof ageand fleeces
weighed.
Results
Siberian crosskids had down of significantly higherdiameter, higherfleece weights,higher
yields and,consequently, higher calculated down weights (Table2.) Siberian crosskidshad
significantly longer cashmere than Australasian siredkids at all three sitesof measurement
(Table 3).Correlations between down lengths atall three sites andcalculated down weights
werepositiveandsimilarfor thetwogenotypes (Table4).MeandowndiametersofAustralasian and Siberian cross females were higher than that of their male contemporaries. Fleece
weights didnot differ between sexeswithin genotypesbutdown yieldwaslowerfor female
Australasian kids compared totheirmale contemporaries (Table 5). Single and twin reared
kidsdidnotdiffer significantly inanyofthefleececharacteristicsmeasuredapartfrom fleece
weight,which was4%greaterfor singles.Singlerearedkidswere6%heavieratweaning.
251
Table 1. Numberofkidsofeachgenotype.
Damtype
Feral
Fl Australasian
Siretype
Siberian
Australasian
75
43
99
51
Table2. Meancashmerediameter,fleeceweight,yield, calculateddownweightsandweaning
weightsfor SiberianandAustralasian crosskidsadjustedfor sexanddamtype.
Siretype
SED
Siberian
Australasian
16.6
307.1
42.6
131.4
16.1
232.4
32.8
76.1
O.ii***
97***
Y24***
47***
3.96
15.7
3.81
14.9
0.04***
0.3**
Meandowndiameter(|J.m)
Fleeceweight(g)
Downyield (%)
Calculateddownweight (g)
Standard deviationofmean
down diameter
Weaningweight(kg)
Table3. DownlengthsmeasuredatthreesitesinJanuaryadjustedfor sexanddamtype.
Down length (cm)
Siretype
SED
Siberian
Australasian
5.3
6.5
6.9
3.4
4.5
5.0
Hip
Mid side
Neck
Table4. Correlationsbetweendownlengthmeasurements
andcalculateddownweights.
Siretype
Measurement site
Hip
Mid side
Neck
252
Siberian
Australasian
0.57
0.71
0.74
0.51
0.65
0.64
019***
0.21***
0.24***
Table5. Fibre characteristics and weaningweightsof male andfemale kids ofdiffering
genotypesadjustedfor damtype.
Siretype
Siberian
Meandowndiameter(|i,m)
Fleeceweight (g)
Down yield(%)
Calculateddown weight(g)
Weaningweight(kg)
Australasian
Male Female
SED
16.1
293.9
43.7
128.4
16.8
0.16
17.3
1.8
9.1
0.55
17.3
326.3
42.2
139.4
14.5
***
NS
NS
NS
***
Male Female
SED
15.6
237.3
35.3
81.4
15.6
0.13
11.3
1.7
4.7
0.42
16.4
227.4
30.1
68.9
14.0
***
NS
**
***
***
Conclusions
Siberian cross kids were superior to Australasian sired kids in all thecomponents of down
weightmeasuredinthisexperimentiedownlength,diameter,yieldandfleeceweight.However,theirhighermeandowndiametermaylimittheiruseinabreedingprogrammesinceboth
Australasian andSiberian studieshaveshownthatcashmerecouldbeexpectedtoincreasein
diameter by atleast 1.5|0.mfrom the yearling to the2-yearold stage;e.g. Pattie andRestall
(1990),Gifford etal.(1990)andN.Wray(personalcommunication).Suchanincreasewould
bringagreaterproportion ofthesecrossbred50%Siberiananimalsovertheupperlimit(18.5
|j.m)offibre diameterforcashmere.
References
Gifford,D.,Ponzoni,R.W.,Ellis,NJ.S., Levinge,F.C.R &Milne,ML., 1990.Phenotypeand
GeneticParameters forproduction characteristics ofcashmeregoatsinsouthAustralia.In
proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Cashmere Production, Melbourne,
Australia.
Pattie,WA. & Restall, BJ., 1990. Breeding for Cashmere. In Scottish Cashmere,theViable
Alternative.Ed.AJFRüsselpp 13-31.
Russell,AJ.F.,1987."TheBeginningsofScottishCashmere".InScottishCashmere.Ed.A.J.F.
Russell &T.J.Maxwell.
253
Angora goats breeding in Italy: preliminary data
S.Misiti,M.Antonini,F. Carnevali,F. CastrignanandE.Stella.
ENEACM.E. Casaccia,AreaEnergia eInnovazione,DipartimentoR&SAgroindustriali,
UnitadiZootecnia, PB. 2400-00100RomeAD., Italy
Summary
This study aimstoacquireknow howonAngoragoatspotentiality inItaly,mainly toutilize
thisspeciesinmarginalandunproductiveagriculturalareas.Productive[PP]andreproductive
[RP]performances havebeen evaluated on60AngoraGoats,bredin semi-extensive wayin
Italy. For each animal fibre production quantity (average fleece weight [AFW]) andfibres
quality (averagediameter [AFD]andtypeoffibres)hasbeen evaluated.Further evaluations
(AFD,averagelenght[AL]andrelatedcoefficient ofvariation [CV],numberofkemp[K]and
numberofpigmentedfibres[NPF])havebeencarriedoutonpooledfleeces,processedintops.
Amating group has been established (43females, 1 male)for evaluating main reproductive
performances (pregnancy rate [Pr] detected by ultra-sound real-time scanning, fertility [Fr]
andprolificacy [Pf]).Intheend,newbornkidaverageweight[BKW]anddailyaverageweight
increase [DAW] have been evaluated. PP:fibreindividual results are:AWF:Kg 2.1; AFD:
10.30,42+10.25;medullatedfibres:6.37percentage(%).Topsperformances:thepooledfleeces
weredividedintwocategories:YoungGoatQuality:AFD:p.31.7,AL:mm94.1andCV:59%,
K: 15,NPF: 187.RP:Pr: 88.4%,Fr: 84.2% and Pr: 118.8%.Kid performances: BKW:Kg
2.07±0.43,DAW:g84.53±21.08.Inconclusion,obtainedresultsshowthatAngoraGoatsdid
nothaveadaptationproblemstotheclimate-enviromentalconditionofcenterofItaly.Further
studies will be performed to obtain a better fibre quality nearer to industrial requirements.
Actuallyweareperforming morestudiesaboutnutrition,qualityofkidfleeces andreproductiveaspectsoftheAngoraGoats.
Introduction
This study aimstoacquireknow howonAngora goatspotentiality inItaly,mainly toutilize
thisspeciesinmarginal andunproductive agricultural areas.
Materialandmethods
Fibreproductionquantity(averagefleeceweight)andfibrequality(averagediameterandtype
offibres)have been evaluated on 60 Angora goats. Samples washed with petroleum ether,
driedinovenfor 30'at 100°C,preparedaccordingtoUNIstandards5423-64wereobserved
at500Xwithmicroscope(MP3,PolskieZakladyOptyczne).Averagelengthandrelated coefficientofvariation,numberofkempandnumberofpigmentedfibres havebeencarriedouton
pooledfleeces,processedintopsbyindustrialmethodswithDarkFibreDetector(CSIRO).A
matinggrouphasbeenestablished(43females,1male)forevaluatingpregnancyrate,detected
byultra-soundreal-timescanning (ToshibaSonolayerSal32A),fertility rateand prolificacy.
Newbornkid averageweightanddailyincreasehavealsobeenevaluated.
254
Table 1. Topsanalyses.
Diameter((j.)
Averagelength (mm)
Coefficient ofvariability (%)
Blackhair
Coloured hair
Kemp
YGQ
AQ
31.7
94.1
59
57
130
15
35.6
105.8
56.2
61
136
17
Table2. Reproductiveperformance.
Pregnancyrate
Fertilityrate
Twinrate
Prolificacy rate
88.40%
84.80%
18.80%
118.80%
Results
Productiveperformances:fibreindividual results are:averagefleece weightKg2.1; average
diameter |j.30.42±10.25;medullatedfibres 6.37%.Topsanalyses:thepooledfleeces weredividedintwocategories:YoungGoatQuality(YGQ)andAdultquality(AQ)resultsarereportedinTable1.
Reproductiveperformances: seeTable2.Kidperformances: newbornkidaverageweight
Kg2.0710.43,daily increaseg84.53121.08.
Discussionand conclusions
Theanimalsproducedmediumandgoodqualityfibres,butwitharemarkableamountofkemp
andcolouredfibres.Inspiteoftheirmovingfromsoutherntonorthernhemisphere,theanimals
showedsexualactivitysynchronizedwiththeircountryoforigin.Howeversexualactivitywas
shorter(1month)thannormal(3-4months)becauseofItalianincreasingphotoperiod.Angora
goatshadnoadaptationproblemstoItalianclimateandenviromentalconditions.Furtherstudieswillbeperformed toobtain abetterfibre quality nearertoindustrialrequirements.
References
Carnevali, F.,De Benedetti,A. &Lucaroni, A., 1987.Diagnosi di gravidanza nella capra:
indagine ecografica dosaggi ormonali. Selezione Veterinaria, n. XXVIII, n. 10 bis, p.
1587-1596.
Fleet,M.R.&Forrest,J.W.,1984.Theoccurenceofpigmentedskinandpigmentedwool fibres
inadultmerino sheep.Wooltechnology and sheepbreeding,June/July:p.83-90.
Fleet,M.R. & Foulds,RA., 1988.Isolated pigmented fibres in fleeces and their tops.Wool
technology and sheepbreeding,June/July &September/October: p.76-81.
255
Lupton,C.J.,Pfeiffer, FA. &Blakeman,N.E., 1991.Medullation inmohair.Small Ruminant
Research, 5:357-365.
Ryder,ML. &Stephenson,S.K.,1968.Woolgrowth.AccademicPress,London—NewYork.
Ryder,M.L., 1987. Cashmere, mohair and other luxury fibres for breeder and spinner.Van
DiemenCashmereCompany 'ForestPark',Bracknell,Tasmania7302,Australia,p. 1-24.
van de Westhuysen, J.M., Wentzel, D. & Grobler, M.C., 1981.Angora goats and mohair in
SouthAfrica. SouthAfrica MohairGrowersAssn.
256
Ovulation rate ofmaiden and mature South Australian
cashmere does
D.O.Kleemann*,DM. Gifford*, 77.Grosser*, C.L. Trengove**andF.CR. Levinge***
* DepartmentofAgriculture, TurretfieldResearchCentre,Rosedale,
SouthAustralia,5350
** DepartmentofAgriculture,Naracoorte, SouthAustralia,5271.
*** "Messamurray",Naracoorte, SouthAustralia,5271.
Abstract
Thispaperreportsthedistribution ofovulationof SouthAustralian CashmeredoesandestablisheswhetherthepreponderanceoftwinbirthsobservedbyGifford etal.(1989),inthesame
herdofgoats,wasduetoahighincidenceoftwinovulationsortoaninabilityoftheuterusto
support more than twokids. Such basic information will berelevant in deliberations about
increasing thereproductive performance of the Australian Cashmere goat, whether it beby
geneticorothermeans.
Introduction
Reproductive rate has amarked influence on income derived from a commercial Cashmere
goat enterprise.Ponzoni and Gifford (1990)proposed reproduction rate,defined as number
ofkidsweaned, asatraitinthebreedingobjective of aCashmeregoatherd.
Thesuccessful exploitationofthereproductivepotentialoftheCashmeregoatdemandsa
knowledgeofitsintrinsicreproductivephysiologyandmodulationbyenvironmentalandother
factors (Restall 1987).Althoughlittleresearchhasbeenconductedinthisarea,itappearsthat
theAustralianCashmeregoathasreasonablefertility (pregnancyrate)andhasamoderateincidenceofmultiplebirths,ofwhichtheoverwhelmingmajority aretwins(EadyandRose,1988;
Saithanooet al., 1988;Gifford et al., 1989;Gherardi and Johnson, 1990).In contrast tothe
distributionoflittersizeintheAustralianCashmeregoat,manyhighlyprolificbreedsofsheep
andgoatsproduce sometripletsandquadruplets (approximately 15 to20%ofbirths).ExamplesincludeJavanese sheep andgoats (Obstetal., 1980)andtheBooroolaMerino (Bindon,
1984).
Materialandmethods
The study was conducted on aprivate property "Messamurray", near Naracoorte, in southeasternSouthAustralia.
Maiden (18monthsold) andmature (30to66monthsold)doeswereisolated from bucks
and rams for at least four weeks prior to teasing. Teaser bucks (2%) were placed into five
mixed-agedgroupsofdoesonday0.Teaserswereremovedonday5andreplacedwithfertile
bucks.Ovulation ratewasdetermined onday 10bylaparoscopy, thedoeshaving undergone
anovernightfast.Theeffect ofageofdoeonthedistributionofovulationswasanalysedusing
theChi-squaretest.
257
Table 1. Distributionofovulationrate(%) andmeanovulationratesofCashmere does.
No.offemales(%)
withovulationrate of:
Ageofdoe
Maiden
Mature
129
133
37
24
Mean
ovulation
rate
60
70
Resultsanddiscussion
Thedistributions of ovulation rate (%)and of mean ovulation rates for maiden and mature
Cashmere does aregiven inTable 1.Theovulation distributions ofmaiden andmaturedoes
weresignificantly different (P=0.05),withmaturedoeshavingagreaterproportionofmultiple
ovulations. The mean ovulation rates of themaiden and mature does were both moderately
high, andinboth groups of doestwin ovulations werecommonplace.Ourdataindicatethat
themoderatefecundity oftheAustralianCashmeregoat,inwhichmultiple-bornkidsarepredominantly twins(EadyandRose,1988;Saithanooetal., 1988:Gifford etal.,1989;Gherardi
andJohnson, 1990),probably results from ahigh incidenceof twinrather than higher-order
(>2)ovulations.Furtherinformation onlittersizedistributions atmid-pregnancy andatbirth
willbecollected totesttheforegoing proposition.
References
Bindon,B.M.,1984.Aust.J.Biol.Sei.37:163-189.
Eady, SJ. & Rose,M., 1988. Proc.Aust.Soc.Anim.Prod. 17:182-185.
Gherardi,S.G.&Johnson,TJ., 1990. Proc.Aust.Soc.Anim.Prod. 18:479.
Gifford,DR., Ponzoni,R.W.,Ellis,NJ.S., Levinge,F.C.R. &Milne,ML., 1989.Proc.3rdInt.
CashmereConf.,Adelaide.
Obst,J.M.,Boyes,T. &Chaniago,T., 1980. Proc.Aust.Soc.Anim.Prod. 13:321-324.
Ponzoni,R.W. &Gifford,D.R.,1990. J.Anim.Breed.Genet. 107:351-370.
Restall,BJ., 1987. In: Role of Non-Milch Goats in Agricultural Production in Australia.
WorkingpapersofWorkshop,SunshineCoast.
Saithanoo,S., Restall,BJ. & Pattie, WA., 1988.Proc. Aust. Assoc.Anim. Breed. Genet.
7:528-531.
258
1.66
1.82
The relation between aptitude for transhumance and fleece
characteristics in seven French sheep genetic types
J.F.Hocquette*,M. Vermorel* andJ.Bouix**
InstitutNationaldelaRechercheAgronomique, Clermont-Ferrand/Theix* and
Castanet-Tolosan**,France
Summary
Heatproduction (HP)ofgroupsoffourewesexposedtoclimaticconditions simulatingthose
metintheAlpsduringtranshumancewasdeterminedbyindirectcalorimetry.Atanenvironmentaltemperature (Ta)of 15°C,HPofewesaveraged 15KJ/KgP°-75/h.AreductionofTa
by 5°Coranincreasein air speed (to2-4 m/s)induced 9%increases inHP.Withbothrain
andwind,HPincreased in 1.5 hourby71,101and 120%intheCommunesdesAlpes(CA),
Préalpes (P)and Mourérous (M)ewesrespectively; these breeds seemed toadaptrapidly to
badweatherasHPincreased onlyabout40% onthesecondday.TheMérinosrelatedbreeds
increasedtheirHPmoreslowly(in3-4hours)andtoalowerextent(by22-78%)whitoutany
adaptation.TheMérinosd'Arles (MA)andEstàLaineMérinos (ELM)eweshadathickand
dense fleece which covered the belly and thelegs.Local alpinebreeds (CA,P,M)havethe
shortestfleecewiththelowestthermalinsulation,andthehighestradiativeheatlossesspecially
onthebelly.RaisingTato31°Candrelativehumidity(RH)to85%duringsixhoursinduced
increases of20% inHP.TheMAandELMewesincreased theirrectal temperature by0.45°
Candtheirrespiration rate4.2and5.8timesrespectively.Inconclusion, theMérinosrelated
genetictypes(speciallyELMandMA)seemedtobebetteradaptedtobadwheatherthanalpine
breeds.Incontrast,theELMewesareunfair toamuggy wheather.
Keywords:sheep,climaticconditions,energy metabolism, thermoregulation.
Introduction
Sheepfrom south-eastofFranceareexposed torainandwind,andalsotohigh temperatures
and storms during transhumance in the alpine mountains. The main breeds which move to
mountainpasturesareMAandlocalalpinebreeds:CA,PandM.TheELMandIledeFrance
(IF) breeds are interesting to improve meat production whereas crossbreed Fl Romanov x
Mérinos d'Arles (ROxMA) ewes are used to increase prolificity. Therefore, an experiment
was performed to study the relation between aptitude for transhumance and fleece characteristics inthe seven french sheepgenetic typescited above.Groups offour ewesfrom each
genetic type were exposed incalorimetric chambers toclimatic conditions simulating those
met in the Alps during transhumance. HP was determined by indirect calorimetry. Fleece
characteristics (radiative heat losses (RHL),thermalfleece insulation) andbloodparameters
werealsomeasured.
Resultsanddiscussion
Experiment1
Ewes wereexposed tothefollowing treatment:calm air withTa= 15°C(day 1),wind (2-4
m/s)andrainduring sixhoursat 15°Candwindaloneduringthenight(day2),calmairwith
259
P0,75/h)
Q (kcal/kg
M 15°C
7-
6-
M 10°C
ELM 10°C
ELM 15°C
I
Temps ( h e u r e s )
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure1. ChangesinHPwithrainandwindfor twogroupsofewes.M:MourerouswithTa
= 15°C (day2)(o,m) orTa=10''C (day4) (A,A),ELM:EstàlaineMérinoswithTa = 15'C
(day2) (a,m) or Ta= 10°C (day4) (0,*).Symbolsarefull whenHP becomesstableand
fluctuates aroundameanvalue.
Table 1.Variation inHPwithrainandwindandfleece characteristicsoftheewes.
Increase inHPwith rain andwind
15° C
MA(M)
MA(F)
ELM
IF
ROxMA
M
CA
P
Fleece
thermal
insulation
(C.nAW-1)
10° C
A
B
A
B
22
34
29
25
32
78
114
76
104
21
46
36
123
66
-
18
.
45
39
40
39
21
32
27
47
44
-
0.231d
0.119ab
0.168cd
OM!**
O.^1*
0.117abc
0.121 abc
0.098a
RHLwithcalmair
(W.m-2)
back
belly
43.9a
61.5f
29.6a
54.7de
47.9b
55.2de
56.6e
51.2cd
67.3a
94.0b
70.6a
117.8C
82.3 ab
118.6C
142.8d
140.9d
IncreaseinHPisexpressed in %of HPwith calm air.AandB:Valuesfor ewes nine weeks
(A)orfourteenweeks(B)after shearing.'-':missingvalues.Avaluefollowedbyasuperscript
differs significantly from all other values in the same column not followed by the same
superscript. MAewes from LeMerle (M)areused totranshumance whereasMAewes from
Fréjorgues (F)arealwayskeptinthevalley.HPof MAewesfrom LeMerleorFréjorgues is
not different.
260
Ta= 10°C(day 3),wind andrainduring sixhours at 10°Candwindaloneduring thenight
(day4).
At 15°Cin calm air,HPof ewes averaged 15KJ/Kg°-75/h.HPof ewes nineweeks after
shearing (groupsA)is 11%higherthanHPofewesfourteen weeksafter shearing(groupsB)
(P<0.01).Areduction of Taby 5°Cor anincrease in air speedinduced 9% increases inHP
(P<0.01).Withbothrain and wind,HPincreased in 1.5 hourby71, 101,120% intheCA,P
andMewesrespectively (day2)(P<0.05);thesebreedsseemedtoadaptrapidlytobadwheathersinceHPincreasedbyonly40%onday4despitereduction inTa(Table 1 andFigure 1).
TheMérinosrelated breeds increased theirHPmoreslowly (in3-4 hours)andtoalower
extent (by 22-78%) whitout any adaptation except for ROxMAewes (P<0.01) (Table 1 and
Figure 1).
TheMérinosrelatedbreedsarecharacterized byathickanddensefleece whichcoversthe
belly andthelegs,whereas localalpinebreedshavetheshortest fleece whichdoesnotcover
thewholebody.FleecethermalinsulationwasthelowestforPewesandthehighestforMérinos
related breeds (Table 1).RHLwere highestfor local alpine breeds than for Mérinos related
breeds,andthisdifference wasgreateronthebellythanontheback.Bloodconcentrationsof
calorigenic hormonesincreasedfor allgenetictypesbetweenday 1 andday4:+26%forthyrotropin and +15% for thyroxine (P<0.01). Blood energetic substrate concentrations also
increased: +8%for glucose and+56%for nonesterified fatty acid(NEFA)(P<0.01).
In conclusion, resistance to inclement weather depended mainly on fleece thickness and
characteristics:theMérinosrelatedgenetictypes(speciallyELMandMA)seemedtobebetter
adaptedtobadwheather thanalpinebreedsbecausetheyhavethemostinsulating fleece.
Experiment2
MA,ROxMAandELMbreedswereexposedtothefollowing treatment :1)calmairwithTa
= 15°CandRHof70%(day 1),2)calmairwithTa=31°CandRH=85%during sixhours
followed byeither2a)Ta= 15°CRH=70%(day 2)or2b)Ta= 10°CRH=70%(day3)or
2c)Ta=10°Cwithrainandwindduringsixhourssimulatingastormafter high temperatures
(day4exceptforELMewes).
Raising Ta to 31° C and RH to 85%induced increases of 20% in HP and decreases of
69-75%inRHL(P<0.05).TheMAandELMewesincreasedtheirrectaltemperatureby0.45°
C and theirrespiration rate 4.2 and 5.8 times,respectively (P<0.05).The ROxMAewesdid
not increase theirrectal temperature andincreased theirrespiration rate 2.5 timesondays 2
and3and5.1 timesonday4(P<0.05).TheplasmaNEFAlevelswerenotsignificantly altered,
butglycaemiawasdecreased by6to 13%(P<0.005).PlasmaT3andT4levels decreasedby
34 and 20%,respectively (P<0.05). Catecholamin plasma levels decreased in the MAand
ROxMAewes(-11to-63 %)butincreasedintheELMewes(+9to+58%)(P<0.05).
FallofTafrom 31°Cto 15"CandofRHfrom 85to70%induced decreasesof 10-16%in
HP (P<0.05).When theeweswere submitted tocold (10° C),rain and whirling wind after a
sixhoursexposureat31°CandRH85%(simulationofstorm),pantingstoppedimmediately.
HPdecreasedby 14%duringthefirsthour(P<0.05).Thenitincreasedlinearlyupto80%and
47% above the values recorded at 10° C without wind for the MA and ROxMA ewes
respectively (P<0.05).For MAewes,thisincrease was higher than thatobserved in the first
experimentwithrainandwindaftercalmairandTa=10°CRH=70%(+30%vs+80%).This
is suggesting a reduced fleece insulation in the MA ewes that might have resulted from
sweatingduringexposuretohightemperature.
Inconclusion,eweswithahighfleecethermalinsulation(ELMand,toalowerextent,MA)
areunfair toamuggy wheather.
261
References
Hocquette,J.F., M. Vermorel &J. Bouix. Influence du froid, du vent et de la pluie sur les
dépenses énergétiques etla thermorégulation de7 typesgénétiquesdebrebis.Génét. Sél.
Evol.(submitted).
Hocquette,J.F.,M.Vermorel&J.Bouix.Dépensesénergétiquesetthermorégulationde3types
génétiquesdebrebisexposéesàdestempératuresethygrométriesélevées.Génét.Sél.Evol.
(submitted).
262
Phenotypic correlations and productive wool traits of Australian
Merino and Polwarth breeds raised in Brazil
EM.Siqueira,P.F. VieiraandS.B.Pons
FacultyofVeterinaryMedicineandZootechny, UNESP, 18600BotucatuSP,Brazil
Summary
Theobjectivesofthisstudyweretoevaluatethewoolproductionperformance andtoestimate
phenotypic correlations among the considered traits, from 22 Australian Merino and 22
Polwarthewes,raisedatanaltitudeof623m,48°24'3"ofwestlongitudeand22°48'0"ofsouth
latitude.Allof themrearedlambsinthetwoyearsofthestudy.Theygrazedrotationally ina
Cynodondactylonpasture,withastockingrateof 1.67 animalunitsperha.Theanimalswere
shorn in the last day of march. The following traits were determined: greasy fleece weight
(GFW), yield (Y),clean fleece weight (CFW), fibre diameter (FD), staple length (SL) and
staplestrength (SS).
Theresultsrevealed asatisfactory performance of both breeds.Meanwhile,thehighyield
values obtained were ascribed to therain concentration before shearing, indicating that one
should sheartheflock immediately before therainy season (latespring).Concerningphenotypiccorrelations,itwasconcludedthatgreasyfleece weightisagoodselectioncriterion,but
onehavetoattendtotheriskofexcessiveincreaseoffibrediameter.
Keywords:sheep,woolproduction, wooltraits,phenotypic correlations
Introduction
Thewoolisatextilefibre thatisphysically andchemicallycompleteandhasproperscharacteristicswhichincreasesthevalueofitsendproducts(Bonifacino andLarrosa, 1985). Meanwhile,thewoolproduction systemsinvolveinexorablecomplexityduetothegreatvariability
of environmental and genetic factors, that affect several characteristics related tothe performanceof thefibre industrialprocess.
Nutritionallevel,healthconditionsandphysiologicalstatus,besidesclimaticvariables,are
responsibleforthechangesinthefibrestructure,whichcanalterthequalityoftheendproduct.
Resultsand discussion
Thewoolproduction performance of thestudied breedswassatisfactory considering theenvironmentalconditions(Table 1).Oneemphasizemeanwhile,theyieldvaluesobtained,higher
than the verified by Sanderson et al. (1976),Donelly et al. (1983), Rodriguez and Camiou
(1985).Theseresults were ascribed totherain concentration indecember,January, february
andmarch (770and439mmforthefirstandsecondyear,respectively).Veryhighyieldsmay
beassociated with aminorprotection of thefibres, duetothe suint washing (Cardellino and
Ponzoni, 1985).After that, one suggest to shear in november, before the rainy season (late
spring),inordertoavoidpossibledamageof thefibres,duetotheexcessivemoisture.
Thephenotypiccorrelation coeficients amongthewool traits(Table2),evidencethestrait
relationbetweenGFWandCFW,corroboratingtherecomendationofCardellinoandPonzoni
(1985)tousetheGFWinthegeneticimprovement,whenitisimpossibletomesuretheCFW.
Similar values were determined by Mullaney et al. (1970), White and McConchie (1976),
263
Table1.MeansstandarderrorsofthewooltraitsfromAustralianMerinoandPolwarthbreeds
(twoyearsmeans).
GFW
(kg)
Australian
Merino
Polwarth
CFW
(kg)
Y
(%)
SL
(cm)
FD
(m)
2.88+0.08 2.28+0.07 78.96±0.68 20.50+0.19
3.13±0.08 2.51±0.07 80.17±0.60 22.08±0.23
ss
(NKtex-1)
8.90+0.19 52.62+2.34
10.83±0.21 62.10+1.49
Table 2.Phenotypiccorrelation coeficientsfor Australian MerinoandPolwartwooltraits,
respectively (twoyearsdata).
CFW
GFW
0.98***
0.97***
CFW
Y
0.50***
0.24ns
0.67***
0.48***
Y
FD
0.33*
0.60***
0.32*
0.56***
0.18ns
0.08ns
FD
SL
***=P<0.001 **=P<0.01
* =P<0.05
SL
0.37*
0.31*
0.32*
0.29ns
0.12ns
0.04ns
0.33*
0.16ns
SS
0.39**
0.46***
0.43**
0.58***
0.48***
0.61***
0.12ns
0.20ns
0.14ns
0.40**
n=P>0.05
Cardellinoetal.(1981).ThecorrelationsbetweenGFWandtheothervariableswerenotantagonistes. Meanwhile, thepositivephenotypic relation between wool quantity andfibre diameter,consideringthefleece weightasthemainselectionobjective,allowstodeducethatone
mustcheck thediameterinordertoavoidtheovercomeof thestandard limits.Nevertheless,
according toGarcia (1985), this care is essential when thegreasy fleece is heavy, weighing
morethan 5.40kg,intheCorriedale breed.
References
Bonifacino,LA. &J.R.Larrosa, 1985.Evaluacion economicadelascaracteristicasdelalana
uruguaya.In:Lanas-SeminarioCientificoTecnicoRegional,Montevideo, 1985.Anales...
EditorialHemisferio Sur,Montevideo,p. 167-171.
Cardellino,RA., JL.V. Guerreiro & J.C.S. Osório, 1981. Produçâo de lä en borregos
CorriedalenoRioGrandedoSul.In:ReuniàoAnualdaSociedadeBrasileiradeZootecnia,
18,Goiânia, 1981.Anais...SBZ,Vi,cosa.p.306.
Cardellino, R.C. & R.Ponzoni,1985. Definicion delosobjetivos demejoramiento genetico
eindicesdeseleccion.In:SeminarioTecnicodeProduccionOvina,2,Salto,1985.Anales...
SecretariadoUruguayo delaLana,Montevideo,p.67-83.
264
Donnely,J.R., F.H.W. Morley & G.T.McKinney, 1983.The productivity of breeding ewes
grazingonlucerneorgrassandcloverpasturesonthetablelandsof southern Australia.H.
Woolproduction andweight.Aust.J.Agric.Res.34:537-548.
Garcia,D.G.,1985.AlgunasvariacioneslanimetricasenovejasCorriedaleseleccionadaspor
producciondelana.In:Lanas-SeminarioCientificoTecnicoRegional,Montevideo,1985.
Anales...EditorialHemisferio Sur,Montevideo,p. 128-131.
Mullaney,P.D.,G.H.Brown,S.S.Y. Young& P.G.Hyland,1970.Genetic and phenotypic
parametersforwoolcharacteristicsinfinewoolMerino,CorriedaleandPolwarth sheep.II
Phenotypic and genetic correlations, heritability and repeatability. Aust. J. Agric. Res.
21:527-540.
Rodriguez, M.E. & H.Camiou, 1985. Muestreo de lote de lana vellon de establecimiento
productor.In:Lanas-SeminarioCientificoTecnicoRegional,Montevideo, 1985.Anales...
EditorialHemisferio Sur,Montevideo,p.201-206.
Sanderson,ID., JD. McFarlane& J.E.Pratley, 1976. Production andquality of wool from
wet ewes, dry ewes and wethers grazing irrigated lucerne.Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod.
11:169-172.
White,D.H. & BJ. McConchie,1976.Effects of stocking rate on fleece measurements and
theirrelationships inMerinosheep.Aust.J.Agric.Res.27:163-174.
265
Repeatability ofwoolcharacteristicsand bodyshornweightin
ewesoffivebreeds,raised inintensivegrazingsystem
EJR.Siqueira, P.F. Vieira andS.B. Pons
FacultyofVeterinaryMedicine andZootechny, UNESP, 18600BotucatuSP,Brazil
Summary
This study wasconducted for twoyears withfivesheep breeds,toestimate therepeatability
of wool traits and body weight. Data were obtained from 98 ewes (18months of age).The
experimentalgroupconsistedof 10IledeFranceewesand22foreachofthefollowingbreeds:
Australian Merino,Polwarth, Corriedale andRomney Marsh.Allewesreared lambsinboth
years of the study.They grazed rotationally in aCynodon dactylonpasture,with astocking
rateof 1,67 animalsunitsperha.Woolsamplesweretakenfrom therightmidsidepositionof
the ewes and sent to laboratory for analyses.TheLSMLMW program (MixedModelLeast
SquaresandMaximumLikelihoodComputerProgram),byHarvey (1987),wasusedtoestimatetherepeatability,includingyearandbreedasfixedeffects andeweasrondomeffect. The
repeatability estimates of the studiedtraitswerehigh,exceptfor staplestrength andextensibility.Theestimateobtainedforyellowdiscolourationincidenceshowedthatitmustbeincludedinthegeneticimprovement programes.
Keywords:sheep,wooltraitsrepeatability.
Introduction
Therepeatability coeficient is aphenotypic parameter dependent on the population genetic
patrimony andspecific environmentalconditions,althoughtheestimatesforwooltraitsmade
byvariousworkerswereverysimilar(CardellinoandRovira, 1988).Inadittion,accordingto
Cardellinoetal.(1983),therepeatability tendtobelowerunderadverseenvironmental conditions.Thedifference between repeatability estimates of adult and youngewesis not great
inmagnitude,someasurements accomplished inthefirstfleece,couldpredictthesubsequent
animalperformance (Youngetal.,1960;Mullaneyetal.,1970).Concerningbreeddifferences,
Mullaneyet al. (1970)concluded thatonemayusethesameestimate,topredict gainsinthe
productive life of Australian Merino,Polwarth andCorriedalebreeds.Among several fleece
traits,yellowdiscolouration isaseriousfault thataffects thewoolindustrialvalue.Wilkinson
etal.(1985)reportedtheoccurrenceofhighrepeatabilityestimatesinAustralianMerino,Polwarth andCorriedaleflocks, from different environments.
Theobjectiveofthisstudywastoattainrepeatabilityestimatesofwooltraitsinewesraised
inasubtropical environment,inBrazil.
Resultsand discussion
Repeatability estimatesofmedian tohighmagnitudewereverified, exceptfor staplestrength
andextensibility (Table 1).Thefleece weight(greasy andclean)coeficients werefittedinthe
samerangeof0.50to0.60,reportedbyCardellinoandRovira(1988),basedonvariousworkers
data.YieldrepeatabilityestimatewaslowerthanthevaluesobtainedbyAustralianresearcher
(Youngetal., 1960;Beattie, 1962;WhiteandMcConchie, 1976).Probably,thisdiscrepancy
isduetotherainincidence,lowinAustralia,buthighintheconditionsofthisstudy.Otherwise,
266
Table 1. Repeatabilityestimatesofwooltraitsandbodyshornweight, inewesoffivebreeds.
Traits
Greasyfleeceweight
Cleanfleeceweight
Yield
Fibrediameter
Staplelength
Crimps frequency
Yellowdiscolouration incidence
Extensibility
Staple strength
Body shornweight
Repeatability
Standarderror
0.55
0.56
0.46
0.84
0.53
0.78
0.55
0.19
0.24
0.75
0.071
0.070
0.080
0.030
0.073
0.040
0.071
0.098
0.096
0.045
therainintensitydiffered betweenbothyears,suchanoccurrencepromotingagreatvariation
intheyield,whichcontributed tothelowrepeatability estimate obtained.
The lowrepeatability estimates for staple strength and extensibility were ascribed to the
oscillationinthehelminthicinfection betweenthetwoyearsintheCorriedalebreed.Although
thisinfection didn'tcauseseriousdamagetothefibreresistence,promoteddifférences inthis
characteristic between thetwoyearsof thestudy.
The fibre diameter and the crimp frequence showed very high repeatability estimates. It
seemsthattheenvironment, especially thepasturenutritional value,offered satisfactory conditionsfor thediameterandcrimpfrequency uniformity, inbothyears.Thehighestimateobtainedforbodyshornweight,alsoconfirms thelittleenvironmentalvariation.Thisconclusion
is basedon thefact thatadverseenvironment favor lowrepeatability estimates,according to
Cardellinoetal.(1983).
Theyellow discolouration incidencerepeatability estimate,was alsohigh,confirming the
observationsofWilkinsonetal.(1985).Consideringtheheritablenatureofthisabnormalmanifestation, itcould beconvenient toincludeit in thewool sheep genetic improvementprogrammes,mainly in thehumid regions, where theenvironmental effect elevates yellow discolouration frequency.
References
Beattie,A.W.,1962.Relationships among productive characters of Merino sheep in Northwestern Queensland. 1. Estimates of phenotypic parameters. Queensl. J. Agric. Sei.,
18:437^445.
Cardellino, R.C.,A.Florin& A.Rodriguez, 1983. Determinaciones derepetibilidad. Ovinos
yLanas, 10:45-54.
Cardellino,R.A. &J.Rovira, 1988.MejoramientoGeneticoAnimal.EditorialHemisferioSur,
Montevideo,253p.
Harvey, W.R.,1987. LSMLMW (Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum Likelihood
ComputerProgram)PC-1version,59p.
Mullaney, P.D., G.H. Brown, S.S.Y. Young &P.G. Hyland, 1970. Genetic and phenotypic
parameters for wool characteristics in fine wool Merino, Corriedale and Polwarth sheep.
II.Phenotypic and geneticcorrelations,heritability andrepeatability. Aust.J.Agric.Res.,
21:527-540.
267
White, D.H. &BJ. McConchie,1976.Effects of stocking rate on fleece measurements and
theirrelationshipsinMerinosheep.Aust.J.Agric.Res.,27:163-174.
Wilkinson, BM., F.J. Aitken &B.M. Tinnock, 1985.Prueba para la prediccion del amarillamientodelalana.In:Lanas-SeminarioCientifico TecnicoRegional,Montevideo, 1985.
Anales...EditorialHemisferio Sur,Montevideo,p. 143-147.
Young,S.S.Y., //JV.Turner&C.H.S.Dolling, 1960. Comparison ofestimatesofrepeatability
andheritabilityfor someproduction traitsinMerinoramsandewes. 1.Repeatability.Aust.
J.Agric.Res., ll(2):257-275.
268
The Sarda sheep breed and the local carpet industry
S.Casu, P. Cappai* andM.Atzori**
* IstitutoZootecnico eCasearioper laSardegna. Sassari,Italy.
** CattedradiStoriadélieTradizioniPopolari, UniversitàdiSassari,Italy.
Summary
TheSarda sheep breedwith4700000headsisthemostimportant Italian sheeppopulation.
Itsoriginally came from Sardinia, butnowiswidespread alsoinmanyregionsoftheItalian
peninsula,especiallyinthecentralareaTheanimalsareofmediumsizewithannualmilkproduction of 150to2501 dependingonthehusbandry conditions.Their fleece weightranges
from 1.1to1.8kgforthefemales and1.5to2.5kgforthemalesTheirwoolischaracterized
bylongstapleswitharelativelylargediameter.InSardinia,thetraditionofwoolspinningand
weaving dates back toprehistoric times Thisisatraditional activity, which is still thriving,
sinceitaccountsforaspecific sphereofproductionontheSardinianlocalhandicraft.Weavers
make blankets,carpets andtapestries following ancient patterns ofcomposition, usingboth
verticaland horizontal loomsconceived accordingtoarchaictecnology.
Introduction
Sardinia, anisland located inthemiddleoftheMediterranean sea(Lat.40°N),isanItalian
regionwithasurfaceareaof24809squarekmand1.6millioninhabitants.Mostofthissurface
is covered byhills andmountains (max height approx. 1800m).Thepasture areaisabout
1.27millionha(Bullitta, 1980),but75%ofthesurfaceofthisislandmaybeexploitedextensively considering woods and the brushwood. Sardinia has a Mediterranean, warm and
temperate climate withthelowest temperatures inwinter (0to5°C)andthe highestonesin
summer(27°to33°C).Themeanrainfall is600mminthecostalplainsand1500mminthe
centralmountainousareas.Precipitationsareconcentratedinautumnandwinterwhilesummer
isanearlydryseason.
Originand distribution oftheSardasheepbreed
TheSardasheep breed,indigenous toSardinia, seemstocomeofthelargeAsian stock,like
mostoftheMediterranean milksheep(Owen, 1976).ItisthelargestItaliansheepbreed(41%
of thenational sheep stock)with its4.7million heads,3.8millionsofwhichare bredinSardinia. Therest is bred in thepeninsula, especially initscentral regions (Latium, Tuscany,
Umbria,EmiliaRomagna).
Morphologicalandproduction characteristics
The Sarda sheep isamedium size animal (60-70 cminwithers heigth),with alive weight
ranging from 60to80Kgforthemales andfrom 35to45Kgforthefemales. Ithas light,
polledheadwithstraightorslightlyram-likeprofile andextendedtrunk,deepthorax,straight
back, broad abdomen. Itsudderiswell-developed, globular, with great sinuses, suitablefor
bothhandandmachinemilking(Casuetal.,1983)Afterweaning(25-40daysafterlambing),
thissheepgivesamilkproduction ranging from 150to2501perlactation,dependingonthe
269
extensive or semi-intensive husbandry conditions Theaveragemilk fat content is 6.0-6.5%,
whiletheprotein content amounts to5.0-5.3%.
The annual fertility rate is about 95%with a 120-150% prolificacy rate lambings occur
mainlyinautumnfor adult sheepandlatewinterfor first lambings.
Thewhite,openfleece withpointed staples stretches halfway downtheforleg andalittle
further upthehock.Itsweightranges from 1.1 to 1.5 Kgfor thefemales andfrom 1.5 to2.5
for themalesThewoolcharateristicsare:
Staplelength (mm)
Crimps/25mm
Fibrethicknes (m)
Yeld 16%RH
187.8
1.1
44.2
56.7
Animalhusbandry
SheepindustryinSardiniatraditionallyfollowsatypicallyextensivesystem,withflocksliving
free rangethroughouttheyear,makinguseof thefodder from naturalpastures.Milk yieldis
dependentongrassgrowth(Casu,1971),whichshowsaproductivecycletypicalofmanymediterraneanareas,withherbageproduction mostlyconcentratedinthespringmonths.Forthis
reason andduetomostof thelambings occurringinlateautumn,milk yield showsacharacteristic trend, with 25%of the total produced in winter months(December-February), while
50%isproduced intwospringmonths(April-May).
Sinceseveralyearsthetraditional systemisundergoingaprofound change,makingavailablesownpastures(autumn-springtemprarymeadows;Bullitta, 1976)wichsupplythe flocks
with plentiful herbage during the critical periods (latepregnancy, lambing, early lactation).
Even thesupplementary concentrateisprovided atdifferent extentaccordingtotheintensificationrateof themanagement (Sannaetal, 1990).
After weaning (lamb 30-40 daysold)themilking starts usually twiceaday,and lasts up
tothe beginning of summer. The gross income of theflock derives for 75-80 %from milk,
25-20 %from suckling lambs slaughtered when 30-40 days old, and only for 0.5 % from
wool!
Woolutilization
Inthepastthewoolofthe'Sarda',thesolebreedraisedinSardinia,washomeutilizedtomanufacture the 'orbace'tomakethetraditionalcostumesorpartsofthembesides theeveryday
items likepaksaddles and bags.However thewool,often mixed with vegetable fibers (flax,
cotton) wasusually andstillisprocessed intoblankets,carpets andtapestries.
Toimprovethequalityfinewoolbreeds(liketheMerinos),wereintroducedforcrossbreeding(Passino, 1931)butduetothedroping milk yield this schemedidn't goonfor longtime:
consequently thebreed wasand stillisacoarse woolproducer.
Theeffect ofcrossbreeding onquality andkindof woolisreported inFigure 1,and refers
totheeffect ofcrossbreeding withFriesian atincreasing levels(Boyazoglu etal., 1979).The
exposed figures stressclearlythat asthetextilequality improves thecarpet makingworsens.
Suchcrossbreeding doesn't seemadvisableinareaslikeSardiniawherethetraditional carpet
handicraft thrivesfairly well;ifnotproperlyplanned, thiscouldjeopardizethecharacteristics
of thetraditionally manufactured goods.
270
200.
Staple length - 12 M (mm)
i87,a
—
•
•
l76,o\^
150.
100.
114,0
~
**
-•
93,5
1
1 — — i
Crimps / 25 mm
45.
40.
Fibre thickness (Micron)
•44,2
35.
Yield (16% RH)
65.
50.
55.
61,9
1
2 5 % Fr
1
50%Fr
1
S:Sarda
25%Fr:l/4Fries.XSarda.
50%Fr:l/2 "
' "
75%Fr:3/4
75%Fr
Figure1. WoolcharacteristicsofSarda breedandcrossbredFriesianxSarda (Boyazoeluet
ai, 1979).
WoolandtheweavingtraditioninSardinia
Thecultural heritageof sheepbreeding inSardiniadatesbacktoprehistoric times (Neolithic
Age,4600-3800BC;Lilliu, 1988).Thisheritageismadeupofknowledgeofethnoveterinary
science,empiricalhusbandryandmilkprocessing.Amongtheotherthings,weavingtraditions
have developed according to which women do woolwork as a form of domestic handicraft
(Satta, 1983).
Ashappensinothercountrieswhoseculturescentresonsheepbreeding,inSardiniawool
processingisdividedintoaseriesoftechnicaloperationsbeingconstantanthropological factors before itresults in thefinal product. Actually thesequence of weaving operations isthe
following:shearing,woolsortingandscouringandcarding,spinning,throwing,hankwinding,
preparationofthebobbins,preparationofthewarp,layingofthewarpontheloom,drawing-in
and finally actual weaving (Balzano and Biddoccu, 1983;Mantiglia, 1987).During thelast
stage, thefabric takes shape according to thedesign which one wants toproduce. Again, to
this end a series of constant operations is performed varying on the basis of the different
designs.Precise calculations are made toestablish the points where the weft is interwoven
withthewarp (ArataandBiasi, 1935;Loddo, 1987).Furthermore,somewoolhanksaresuitablydyedmainlyred,darkblue,brown,yellow aswell asblack andwhite,inordertocreate
sharpercolourcontrastsbetweenpatterns.
TheSardinian textiletradition usestwokinds ofloom:thevertical oneandthehorizontal
one, excluding each other in theirrespective areas of diffusion. Thus, specific and different
skills areneeded tooperatethem,withtheresult thatoncewhocanusetheverticalloomare
notabletousetheotheroneandviceversa.
271
Asiswell-known,theverticalloomistechnicallybasedontheelementaryprincipleoftension
by means of two bars, one located at its topon proper supports and the other atits bottom,
fastenedtorodsorcounterweightsexertingacounterforce.Materialculturescholarsthinkthis
isthemostarchaicweaving system.Itisusedinsomeinlandareasof Sardiniawithagreatly
conservative and pastoral tradition, such asGoceano and Barbagia (Pinna, 1990).So-called
'doubleface'carpets,inwhichtheinterlacementofweft andwarpdoesnotcreatearightside
and aback side,areproduced in these areasbeingrather small in comparison with theones
wheretheorizontalloomiswidespread.Thepatternspeculiartothesecarpetsareverysimple.
They arestructured according tosignrepresentations basedonmulty-colouredstripes where
lozenges and stars or sinusoids and broken lines with oscillographic structure are inserted.
These elements aim at chromatic effects because of their being probably the result of a
primitiveculturalcontextwhichremaineduniconicfor alongertime.Forthisreason anddue
tothesecarpets beingproduced bymeans of theverticalloom, wemay conjecture that their
patterns and production techniques are more ancient than those decorating the carpets from
otherSardinianareas,whereitispossibletofindmoreelaborateinfluencesmarkedbyahigher
naturalisticrealism.
Thehorizontalloom,amorecomplexmechanismthanthetechnicallysimpleverticalloom,
was possibly brought in during theMiddle Agebythemonastic orders following theBenedictinerule.Thetechnicalsystemofthehorizontalloom,whichprobablycametoEuropefrom
Asia,is animportant innovation sinceitmakes possible to speed up theweavingprocessby
opening the shed through the warp with treadles that move theheddles upwards anddownwardsandthusmakethepassageoftheshuttleeasier.Thefloral patterns,madewiththehorizontalloom,arethemost widespread. Among them,themostpeculiar onesportray bunches
and libertystyle compositions of carnations,poppies daisies and lilieshanging from stylized
vine-shoots. Sometimes within thefloral patterns,stylized simbols of themonstrance andof
thecrossareportrayed,aswellasstylizedzoomorphicshapesofpeacocks,sparrows,hoopes,
deers,mouflons and horses.Whereas,the stereotype of the anthropomorphic patterns isthe
'round'dancewithdancersallalongtheborderandthehunter-driverreasing his rifle.
Compositions andgenresvaryinthedifferent historicalandculturalareasofthisisland:in
someof themcarpetsprevail,insomeotherstapestries orblankets.Generally,asregardsthe
different characteristics of traditionals patterns,somecomunities stand out where thehandicraft textileproduction isstillquiteactive,withreference tothedemandbothofthehomeand
theexternalandtouristmarket,whichdeveloped after Sardiniagotintothegreatrouteofthe
international tourism.InSardinia,aspecialregionalbody,the"IstitutoSardoOrganizzazione
Lavoro Artigiano", has been concerned with the traditional textile handicraft and the other
sectorsoftheartistichandicraft industryfrom 1957,asregardsboththepreservationofcultural
traditionsandfinancing programmes.Handicraft firms andthemanytextilecooperativesturn
tothisbodyasthemostimportantreferenceforproductmarketing.However,underthepresent
market conditions, also thedemand byprivatepourchasers always exceeds the supply.This
meansthatthehandicraft textileindustry intheislandcouldbedevelopedfurther inorderto
makeitanoutletespecially for thefemale labour.
References
Arata,V.G.,BiasiG.,1935.ArteSarda.Ed.Treves,Milano.
Balzano, F., Biddoccu F., 1983. Il lavoro al telaio a Bonorva e Ploaghe. Ed. Archivio
Fotografico Sardo,Sassari,46-79.
Boyazoglu,J.C.,CasuS.,FlamantJ.C.,1979. Ann.Génét.Seianim,11(1):23-51.
Bullitta,P., 1976.RivistadiAgronomia, 1,2,57-64.
Bullitta,P., 1980.Ital.Agric. 117,109-118.
Casu, S.,1971.OptionsMéditerranéennes,7,100-108.
272
Casu,S., CartaR., RudaG.,1983.Ill Simp.Inter. Ordeno MecanicoPenuenos Rumiantes,
Valladolid,592-603.
Lilliu,G., 1988.LaciviltàdeisardidalPaleoliticoallEtàdeiNuraghi.NuovaERI,Torino,III
Ediz.
Loddo,P., 1987.ArtetessileinSardegna.SimbolieornatiEdDelfino, Sassari.
Mantiglia, G.,1987. In:AA.VV.Latessitura.MaterialietecnichedellatradizioneEd.Museo
EtnograficodiNuoro,BancodiSardegna,Sassari,21-72.
Owen,J.B.,1976.SheepProduction Ed.BailliereTindad,Londres,436.
Passino,F., 1931.NuoviAnnalidiAgric,IX,317-342.
Pinna,P., 1990.Sesuja, 1,24-34.
Sanna,A., Casu, S.,Molle,G.,Ligios,S,RudaG., 1990. IXS.I.P.A.O.C,Grado.
Satta,M.M.,1983.IIlavoro altelaioaBonorvaePloaghe.Ed. ArchivioFotografico Sardo,
Sassari,20-22.
273
Presentsituation and future ofhand wovenwoolcarpets
M.Arli,F.IlgazandN.Kayabasi
AnkaraUniversity, HomeEconomicsHigherSchool, DepartmentofVillageHandicrafts,
Ankara, Turkey.
Summary
History of hand woven carpet makingis avery old art.Thousands offamilies from Hereke,
Bali-kesir,Izmir,Usak,Konya,LakeDistrict,Kâyseri,Nevsehir,Erzurum,SivasandAntalya
havebeen engaged in this activity and they areearning money from this art. Alargepartof
thousandsoftonsofspringshortfleeceproducedinourcountryareusedinhandwovencarpet
making. Hand woven carpet making has a special importance for making use ofrough and
mixedspringshornfleece which isnotpossible tomakeuseofinotherbranchesoftextile.
However, it is afact that this old arthas someproblems nowadays.Badquality andnoncompliancewithstandardizationasfarasthethreadsareconcerned,simplicityandprimitivenessof thelooms,degeneration of motives anddesigns,problemsof dyes anddyedthreads,
scarcityofscientificresearchinthefieldofcarpetmaking,problemsoftrainingandeducation,
inabilitytomakequality control before,duringandafter weaving,problemsofcooperatives,
all sortsof legislative bottlenecks andsimilarproblems areputting thefuture of handwoven
carpet makinginjeopardy, if notnowin future.
Inorder toprevent thisdangerit would beappropriate totake measures toovercome the
problems citedabove starting from raw material andin fact from sheepbreedinguptosales
andmarketing,thatisinevery stageof handwoven carpetmaking.
Keywords:Hand wovenwool carpet.
Introduction
Oneofthehandicrafts usedtoextensivelyinourcountryandmakinguseofthefree workforce
inthebestwayishandwoven carpetmaking.Alloftheoperationsinhandmadecarpetmaking
aredonebyhand.Carpetrequires handworkonlyfrom beingthreadtobecoming acovering
material.Thatis why although it isoffered for highprices in themarketit hasfound buyers
easily almost in every age. Also, for this reason the machine-made carpets that have come
aboutinthelastyearsattractlessattentionalthoughtheyaremadeofwithbettermaterial,they
havebetterdesign andmoreimportant theyarecheaper.
Carpetmakinghasbeenahandicraft inourcountryforalongtimeandpresentlyitiseptendedtoallregions.Therearethousandsoffamilieswhoderivetheirlivelihoodfromhandwoven
carpetmaking.Despite alltheseincreaseddemandtowardshandmadecarpetsinourcountry
therearesomebottleneckspreventingdevelopment.Thesebottlenecksbringsomelimitations
to the development of handwoven carpet making. Wecan summarize these bottlenecks as
follows.
Rawmaterial
Therawmaterialusedcomesasthemostimportantfactorinadditiontotheworkmanshipand
design thateffects thequality andmarketability of ahandwoven carpet. Alargepartof wool
produced in our country arerough andmixed. Andrough mixed wools arethebestforproductionofhandwoven carpets.However,itisnotpossibletosaythatallthewoolyarnsarein
274
the same quality. Wool carpet yarns produced in our country areproduced in varied forms
varyingwithregions.Thequalityofbothfactory producedwoolcarpetyarnsandtraditionally
producedones showdifferent qualities.Therefore, standardizedyarnshavetobeproduced.
Toolsanddesign
Alargepartoftheloomsusedinourcountryaremadebytheusersandassuchtheyareprimitive.Theymustbeimproved.Because,aqualityproduct(carpet)isproducedwithqualityraw
material, careful workmanship andright tools looms.Motifs anddesigns seenin handmade
woolcarpets arevery varied. There are somedesigns prepared by some specialinstitutions,
Siimerbank,MinistryofAgricultureandRuralAffairs andMinistryofCulture.Weaversmake
useofthesedesigns.However, therearealsodesignspreparedinaccordancewiththewishof
themarketanddemandof thebusinessmen andcarpets woven withthesedesigns. Therefore
instead offollowing thedegenerated designsrequired bythemarketwemakeourtraditional
designs andquidethemarketbothinternally andinter- nationally.
Education andresearch:Inordertoenableourcarpetstoattainitsvaluebothinhomeand
foreign marketstheymustbewoveningoodqualityandgooddesign.Andthiscanberealized
onlywiththeworkof specializedpeoplewhoknowtheaspectofcarpetfrom rawmaterialto
marketing.Suchpeoplecanbebroughtupwithgoodeducation.Unfortunately, thenumberof
institutions,researchpeople andresearch inthefield of handwoven carpet isalmostnone.It
isafact thateducation withoutresearch is notpossible.
Coordinationand cooperation
Therearemanyestablishmentsinourcountrywhoareengagedincarpetbusiness.However,
asthereisnocoordinationbetweenthesebodies,labour,knowledge,moneyandtimeiswasted.
Therefore, itwouldbeuseful tocombinecarpetmakingunderasinglepublicbodyandcarry
out alltheworks bythiscentralized organ. Cooperatives areaneffective tooltodevelop the
rural areas from socio-economic point of view. Carpet cooperatives which come underDevelopmentCooperativescouldnotcompletetheirupperorganization andtherefore theycould
notsetuptheirunions.Therefore,theycannotfunction effectively. Inordertomakethecarpet
cooperativeseffective thereneedstobelong-term,lowinterestloansextendedtosuchcooperatives.Hence,thefinancial problemof thecooperatives willbesolved.
Otherproblems
Thewagesreceived bytheweavers aredetermined bylump-sumsystemorbythenumberof
knots.Although thereareverymanyanddifferent applications,thewagepaidtotheweavers
by knot is very low. Also, alarge part of carpet weavers in our country are not covered by
healthinsurance.
Noseriousqualitycontrolisdoneonthecarpetsproduced bythoseotherthan Siimerbank,
Development Fund of Turkey and some serious workshops. Thisfact means that erroneous
carpets come on to the market. Therefore, on auto-control system to inspect carpet quality
mustbesetupanddeveloped.Alsohand-woven carpetsmusthaveandextensivepropaganda
andpromotion bothathomeandabroad,henceotherproblemsofcarpet tradewillbesolved.
Wehave theopinion thattakingimportant measures in the field ofrawmaterial andeven
sheepbreedingaswellassalesandmarketingwouldbeveryappropriateforthedevelopment
of handmade carpet trade which has and important place in the socioeconomic life of our
country.
275
Design characteristics in Anatolian carpets
I.H. Güngör
FacultyofArchitecture, UniversityofTrakya,Edirne, Turkey^
Abstract
Amongthecarpetswoveninvariousproduction centersindifferent regionsofAnatolia,there
aretypicaldifferences aswellassimilaritiesofcharacteristicsingeneral,intermsofmaterials,
colors,designs and sizes.Themaindifferences seemtoleratetodesignsratherthan theother
factors. The majority of the carpets woven in most of these regions display similarities in
well-knownelementssuchasthe'mihrab'inMedallionsandineachcarpettheplainisframed
bylargeandsmallborders.Inspiteofthesecommonlysharedsimilaritiesinthemotifs ofbordersandmedallions,therearesomeregionaldifferences incharacteristics.Themotifs onthe
borders make theregion of the carpet easily known. Some carpets can be differentiated by
theirmedallionsorthemotifs usedintheirmedallions.
Keywords:Weavingregion; similaritiesinform andcharacter; differences indesign.
Introduction
I have surveyed overfifty carpet-and rug-weaving regions in Anatolia. In general, there are
similaritiesbothinform andincharacterbetweenthecarpetswovenineachoftheseregions.
However, in spite of the general similarities, each one of these carpets is different from the
others.Thedifferences indesign willbestudiedinthisarticle.
Design characteristics
The differences in appearance between the Anatolian carpets may be grouped under four
points:differences inmaterial;differences incolor;differences in size;differences indesign.
Onlythedifferences ofdesign willbestudiedin thisarticle:
1. Although borders which are among theelements commonly used in thecarpet design
compositions existoncarpetsofallregions,therearedifferences betweentheirgeometric forms, flower patterns and branches that are used in the borders of mostregions.
Where the differences are very clear, the borders indicate theregion where the carpet
has been woven. Some famous examples are the following: 'Gemi' (Ship), 'Karanfil'
(Carnation) and Cafer bordersinMilascarpets; 'Heybe'(Saddle-bag) borderinYagcibedircarpets;HalielliborderinDösemealticarpets;'ÇiftAyak'(DoubleFeet)borderin
Yahyalicarpets; 'Narli' (Pome-granate) andÇubuklu borderwhich consists ofthe fine
bordersofGördescarpets; 'YanYaprak-Bardak'(Serratedleafwithwine-glass),Goldiir
and 'Makas'(Scissors) bordersin Çanakkalecarpets.Similarly,Kirsehir, Nigde,Karaman,andObrukcarpetshave specific bordersof theirown.
2. Aninnerborder,whichisfoundonlyonTaspinarcarpets,formsasecondframebetween
the main border and the plain of the carpet. Along motif, called Sallama, within his
frame is acharacteristic ofTaspinarcarpets.
1 Presentaddress:AbideSitesi,ABlok,D.19Mecidiyeky,Istanbul,Turkey.
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3.
The 'mihrabs'incarpets alsodiffer accordingtotheregions.
3.1. Thecornersofthemihrab archonthehistorical Gordescarpetsarebevelled.
3.2. Themihrabs onLadikcarpets aresingle,triple-or quintuple-arched.
3.3. 'Hamayel'motifsonthearchofMilascarpetsmakethemihrabnodose.
3.4. Thelast stageof themihrabiskeptlongonKirsehircarpets.
3.5. ThemihrabisdoubleandsymmetricalontheYagcibedirandOrtaköy(Altinhisar)
carpets.Thesamefeature existsonYahyaliandKulacarpets.However,theparts
oftheplainremainingwithin themihrabarequitedifferent from eachother.
4. Some carpets are differentiated with their medallions and the motifs forming their
medallions.
4.1. Interlinkedhooksform abigmedallion ontheKarakeçilicarpets.Theseareused
eitherassinglemedallion,orwholemedallionwithtwohalves,orasadoublemedallion.
4.2. Thelozenge-shapedmedalliondecoratedwithflowerpatternsisthecharacteristic
of the Kiz Bergama carpets.These carpets are woven by the YagcibedirYUriiks
(NomadicTurkmen) settledinthevicinity ofDikili.
4.3. Themotif called 'civa'found inthedoublemihrabplain oftheYagcibedirYiiriik
carpetsinSindirgiisusedonlyinthisregion withvariants.
4.4. The medallions found in the carpets woven in the Çanakkale region are not
common in places outside this region. But a different variant of the medallion
called 'Çarkli Elek' is used in Malatya. Oklu (Arrowed) and T^rnali (Crane)
medallions arefound onlyinthisregion.
4.5. Aspecial group of motifs found in asymmetrical arrangement above andbelow
themiddleplain of theSaribas (Yellow-headed) carpets woven inthe Çanakkale
region,arespecific onlytothecarpets inthisregion.
4.6. Themedallions of Taspinarcarpets are authentic in that these medallions which
arecalled 'Civil Göbek'cotain tinyflowers andforms.
4.7. The form of themedallion in theYahyali carpets is also authentic, themotifs of
which arenotfound inotherregions.
4.8. ThemedallionoftheOrtakyö(Altinhisar)carpetssurroundedbyhookshasavery
vividappearance.Anotherdifference betweenthismedallionandthoseoftheother
carpetsisthatitisadjacent totheborders.
4.9. TheMaden(Çamardi)carpetshaveauthenticmedallionsaswell.Thesemedallions
areeasilydistinguishedfromthoseofotherregionswiththeircorneredshapesand
the 'semse'(headofthemedallion) ateachends.
5. ThemostimportantcharacteristicoftheoldKulacarpetswhich arecalledtheKömürcü
Kula,isthatthemotifsfound intheplainwithinthemihrabsarecompletelywovenwith
blackthread.
Many other similarities as well as differences can be found when the details of the carpets
woven in Anatolia are examined. Here, because of the limited time, only the most general
characteristics havebeen mentioned.
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Summary and conclusions
Summary ofsymposium sessions
O.Kaftanoglu
Introduction
Thissummaryattemptstohighlightsomeofthemajorissueswhichwerediscussedduringthe
Symposium. Theprogramme was well balanced and the organizers were congragulated for
thepreparationofsuchagoodsymposium.Thehistorical,cultural,sociologicalandeconomic
contextof theproduction andoftheuseof hides,skins,woolandhair,mohairandcashmere
wereunderlined andtheendproducts suchasleather,carpets andconfection werepresented.
Theinformative andauthoritativepapersstimulatedfruitful discussions.Thesymposiumalso
brought the scientist and authorities together to exchange ideas and developed scientific
cooperation.
Introductivesession
Mr.Krostitzsummarizedthecurrentsituationandrecentdevelopmentsinthemarketsofhides,
skins,wool,hairandderivedproductsandgaveinformation onthesupplyanddemandaswell
astheirimplications for internationaltrade.
The developing countries keep the larger part of global population of ruminant animals;
however,thedevelopedcountriesproducemoremeat,milkandwool.Hideandskinproduction is about the samein developed anddeveloping countries but these twooutputs account
only for arelatively small proportion of the total value of the animals.Hides and skins are
therefore considered tobetheby-productsof livestock breedingfor otherpurposes.
The cattle numbers and consequently slaughtering and hides and skins output have decreasedin almostalldeveloped countries.Themajority oftheworld goatpopulation andthe
output of goat skins areconcentrated in thedeveloping countries.Wool production ismuch
more in thedeveloped countries than the developing countries. Australia and New Zealand
produceover40%of theworld'swool.
The short termoutlook isfor littlechangeindemand andsupply of hidesand skinsinthe
nextcoupleof years.With global supplies exceeding demand, woolprices willremain relatively smallintheshortterm.Acertain increaseinpriceswilloccurinthelongterm.
Prof.PekelgaveabriefdescriptionofsheepproductioninTurkey.HeindicatedthatTurkey
isamongthefirst 10countrieswithapopulationof45million sheep.About97%ofthesheep
population arenative breeds and theremaining 3%aremerino andmerinocrosses.Sheepis
keptformeatandmilkproduction.Woolisusedfortextile,carpetandkilimindustry.InCentral
Anatolia, mostof thesheeparefat-tailed. In theTrace,Marmara andAegean Regions sheep
arekeptunderintensivefanningconditions.HoweverintheEast,theyarekeptunderextensive
conditions.
Numerousbreedingexperiments wereconducted toincreasethemeat,milkandwoolproductioninTurkey since 1934.Recently someexotic breeds wereimported from Europeand
theyweredistributedtovariousfarmers inthecountry.Alsoselectionandbreedingprogrammeswereinitiated toimprovethequalities ofAwassisheepintheCeylanpinarStateFarm.
Prof.Sönmezcomplainedabouttheproblemsrelatedtothetransferoftheresultsofexperimentsandscientific worktothefarmers.Heindicatedtheimportanceofextensionbesidesthe
scientific work.
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Prof.Eliçincomplainedaboutthestatepolicyinimportingsomeexoticbreedsanddistributing
themamongthefarmers.Heemphasizedthattheadaptation studiesshouldhavebeendoneat
theuniversities andresearchinstitutesbefore they weregiventothefarmers.
Mr.Kosaraskediftherewereanybreeding work aimedatincreasing thequalityofhides
andskins.Prof.Boyazogluexplainedtheriskofchangingthelocalgeneticmaterialandindicatedthenegativeaspectsofintensification. Mr.Févrieradvisedtogetlessonsfromthedevelopedcountriesintermsofintensification andenvironmental pollution.
Session1
Dr.M.Eskolin explained theanisotropy ofphysical characteristic functions ofsheepleather.
Shecompared theAustralian andFinnish leathers intermsof breaking load, thepercentage
elongation atbreak,thesamplethickness andthetensilestrength.Eventhough theAustralian
sheepleatherhadhigher samplethicknessvalues,breakingload,elongation atbreakthanthe
Finnish sheepleather, shestressedthattherewerenoremarkabledifferences between them.
Dr.L.Blajan explainedtheeffects ofdiseasesontheproductionofhides,skinsandanimal
fibers.Allconditionsaffecting thegeneralhealthcancauseavisibledefectsoftheskin.Especiallyskindiseasessuchassheeppox,goatpox,contagiousecthyma,lumpyskindisease,dermatophilosis andparasites suchasmange,mycosisandmyiasiswhichcausethedepreciation
of hides,skinsandanimal fibres.
Dr.L.Blajan alsogaveapaperontheeffects ofabattoirproceduresonthequalityofhides
andskins.Heemphasized thatthemostcommondeffects ofhidesandskinsarecausedatthe
timeofslaughtering andcarcass flying oftheanimal.Healsoexplained thathidesandskins
mayalsodeterioratefrom toomuchdrying,salting,faulty folding andduringstorageortransport.Heemphasizedthattheimprovementofqualityofthehidesandskinsduringintheabattoirandwarehousestoragedependontheskilloftheworkers,gradingofthehidesandpayment
accordingtoquality.
Prof.T.Yakaligaveabriefinformation abouttheinvestigationsonthehidesandskinsfrom
farmers totheindustry inTurkey.Heshowedthedifferent qualitiesofleatherand explained
the genetic andenvironmental factors which affect the leather production andquality.He
emphasizedthatwhenthewoolgetsthinnerandtighter,theleatherbecomesweakerandmore
porous.Theleather which hasrough andmingled woolisconsidered tohave better quality
andmorevaluethan thathavingthinandtightwool likemerinos.
Hedemonstratedtheeffects ofdiseases,parasitesandenvironmental factors onthequality
ofleather.Asbeingtheprotection organofthebody,theskinandtheleatherreflect allsigns
of the struglethattheanimal faces duringitslife. Alltheseenvironmental factors including
inadequatestorageandconservation lowerthequalityofleather.
Prof.EddebarhspokeontheuseofhidesinMoroccoandonthecharacteristicsofthesector.
Theleather industry hasanimportant placeinMorocco.Thereareabout40 tanneries in the
countryandtheyproduce 80million squarefoot ofleather.
The leather industry canbedivided into 3groups such as,small traditional enterprises,
semi-industrialandindustrialenterprises.Finesseandstrengtharethemajorpropertiesofthe
Morocconleather.Theindustryisbecomingmoreattractiveforthefarmers andwholesalers.
Mr. T.Kosar explained theproblems andexpectations of theTurkish private leatherindustry.Thereareover400000people working atthesector.The export valueoftheleather
products,whichcomes after thetextile,isclosedto$1billion.Thesectorhasbeenchanging
its structure since 1985.Thehistorical Kazliçesme leather industry is moving to organized
leatherindustrydistrictinIstanbul.Allotherleatherindustries arealsomoving toorganized
industrialplacesindifferent cities.
Oneofthemainproblems oftheTurkish leatherindustry istheshortageofrawmaterial.
Theyearlyincreaseofnumberofheadofcattleandsmallruminants (sheepandgoat)is not
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sufficient. Theanimalstatisticsandthenumber ofslaughteredanimalsarenotknownprecisely.Consequently therawleatherproductionisnotsufficient fortheneedsoftheindustry.The
qualityofrawleatherislowandabout50%oftheleathervalueislostduetouncontrolledand
faulty slaughtering and flying.
Prof.Artanpresented theplaceofTurkish leatherindustrywithinEuropean Comunity,its
future andthepossibilitiesforitscompetitivenesswiththeindustryinEuropean Community.
Turkeyoccupiesthe3rdplaceintermsofnumbersoflargeruminants,the1stplaceinsmall
ruminant numbers,the5thplaceintheproduction ofrawhidesfrom largeruminants andthe
1st place in the production of raw skins from small ruminants. In other words Turkey has
13.5%of thetotalnumberofcattle,39.5% of sheepand 10.6%of goatswithreference tothe
ECcountries.
The leather sectoris oneof theoldest sector of theTurkish industry.The establishments
aremostlysmallandtheyarelabouroriented.Inordertoincreasethecapacityandtomodernize
theleather sector, thereare4bigprojects ongoing. By therealization of theprojects theexportation valueofthesectorisexpectedtoreach upto$3billionin1995.
Leathertechnology andleathertechniciantrainingcourseshavebeengivenattheEgeUniversity andIstanbulUniversity tomeetthemanpoweroftheindustry.Therawmaterialavailability and low labour cost areimportant factors which provide acompetition superiority to
theleather sector. Therefore, theTurkish leather sector has an outstanding performance and
competition capacityinEurope.
Prof.Eliçinasked whyorganized leatherindustry isbeingestablishedinthe surroundings
ofIstanbulwhichwillbethecenterofthecityinthenearfutureduetotheuncontrolledexpansion.He alsoaskedifthey couldbeestablishedintheEast.Mr.Kosar answered thatthereis
notenough promotion intheEast andtherearesomeadvantages beingin bigcities.Healso
said that in the newly established organized leather industry the utilization of water will be
reduced from 80%to 15%,there will bewastewater treatment units andre-useof solvents,
bromiumandthesolidwastematerialetc.
Prof.ArtanalsosaidthatTurkishleatherindustryneedtobringthenewtechnologyinorder
toincreasethequalityofleatherproducts.
Session2
Dr.Simoncinitalkedaboutthescientific andtechnicalinnovation for controllingtheenvironment andthequalityofwastewaterintheleatherindustry.TheItalian leatherindustryisina
leadingposition asregards thework performance and according totheresults of the studies
concerningwastewatertreatment,depletionofemissions,sludgedisposalandrecoveryofbyproducts. Chemical reagents have to be used for processing hides into leathers, therefore,
technologies arebeingdeveloped toreduce thepollution tothelargestpossible extend.
There are about 13 000 tanneries in the world and 500000people work in that industry.
About300million m3 water/year areused for theprocess of tanningin theworld.Italy uses
35millionm3water/year.Tanningisdonebymeansofchromium salts.Raisingthetemperature of drums to 40-45° Creduces the use of chromium salts to 33%.The finishing water
containsformaldehyde whichalsocreateecologicalproblems.Thefutureprospectsoftanning
process from the ecological andeconomic viewpoint must follow recent innovations which
mustbeintroducedinthetanneries.
Prof. Sariexplained thepossibilty ofreduction andre-using thewastesof Turkish leather
industry thatcauses environmental pollution. Theleatherindustry showing arapid developmentinthelast 20years,hasnothaditsowninfrastructure oreducatedpersonnel.Whenthe
sector'spollutingcharacteristics werenoticeditwasalreadyverylateforapplyingpreventive
measures.
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Mostoftheestablishmentsarefoundincitiesandtowns.Mostofthemdonothaveanywaste
treatment plants, therefore, all liquid effluents are directly discharged to the environment,
therebycausingpollution.TheTurkishleatherindustryingeneralhasnopossibilities totreat
itsown effluents with the exception of 5-10 treatment plants. Someof theproblems can be
solvedbyeducatingtheleathermanufacturers andpeopleworkinginthesector.Atleast50%
ofthewatercanbesavedandthevolumeoftheeffluent canbedecreasedbyoptimizingprocesses.Thiscanbedonebyeliminatingthesuperflous washingsandrinsings.
Session3
Dr.Allainexplainedthephysiological basisandgeneticsofwoolandhairproductioninsmall
ruminants andrabbits.Hedescribed twotypesof hairfollicels in thefur. Thefirstoneisthe
epidermal hair follicels which originate from the primitive epidermis and produce coarse
fibers. Thesecondisthederivedhairfollicle whichproducethefinest fibres.
InsheepandAngoragoatthenumberofderivedhairfolliclesislowandconstant.Whereas
inAngorarabbitthenumberofderivedhairfolliclesishighandvariable.Theangoracharacter
isdeterminedbyapairof autosomalrecessivegenes.Greatanumberoffactors influence the
quality andquantityoffibre production inthesheep,AngoragoatandAngorarabbits.
Dr. Ryder gave a very interesting talk on the production of desired wool characteristics
during fleece growth.The wool buyers usually pay forfinefibresin clothing wools,lackof
kempandpigmentincarpet wools.However,inallsystemsaheavyfleece ismoreeconomic
for theproducer sinceprice/fleece is moreimportant than price/kg.Themost fleece characteristics arehighlyheritable andtherefore heredity contributesmore tofleece typethandoes
theenvironment, suchasdaylength andnutrition.
Thefleeceweightequalsmeanfibrelength (L)multipliedbyfibrediameter(A)multiplied
byfibredensity (N)multipliedbydensityofwool multiplied bytotalareaofskin.According
totheformula inordertogetmorewool,weshouldgrowlargersheepwithlongeranddenser
wool.
Feedingandbreedinginfluence thecomponentsoffleece weight.Goodnutritionandextra
food stimulates wool growth,enlargement of body sizeand skin area,therefore, causingthe
increase of the fleece weight. Breeding also increase, almost all the components of fleece
weight.
Dr.MorandFehrtalkedaboutthenutritionalcharacteristicsandfeedingstrategiesforAngora goats.TheAngora goatsproduce morefibre than Merino sheepif thefibre production is
calculatedinkg/kgofmetabolicweight.Theefficiency offeedsforfibreproductionin Angora
goatishigherthaninMerinosheep.
Energy and protein supplies can improve angora fibre production if the supplementary
energyorproteinallowstoincreasethesyntehsisofmicrobialproteinintherumen.Thesupply
of formaldehyde treated protein orprotected methionine in thediets of animals being about
anincreaseofthefleece weight.However,whenthefleece weightproduction pergoatincreases,fibrequality decreases.
Asatisfying feeding strategymustbeappliedparticularly tothegestating goatsinorderto
reducetheabortionsandperinatalmortality.Thispracticeincreasesfibreproductionfromkids
whichisthehighestquality andissold atahigherprice.
Prof.Yalçincompared the Turkish Angora goats with theAmerican x Turkish crossbred
generations inrespect of bodyweight andmohairtraits.
TheAngoragoatsareraisedmainlyontheCentralAnatolianplateauinTurkey.Thegreatest
partoftheregion isformed bypoorrangeland andtreeless steppes.Theclimateis semi-arid
withdryhotsummersandcoldwinters.Becauseofthepoorlevelofnutrition,theproduction
traitsof Angoragoatflocks aregenerally low,inTurkey.
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Inordertoincrease theproductivityofTurkish stocks andtoincrease thegenetic variation,
19 bucks were imported from theUSAanda crossbreeding experiment wasconducted in
CentralAnatoliain 1983.CrossingTurkishAngoragoatswithAmerican stocks, significantly
increased themohair production, compared tothepureTurkish goats.Itwas found thatthe
kidsinthecrossbredgroupsweresignificantly heavierthanthepureTurkishkids.Alsocrossbredgroupsweresignificantly superiortopureTurkishgroupinrespectofgreasyfleeceweight
andstaplelength.
During discussions, Prof. Eliçin indicated that physiological characteristics depend on
genetics.Heaskedifphysiologyisdifferent from genetics?Whatarethegeneticandphysiologicalcharacteristicsofwoolandhair?Dr.Allainindicated thatacorrelation existsbetween
physiology andgenetics,e.g.ifonewantstoimprove thequalityofmohaironecanimprove
thefineness ofthewool.Healsosaidthatphysiology dependsongenetics.
Prof.Özcan asked howProf. Yalçindetermined thekempandmedullated fibers.Healso
asked howwecould improve theAngora goats in Turkey? Isitpossible to select thebest
material from thefarmers andhaveaneliteflock? Prof.Yalçin agreed with Prof.Özcanand
indicated that theproductivity ofTurkish Angora goats canbeincreased bycrossbreeding,
selectionandthedevelopment offarmers organizations i.e.breedersassociations.
Mr.Flamant askedifcrossbreds areeconomic ornot?Prof.Yalçin answered thattheycan
beeconomic.
Dr.ErdemindicatedtheimportanceofkempfibreratioandshesaidthatthecrossingAngora
goatwithHairgoatincreases thekempfibreratio.
/
Prof.Pekel classified theTurkish Angora goats according totheecological regions,such
asGerederegion (pine forest area) with black andgreasy hair, Beypazari region (oakforest
area)withmediumgreasyhairandcentralAnatoliaPlateau.Heaskedwheretheresearchmaterialcamefrom? Prof.Yalçin saidthattheywerebroughtfrom thesurroundingsofAnkara.
Prof.Eliçin indicated thattherewerenotmuchdifference between theAmerican andTurkishAngoragoats.Heaskedforthereason.Prof.YalçinindicatedthatthepureTurkishAngora
goatshadalsogood,desirablequalities.
Session4
Prof.Eliçin gaveabrieftalkonwoolandmohairproductioninTurkey.Thesheeppopulation
ofTurkeyisabout45-50millionsand4-5% ofthemareMerinocrosses.Themajority ofthe
nativesheepbreedsarefat-tailedandtheyallhavemixedcoarsewool.Theaveragewoolyield
isbetween 1.6-1.8kg/sheepandthetotalwoolproduction isabout70-80thousandtonswhich
isfarfrom meetingtheneedsofthecountry.
Forthelast60yearstherehavebeennumerous studiesonhowtoincrease thequalityand
thequantityofwoolinTurkey.Howeverthesestudiescouldnotbesuccessful duetounsuitable
managementandfeedingconditionsforfinewooled-sheepsuchasMerinos,instabilityinwool
prices andtheeasiness of working with native breeds which means less risks. Moreoverin
recentyearstheproductionofquality woolhavedecreasedgreatly.ConsequentlyTurkeyimportsmostoftherequirements ofitstextileindustry.
Angora goatproduction isimportantforTurkey asmohairisanexportcommodity which
sellseasily.TheAngoragoatisanimportant sourceoffood andrevenueforthefarmers,and
mohairproductionmeetstheneedofthetextileindustry.
Therehas been fluctuations inmohairproduction.Thelowandunstablepricesofmohair
haveanimportant effect ontherecession ofAngora goat husbandry. Moreover, decreasein
acreageandqualityoftheranges,preventionofbringinggoatsintotheforestareasanddifficultiesinfinding shepherds acceleratethedecreaseofthenumberofgoats.
MissJolyandMr.BillantgaveaninterestingtalkonAngoragoatandmohairproduction:
historyandanalysisofanewalternativefarming inWesternEurope.Themohairproduction
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was startedabout 10years agoinFrance,U.K., SpainandGermany.Eventhough morethan
500breedersareinvolved, lessthan 10%ofthemhavetheirmainincomefrom Angoragoat
husbandry.
The average mohair production isover 5kg/year.Thefarmers either selltheproductsto
theconsumersdirectlyortothetextileplants.Therefore allFrenchproductionisclassed,processedand soldunderbreeders structures.
Dr.Ryderpresented thecashmereproduction inChina. Chinaproduces 60%oftheworld
production.Chinesecashmerefibre hasadiameterofabout 15.5micronswhichissimilarto
theunder-woolofordinary goats.Thenational average cashmereproduction is250gr/goat
anditreachesanaverageof500grintheLiaoning breed.
There are70million goatsinChinaand40million ofthem growcashmere.Thechinese
cashmereproductioninabout3000tonsand1/3ofitisusedbytheChineseindustry.Inorder
toincreasethecashmereproductionnativebreedsarecrossedwithLiaoningbreed.Thecrossbred offspring ofblack native goatsproducing less then 100groffibre grow atleast 300 gr
ofwhitecashmere.
Prof.Tuncelpresented theopportunities forcashmereproduction.Thegoatproductionis
animportantagriculturalenterpriseinTurkey.Thereisagoodevidencethattheuseofcrossbreedingnativebreedsofgoatswithimprovedcashmereproducinggoatswillresultinincreasedboth meatandmilkproduction; aswell ascashmereproduction. Backcrossing toAngora/nativegoatswillincreasecashmereproductionsubstantially,causingsupplementaryincome
for thefarmers.
Prof.Özcanindicatedthatthepopulation ofAngoragoatisdeclining.Awoolandmohair
researchinstituteshouldbeestablishedandstudiesshouldbeconductedonrearing,selection
and breeding, disease control, marketing products etc.Prof.Eliçin replied that a gene pool
shouldbeestablishedforthepurposeofconserving them.
Dr. Erdem indicated that thetextile industries donotwant fine wool. Dagliç andWhite
Karaman wools'areusedforcarpet-making. Howeverrecently thecharacteristics ofDagliç
woolisdeteriorating.Prof.Eliçinansweredthatthetextileindustriesshouldindicatetheneeds
andrequirements totheresearch institutes.
Mr.Flamant askedMrs.JolyifalltheAngoragoatkeepers arefarmers? She saidthatonly
50%ofthemarefarmers.
Session5
Prof. Jankowski presented thepaper entitled "Wool associated to other sheep products in
different production systems and breeding programmes in Europe". He indicated that the
EAAPSheepandGoatCommissioncreatedthewoolandhairexpertsworkinggroupin1987.
Thecommission surveyed theproduction ofwool,goat's hairandotherfibre inEurope.
AccordingtothesurveysandFAOstatistics,theCentral-East (C-E)Europeancountriesare
the best in wool production, butthepoorest lamb and mutton producers. TheNorth-West
(N-W)European countries arethebestinlambandmutton production andquite good wool
producers.Thepoorestwoolproducers aretheMediterraneancountries,buttheyarethebest
insheepmilkproduction andfairly goodinmeatproduction.IntheC-Ecountrieswooltook
the 1stplace, in N-WEurope the 2nd place and in the Mediterranean area the 3rd place
accordingtotheeconomicimportanceofsheepproducts.Programmesofgeneticimprovement
ofwoolproductivity werewidely adoptedinthesheepindustriesofC-Ecountries.
Dr. Sergent gaveaninteresting talk onthe"objective measurement ofwool:stateofthe
art".Heexplainedtheprinciplesandthemethodsofsampling,determinationoffibrediameter
in wool bythemicroscopeprojection, determination ofthemain fibre diameter by air-flew,
determination ofpercentageofmedulatedfibres,determinationofthekempfibre, woolfibre
length distribution, bundle strength of wool fibres, determination of thefelting properties,
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objective measurementof thecolourofrawwool,thedetermination of theexistence andthe
levelofcoloured fibre, quantification of thebulkofwoolandresistance tocompression,and
finally determination ofwoolbaseandvegetablematter base-yield.
Dr.Trabalzapresented apapertitled"Colorimetric analysis andmélaninequantitativedetermination in hair of goat with different pigmentation genotypes". The high performance
liquidchromatography (HPLC)wasusedfor melaninsandtheMunsellmethodwasused for
thedeterminationofcolorimetriccharacteristicsof 15pigmentedhairsamplesfrom theSouth
Italianlonghairgoats.Eumelaninsandpheomelaninsweredetectedinallsamples.Theblack
phenotypepresentedalargeamountofeumelaninsandthewhitephenotypeshowedalimited
biochemicalactivity.Nocolorimetricorbiochemicaldifferences werefound between thered
andbrownphenotypes,indicatinguncertainity of thegeneticmake-up.
Dr.Guirgispresentedthecarpetwool,production andrequirements.Heexplainedthecharacteristicsofcarpetwoolwhichisclassifiedinto3groupssuchasspecialcarpetwool,general
purpose wool and filler wool.Incarpet wools thefibrelength is much more important than
themean fibre diameter. Medullation isadesiredcharacteristics incarpet woolblends.
For anefficient marketing ,itis necessary toestablish a"carpet wool organization"on a
regionalbasisintheMediterraneanBasinandMiddleEast.Potentialbreedsoftheregionsuch
asAwassi,Karaman,Karakul,Kurdi,Baluchi,Churracouldbeusedtoimprovetheproductivityofthelocalstocks.Therequirementsofthecarpetindustrycanbesummarizedasfollows:
staple length of about 10 cm, fibre diameter high, medullation as much as possible,fibre
strength and elasticity are satisfactory, no kemps,reasonably sound, high spinnability, high
settability,helicalcrimp asmuch aspossible,free from vegetablematter andothercontaminants,maximumfleeceopennes.Dr.Guirgisalsogavealistofrecommendationsforresearch
inthis field.
Dr.Erdemtalkedon"theinvestigations onthesuitability of woolfor textileproducts and
carpetsobtainedfromnewlyimprovedsheepinWesternTurkey".Threesheeptypes,Tahirova,
SönmezandAcipayamweredevelopedinWesternAnatoliabytheDept.ofAnimalScience,
University ofEge.Woolsamplesweretakenfrom thesesheeptypesandthephysicalcharacteristics suchasfineness, length,breaking strength andelongation weredetermined.
Dr.Tisserand gaveinformation onthecamel woolandhide.Heindicated thatthe studies
andtheliteraturesonthecamelwoolandhidewerelimited.Thedromedaryprovides0.5-1.0
kgwool/animal/year whereas theBactriancamelsproduce3-4kgwool/year.Thequalityof
thewooldependsonthebreed,sex,age,nutrition andofthepartsofthebodyanditdiminishes
when theanimal getsolder.Thecamel hideisconsidered tobeofpoorquality andisusedto
makeharnesseswhips andsandals.
Dr.BourfiagaveatalkonthefleececharacteristicsofMorocconbreedsofsheep.HepresentedtheresultsofresearchonthefleececharacteristicsofMorocconbreedsofsheepfrom 1983
to 1987.TheBeniAhsenbreedhadtheheaviestfleece amongotherbreeds.
TherewereseveralquestionstoDr.Sergentaboutthepreparationofthesamplesandobjective measurements. Dr. Sergent indicated that training of the technicians is very important.
Application ofcomputers andsharpening ofmicroscope arealsoveryimportantfor accurate
measurements.
Prof.YalçinaskedDr.Erdemif thesamplesweretakenfrom thesamefarm orfrom same
ageanimals.Prof. Sönmez indicated that thewool production which has theleast economic
valuewastoomuchemphasizedinMerinobreeding.Theaimofthestudywastodevelopnew
types of sheep suitablefor theregion andfor theneeds of thefarmers. The wool production
was not considered to be the main goal. Dr. Erdem also indicated that the meat and milk
productionofnewlydevelopedtypeswerestudiedextensively.Howevertherewerenostudies
onthewoolcharacteristicsofthesesheeptypes.Theaimoftheprojectwasnottoincreasethe
woolqualitybutitwastoinvestigatethewoolcharacteristics of thesetypes.
Aquestionwasasked aboutthefuture ofcamel breedingin theMiddleEast.Dr.Treacher
saidthatthenaturalhabitathasbeendestroyed.Themodernpick-up,tractorsandcarsreplaced
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the camels in these countries and the camel population has declined greatly. Dr. Tisserand
addedthatthenaturalbalanceisbeingdestroyed,consequently thecamelpopulation isdecliningandthesandhills areincreasinginthedeserts.
Session6
Dr. Aslanapa gave a presentation of the history andpresent situation of the Turkish carpet
industry.CarpethasbeenpractisedbyTurkssincetheperiodofHuns,thatissincethe3rdand
2nd century B.C.The animal-figured Anatolian carpets predominantly appeared in the 14th
century and originated in the Selçuk period. With the development of the geometric type
carpets of the 16thcentury,theTurkishcarpets gainedgoodreputation and thedevelopment
ofTurkish carpet weavingcontinued until theendof the 19thcentury.
Inthepresenttime,Kayseri,Konya,Sivas,Kirsehir,Isparta,Fethiye,Dösemealti,Balikesir,
Yagcibedir,Usak,Bergama,Kula,Gördes,Milas,Çanakkale,Ezine,KarsandErzurumcarpets
arereflecting theartofTurkishcarpet-weaving.
Dr.Paksoypresentedapaperontheconservation oftraditionalcharacteristicsinhand-wovenTurkishcarpetsandinimportanceofnaturaldyes.Sheexplainedtheuniquecharacteristics
of Turkish carpets due to the material used, to thedying methods applied, aswell as tothe
richnessofdyeandornamentto the andweavingtechniques.Oneof themostimportantcharacteristics of theTurkishcarpetsisthenaturaldyesused andthedyingmethods applied.
Dr.Asliergaveapresentationontheresearchandthedevelopmentofthenaturaldyesused
fortraditionalcarpetsintheAegeanRegion"DOBAGProject".TheobjectivesofNaturalDye
Research and Development (DOBAG) project is toreview the tradition of carpet andkilim
weaving in theregions where these activities are forgotten, to give the villagers artistic and
scientific support while producing new carpets, to investigate and identify the natural dyes
and traditional patterns, to give a guarantee certificate for the carpets and kilims which are
produced according totheDOBAG's objectives.
Dr.Güngörgaveapaperontheroleof statepolicyinTurkish carpet sector.Heexplained
thathandwovencarpetmakinghasaninterdiciplinaryareawhichincludethechemistry,basic
design,arthistory,textiletechnology,production,restoration,materialknowledge,marketing
andeconomics.
Healsoindicatedtherolesofthegovernmentintheresearch anddevelopmentsofTurkish
carpets.HelistedtheproblemsofTurkishcarpetindustry,problemsofvillagercarpetmakers,
responsibilities ofUniversities,Ministry ofCulture,Ministry ofEducation andTheMinistry
ofAgriculturefor thesurvival anddevelopmentof thisfineart.
Dr. Benyoucef talkedon theproduction and local transformation of wool in Algeria.He
mentioned thatthesurface areaof Algeriais2834000sq.km. andthat 3% oflandisarable.
The woolproduction is therefore concentrated in highlands.However the transformation is
madeattwolevelssuchasfamilial levelandsemi-industriallevel.Healsomadeaneconomic
analysisofwool.
Therewere severalquestionsraised toDr.Paksoy, oneof which wastheorigin ofnatural
dyes. Are the natural dyes all vegetable origin? Are there any animal originated dyes being
usedincarpetindustry?Sheansweredthatbothanimalandvegetableoriginateddyesareused.
Whatkindofextractionmethodsareusedfordying?Shesaidthatbothhotandcoldextraction
methodswereused.
MissJolyaskedifthereisanyinventory studiesinnaturaldyeresources?Heranswerwas
"not yet". However Dr.Erdem indicated that the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
initiated suchaninventory.
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Postersession
Thequality of theposterpresentations wasexcellent. In thefirstsession,Dr.Marinuccipresentedthegeneticanalysisofgreasyfleeceweightandewelambgrowthon"GentilediPuglia"
sheepbreed.Theflock wasbredinthe"InstitutoSperimentaleperlaZootecnia"ofFoggiain
Italy.The averageweight of greasy fleece was found tobe 3.32kg which decreased onlyin
9.5 yearsoldanimals.
Dr. Vegara presented the "Postnatal development of wool follicles of Pramenka sheep
breed","Heredityofwoolfinenessofdifferent sheepbreedsandtheircrosses"and"Thecomparative study of wool follicles of Pramenka, Merinolandschaf and Romanov sheep breeds
andtheircrosses".Pramenka isamountainous sheepwith apopulation of 7.9millionheads.
TheRomanovswereusedfortheformation ofPramenkasheep.Theexperimentsandthemethodologies used werevery interesting.
Dr. Lazzaroni presented theuse and production of Angora rabbit hair in Italy. Italy uses
about70-80%of theworldAngorarabbithairproduction.Itisveryimportant for theItalian
textile industry. Angorarabbitproduction is not widespread becauseof the high production
cost.Howeveritcouldbeinterestingfor somefarmers toincrease theincomeandsupplythe
lowqualitywoolneeded bythemarket.
In the second poster session, Dr. Yildirim's poster the mohair production districts and
consumptionwaysofmohairinTurkeywasshown.Themohairproductionisconcentratedin
theCentralAnatolia.Mostoftheproduction isexportedandtherestofthemohairisusedfor
themanufacture ofblankets,scarfs,softweavingsandformakingsocks,bagsetc.Dr.Yildirim
alsopresented aposterentitled"aresearch on somephysical properties ofprincipal mohairs
producedinAnkaraandBoludistricts".
Dr.RogerpresentedaposteronCashmerefibreproduction from Australasian andSiberian
(GornoAltai)goatsinacrossbreedingprogramme.Thecashmerefibre ofSiberiancrosskids
was significantly longer than Australasian kids,thelatter had significantlyfinerfibre,lower
yields,lowergrossfleece weights andcalculateddown weights than Siberian crosskids.
Mr.Antoninipresented theAngoragoat breeding inItaly.Angora goatsdidnothaveany
adaptationproblemsinthecenterofItaly.Studiesonnutrition,reproductiveaspectsandquality
ofkidfleeces areongoing.
Dr. Cappaipresented the Sarda sheep breed which is themost important one inItaly and
thelocalcarpetindustry.Traditionaldesigns andweavingpracticesandpatterns intheisland
of Sardiniawereshown.
Dr. Kayabasi andDr. Ilgazpresented the present situation and thefuture of hand-woven
woolcarpetsinTurkey.
Dr.GüngörpresentedapaperonthedesigncharacteristicsinAnatoliancarpets.Heshowed
different carpet andkilimdesigns.
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Conclusions
J.Boyazoglu,J.C.Flamant.
CeSymposiumaétéconçupourattirerl'attentiondeszootechnicienssurl'intérêtdelaproductiondecuirs,depeaux,delaineetdepoildanslecontextedel'élevagedespaysméditerranéens
etduMoyen-Orient, sujetpeu souventprisenconsidérationdanslesréunions internationales
etdansles équipesderechercheeuropéennes.
Un second objectif était d'amorcer, àl'intérieur deceSymposium undialogue entredes
spécialistesdel'élevage, del'industrie du cuir,del'artisanat destapisouencoremieuxde1'
histoiredel'artdontlespréoccupations sontgénéralement disjointes.
Beaucoupdeparticipantsontinsistédansleursinterventionssurl'enjeu d'unetellerencontre: assurer lasurvie etl'avenir, enMéditerranée etauMoyen-Orient, d'activités d'élevage
multimillénaires aujourd'hui menacéesparlesévolutionsdel'économie internationaleetdes
sociétéslocales!
Unehypothèseforte esteneffet quelafaibleproductivitétechniquedumatérielanimalet
des systèmesd'élevage decesrégionspourrait êtrecompenséepardesproductions dontles
marchés n'admettent certes quedefaibles quantités mais quipeuvent bénéficier devaleurs
marchandesélevées.
Nousproposonsd'organiser latrèsgranderichessedesinformations collectéesaucoursde
cestroisjours,desrapportsprésentéscommedesdébats,entroisrubriques:
• Laprééminenceduconceptdequalité
• Lesprocessus technologiques gérésparlesopérateurs économiques
• Lavalorisation desacquisduSymposium
Laprééminenceduconceptdequalité
Il estévident queleconcept dequalitéestcentral pour évaluer l'avenir etleschancesque
représentepourl'élevage Méditerranéen laproduction depeaux,cuirs,laineetpoil.Enfaitil
fautavoirconsciencequececonceptestprobablementleseulpointcommunidentifiable entre
lesdiversesproductionsdontilaétéquestion aucoursdeceSymposium.Eneffet lesespèces
animalesimpliquées sontdiverses (lespetitsruminants,lesbovins,lescamélidés,leslapins).
Lesbasesphysiologiquesetanatomiques desfibres concernéessonttoutaussidiversesd'une
espèceàl'autre;orellesenconditionnentengrandepartielestechnologiesderécolte.Etalors
quelaproductiondeslainesetpoilsestassuréeaulongdelaviedel'animal,laproductionde
cuiretpeaunepeutêtreobtenuequ'après abattage.Ilétaitutilederappelerquelapeau,objet
de tantde transformations etdetraitements avant sonusage sous forme d'objets etdevêtements,joued'abordunefonction deprotectiondel'animal vivantcontrelesagressionsdeson
environnement:lecuirengardelatrace.
Nousmettonsicienavantl'exigencedelaqualitépourindiquerladifférence fondamentale
avecdesproductionsquidoiventêtreassuréesenmasse,notammentcellesquicorrespondent
auxbesoinsalimentairesessentielspourl'homme.Lecréneau exploréparceSymposiumest
celuideproduits motivéparunerecherchedu confort, oudelaqualitédelavieparun souci
del'esthétisme, etquipeuvent constituerdesobjets d'artetl'expression culturelled'une société.Economiquement lesquantitésacceptablesparlemarchésontlimitéesetceci d'autant
plus sicesproductions sont concurrencées enconsommation demassepardes substitutsindustriels.
290
Par l'utilisation du terme de 'co-produits' (ou 'produits liés') plutôt que celui de 'sous-produits', nous voulons exprimer uneréalité biologique: la même action d'élever les animaux
aboutit simultanément à une gamme de diverses natures, à l'origine de diversesfilièresde
transformation etdecommercialisation. Surleplanéconomiquedeuxsituationspeuventêtre
envisagées auseindesquellesleconceptdequalitéestimpliqué différemment:
• soitlelait, soitlaviande,constituent l'objectif principal del'activité d'élevage, alorsque
les autresproductions nereprésententqu'une faible partdu produitéconomique brut.Le
principeàsuivreestdanscettesituation quelesconditionsd'exploitation duproduitprincipalnedégradentpaslaqualitédu(oudes)co-produit(s)économiquement secondaire(s),
ceux-cipeuvantêtreàl'origined'unefilière àhautevaleurajoutée. Parexemplel'amélioration génétiquedesovinspourlesquantitésproduitesdelaitetdeviandepeutavoirpour
conséquence ladisparition desraceslocales dontlestoisons sontadaptées àla fabrication
artisanaledetapis(casdescroisementsdebrebisderacelocalepardesbéliersFrisons).De
mêmelesconditionsd'abattageagissentdirectementsurl'intégritéetlabonneconservation
de lapeau des animaux et sont doncdéterminantes pour laqualité ultérieure descuirs. H
fautremarqueràceproposquelefaitd'assurer debonnesconditionssanitairesautroupeau
poursaproductionprincipalegarantilabonnepartlaqualitéduco-produitsecondairecontreles atteintesdecertainsparasitesoucontreleseffets négatifs d'affections tellesqueles
abcès.
• soit l'un desco-produits, non laitet non viande, apporte un bénéfice significatif auxéleveurs.Ilestalorsessentielquel'améliorationdelaconduitedestroupeaux,quipeutévidemment concerner une amélioration quantitative des performances, intègre des objectifs d'
amélioration desparamètres exprimant lesqualitésquijustifient lavaleuréconomiquedu
produit.Telestlecasdesfibres tellesquelemohairetlecachemirepourleschèvres,et1'
angorapourleslapins.
Lesprocessustechnologiquesgérésparlesoperateurséconomiques
Ilfaut avoirbienidentifié lescritèresdequalitéàrecherchesurlesproductionsanimalespour
aboutir auxproduits transformés recherchés.Pouryparvenir l'écoute réciproque des spécialistesdes animaux etdes spécialistesdelatransformation de leursproductions en produitsà
hautevaleurajoutéeapparaîtuneconditionincontournable.Cescritèresdoiventavoiren effet
unesignification technologiquepourlesdifférents professionnels impliquésdanslachaînede
production-transformation: éleveurs,artisans,industriels.Enfait ils'agitdeconstruireledialogueet lesrelations entre lesopérateurs économiques. Cedialoguedoitreposer sur laconnaissancedes systèmestechnologiques qu'ils pilotent res-pectivement:
• leséleveurspilotent un système technologique detransformation deproduits végétauxen
produitsanimaux;
• demême,les industriels du cuir,dufilou des tapispilotent des systèmes technologiques
detransformation d'unematièrepremièreanimaleenproduitsdestinésauxconsommateurs.
Mais il faut être également attentif au contenu des interventions des industriels du cuir qui
révèlel'intérêt queprenddeplusenplusledébatsurlerespectdel'environnement, entermes
de procédés technologiques de traitement, et de localisation des entreprises (on aurait pu
illustrerdanslesmêmestermeslesproblèmesdel'industrie delalaine).
Laplupart desrapports présentés motivent un appel àtout un ensemblede travaux derecherches à l'interface entre les exigences technologiques de ces systèmes différents mais
articulésouarticulables:
• s'agissantdesystèmeséconomiquesdiversetmalconnus,ilapparaîtd'abordindispensable
deréaliseruneffort systématiquededescriptionsminutieusesdefilièresarticulantsystèmes
d'élevage et systèmes artisanaux ou industriels. L'intérêt de telles études est bien misen
évidenceparlestravauxpréparésspécialementenAlgérieetauMarocpourceSymposium;
291
• ladéfinition desobjectifs dequalitédelamatièrepremièreanimaledoitfaire aussi l'objet
derecherches.Celles-cidoiventimpliquerlesopérateurséconomiquesintervenantauxdifférents maillons delachaîne.Ellesdoiventtoutparticulièrementintégrerlesavoir-faire et
lesexigences technologiques des artisans etindustriels assurantletraitement etlestransformations enproduits finis;
• lescritères de qualité eux-mêmes doivent faire l'objet, autantquepossible, delamiseen
oeuvrede mesures objectives.Les travaux présentés au coursde ceSymposium révèlent
lanouvellemodernitédecesopérationssurlabasedesnouvellestech-nologiesdelarobotique,del'informatique etdel'analyse d'image.
Plusieursrapportsetplusieurstémoignagesontmontréaussilerôledéterminantquejouedans
la stratégie des industriels (du cuircomme du textile), l'accès au marché international pour
leur approvisionnement en produits d'une qualité choisie.Une meilleure articulation locale
entresystèmesd'élevageetsystèmesartisanauxouindustrielscorrespondàuneautrelogique
degestiondesentreprises.Ilfaut analysercettequestion soigneusementpourrendrepossible
et acceptable une stratégie visant àsauvegarder uneéconomie d'élevage surlabasedesressources génétiques nationales etdeproduits spécifiés. Ceci signifie eneffet lamiseenplace
derelations interprofessionnelles, etprobablement de systèmes deredistribution des profits
quimatérialisent l'intéressement réciproque,lesunsauxconditionsd'obtention delamatière
première,lesautres àlavalorisation duproduit fini.
L'organisation dessuitesdusymposium
Ils'agitmaintenantdetransformerencollaboration l'écouteréciproqueréaliséedurant3jours
entre 'hommes demétier'. Troisobjectifs s'imposent:
• pourlespeauxetlescuirs,mettreenrapportleurscaractéristiques aveccellesdumatériel
animal (races,typesdetoison,etc.)etaveclesconditionsd'élevage,notammentlerégime
alimentaire.LeCIHEAM,àl'initiative del'Institut AgronomiqueMéditerranéen deZaragoza,proposed'apporter sonconcours àl'organisation d'un séminairedetravail pouvant
réunirensemblespécialistesdel'élevageetspécialistesducuirdurantuneàdeuxsemaines.
La Turquie et l'Université de Cukurova qui ont si bien accueilli le présent Symposium
pourraientenêtrelelieu deréalisation;
• pourleslaines etlestapis,définir les spécificités deslainesdestinées àlafabrication artisanale des tapis,notamment tester dans des situations régionales bien identifiées l'hypothèsedelaliaison 'race xtapis xlocalité'.Les travaux conduits danscesensdèslesprochains moisdevraient être présentés lorsdu Symposium méditerranéen qui setiendra au
Portugalen1993surlethèmedesrelationsentreactivitéstouristiquesetactivitésd'élevage;
• pourleschèvresmohairetcashemire,entreprendreunprogrammeconcertéd'inventaireet
d'évaluation du patrimoine génétique, dans le cadre d'une collaboration internationale
ayantpourobjectif lamiseenévidencedesspécificités etdeladiversitédesécotypesdans
lespays d'origine, tant surleplan descaractéristiques zootechniques (format, prolificité,
productionlaitière)quedescaractéristiquesdesfibres.
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